M2 : Skeletal System • Vital organs are protected by the skeletal

system. The brain is protected by the

surrounding skull as the heart and lungs are
encased by the sternum and rib cage.

• Bodily movement is carried out by the

interaction of the muscular and skeletal
systems. For this reason, they are often
grouped together as the musculo-skeletal
system.

Muscles
• are connected to bones by tendons. Bones
are connected to each other by ligaments.
Where bones meet one another is typically
called a joint. Muscles which cause
movement of a joint are connected to two
different bones and contract to pull them
together.

An example would be the contraction of

A bone survey, also called a skeletal survey, is a
series of x-rays taken to look at the body's
bones. Bone surveys are used to look for bones
affected by cancer. Skull image from a skeletal
survey in a patient with myeloma. Note the "lytic
lesions" that look like holes in the bone.
the biceps and a relaxation of the
triceps. This produces a bend at the
elbow. The contraction of the triceps
and relaxation of the biceps produces
the effect of straightening the arm.

Skeletal System
• serves many important functions; it provides
the shape and form for our bodies in
addition to supporting, protecting, allowing
bodily movement, producing blood for the
body, and storing minerals.

• Its 206 bones form a rigid framework to

which the softer tissues and organs of the
body are attached.

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Blood cells appendicular skeleton and the axial
• are produced by the marrow located in some skeleton to where mechanical loads
bones. An average of 2.6 million red blood transfer.
cells are produced each second by the bone • skeleton is made up of everything else —
marrow to replace those worn out and the bones that attach (append) to your axial
destroyed by the liver. skeleton.
• includes the bones in your shoulders, pelvis
Bones and limbs, including your arms, hands, legs
• serve as a storage area for minerals such as and feet.
calcium and phosphorus. When an excess is
present in the blood, buildup will occur Functions of Bones
within the bones. When the supply of these • Support of the body
minerals within the blood is low, it will be • Protection of soft organs
withdrawn from the bones to replenish the • Movement due to attached skeletal
supply. muscles
• Storage of minerals and fats
The Skeletal System • Blood cell formation
Parts of the skeletal system
• Bones (skeleton) Bones of the Human Body
• Joints • The skeleton has 206 bones
• Cartilages • Two basic types of bone tissue
• Ligaments o Compact bone
Divided into two divisions/parts Homogeneous
1. Axial skeleton o Spongy bone
• includes the bones that form Small needle-like
the skull, laryngeal skeleton, pieces of bone
vertebral column, and thoracic Many open spaces
cage. The bones of the
appendicular skeleton (the
limbs and girdles) “append” to
the axial skeleton.
• is made up of the bones in
your head, neck, back and
chest.
2. Appendicular skeleton
• is comprised of the upper and
lower extremities, which
include the shoulder girdle
and pelvis. The shoulder girdle
and pelvis provide connection
points between the

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 Classification of Bones Irregular bones
Long bones • Irregular shape
• Typically longer than wide • Do not fit into other bone classification
• Have a shaft with heads at both ends categories
• Contain mostly compact bone Example: Vertebrae and hip
Examples: Femur, humerus

Short bones Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone

• Generally, cube-shape Periosteum
• Contain mostly spongy bone • Outside covering of the
Examples: Carpals, tarsals diaphysis
• Fibrous connective tissue
membrane
Sharpey’s fibers
• Secure periosteum to
underlying bone
Arteries
• Supply bone cells with
Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape nutrients
Structures of a Long Bone
Articular cartilage
• Covers the external surface
of the epiphyses.
• Made of hyaline cartilage
• Decreases friction at joint
surfaces.
Medullary cavity
Flat bones • Cavity of the shaft
• Thin and flattened • Contains yellow marrow
• Usually curved (mostly fat) in adults
• Thin layers of compact bone around a • Contains red marrow (for
layer of spongy bone blood cell formation) in infants
Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum Bone Markings
• Surface features of bones
• Sites of attachments for muscles,
tendons, and ligaments

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 • Passages for nerves and blood vessels
• Categories of bone markings
o Projections and processes – grow out
from the bone surface
o Depressions or cavities – indentations
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
o Bridge of the nose
o Parts of ribs
o Joints
Bone Growth
Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone
during childhood
• New cartilage is continuously formed
• Older cartilage becomes ossified
o Cartilage is broken down
o Bone replaces cartilage
• Bones are remodeled and lengthened
until growth stops
o Bones change shape somewhat
o Bones grow in width

Long Bone Formation and Growth

Central (Haversian) canal

• Opening in the center of an osteon
• Carries blood vessels and nerves
Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
• Canal perpendicular to the central canal
• Carries blood vessels and nerves
Lacunae
• Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
• Arranged in concentric rings
Lamellae
• Rings around the central canal
• Sites of lacunae
Canaliculi
• Tiny canals
• Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
• Form a transport system

Changes in the Human Skeleton

• In embryos, the skeleton is primarily
hyaline cartilage
• During development, much of this
cartilage is replaced by bone
• Cartilage remains in isolated areas

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 Types of Bone Cells Repair of Bone Fractures
Osteocytes • Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
• Mature bone cells • Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a
Osteoblasts callus
• Bone-forming cells • Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony
Osteoclasts
callus
• Bone-destroying cells
• Bony callus is remodeled to form a
• Break down bone matrix for remodeling
permanent patch
and release of calcium
Bone remodeling
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture
is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts

Bone Fractures
• A break in a bone
• Types of bone fractures
o Closed (simple) fracture – break that
does not penetrate the skin
o Open (compound) fracture – broken
bone penetrates through the skin
• Bone fractures are treated by reduction and The Axial Skeleton
immobilization • Forms the longitudinal part of the body
o Realignment of the bone • Divided into three parts
o Skull
Common Types of Fractures o Vertebral column
o Bony thorax (Ribs & Sternum)

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 The Skull Human Skull, Inferior View
• Two sets of bones
o Cranium
o Facial bones
• Bones are joined by sutures
• Only the mandible is attached by a freely
movable joint

Bones of the Skull

Paranasal Sinuses
• Hollow portions of bones surrounding the
nasal cavity
• Functions of paranasal sinuses
o Lighten the skull
o Give resonance and amplification to voice

The Hyoid Bone

• The only bone that does not
articulate with another bone
• Serves as a moveable base for the
tongue
The Fetal Skull
Human Skull, Superior View
• The fetal skull is large
compared to the
infants total body
length
• Fontanelles – fibrous
membranes
connecting the cranial
bones

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• Allow the brain to grow
• Convert to bone within 24 months after
birth.
The Vertebral Column
• Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs
• The spine has a normal curvature
• Each vertebrae is given a name according to
its location

The Bony Thorax

• Forms a cage to
protect major
organs
• Made-up of three
parts
o Sternum
o Ribs
o Thoracic
vertebrae

Structure of a Typical Vertebrae The Appendicular Skeleton

• Limbs (appendages)
• Pectoral girdle
• Pelvic girdle

Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae

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 The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle Bones of the Upper Limb
• Composed of two bones • The forearm has two bones:
o Clavicle – collarbone o Ulna
o Scapula – shoulder blade o Radius
• These bones allow the upper limb to have • The hand
exceptionally free movement o Carpals – wrist
Bones of the Shoulder Girdle o Metacarpals – palm
o Phalanges – fingers

Bones of the Upper Limb

• The arm is formed by a single bone
o Humerus
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
• Hip bones
• Composed of three pair of fused bones
o Ilium
o Ischium
o Pubic bone
• The total weight of the upper body rests on
the pelvis
• Protects several organs
o Reproductive organs
o Urinary bladder
• Part of the large intestine
Bones of the Shoulder Girdle The Pelvis

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 • The foot
o Tarsus – ankle
o Metatarsals – sole
o Phalanges – toes

Arches of the Foot

Gender Differences of the Pelvis
Bones of the Lower Limbs
• The thigh has one bone
o Femur – thigh bone
• The leg has two bones
o Tibia
o Fibula
• Bones of the foot
are arranged to
form three strong
arches
o Two
longitudinal
o One transverse
Joints
• Articulations of bones
• Functions of joints
o Hold bones together
o Allow for mobility
• Ways joints are classified
o Functionally
o Structurally
Functional Classification of Joints
• Synarthroses – immovable joints
• Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
• Diarthroses – freely moveable joints
Structural Classification of Joints
• Fibrous joints
o Generally immovable
• Cartilaginous joints
o Immovable or slightly moveable
• Synovial joints
o Freely moveable

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 Fibrous Joints Features of Synovial Joints
• Bones united by fibrous tissue • Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers
Examples the ends of bones
o Sutures • Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous
o Syndesmoses articular capsule
Allows more movement than • Have a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
sutures • Ligaments reinforce the joint
Example: distal end of tibia and Structures Associated with the Synovial Joint
fibula • Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs
o Lined with synovial membranes
o Filled with synovial fluid
o Not actually part of the joint
• Tendon sheath
o Elongated bursa that wraps around a
tendon
The Synovial Joint

Cartilaginous Joints
• Bones connected by cartilage
Examples
o Pubic symphysis
o Intervertebral joints

Types of Synovial Joints Based on Shape

Synovial Joints
• Articulating bones are separated by a joint
cavity
• Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity

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 Inflammatory Conditions Associated with
Joints
• Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually
caused by a blow or friction
• Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon
sheaths
• Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative
diseases of joints
o Over 100 different types
o The most widespread crippling disease
in the United States
Clinical Forms of Arthritis
• Osteoarthritis
o Most common chronic arthritis
o Probably related to normal aging
processes
• Rheumatoid arthritis
o An autoimmune disease – the immune
system attacks the joints
o Symptoms begin with bilateral
inflammation of certain joints
o Often leads to deformities
• Gouty Arthritis
o Inflammation of joints is caused by a
deposition of urate crystals from the
blood
o Can usually be controlled with diet
Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal System
• At birth, the skull bones are incomplete
• Bones are joined by fibrous membranes -
fontanelles
• Fontanelles are completely replaced with
bone within two years after birth

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