1.

Computer Fundamental
Q.1 A byte has how many bits?
8 bits are in a byte
Q.2 1KB is composed of how many bytes?
1024 bytes are present in 1MB
Q.3 1 GB consists of how many megabytes?
1024 bytes are present in 1MB
Q.4 What will we configure so that some files are not shown in the Windows explorer?
We can enable the hidden attribute of those file and the files will not be shown in the Windows explorer
Q.5 What is the use of USB device?
USB device can be attached to computer without any configuration as it automatically configured like USB
mouse or keyboard.
Q.6 Are there any input devices other than keyboard or mouse?
Yes, digital pen, touch screen and many other devices can be used for input.
Q.7 What type of device is a scanner?
Scanner is an input device as it sends image of documents to scan, to the computer.
Q.8 When should a laser printer be used in the office?
If the number of print outs needed in the office are high or at least 20 + in a month, then laser printer is
suggested.
Q.9 What is the benefit of laser printer?
A laser printer prints with high speed, at higher resolution and is low cost as compared to inkjet printer if
printing black and white prints.
Q.10 What is the benefit of inkjet printer?
An inkjet printer is allow cost solution to print color print outs for home, small office or small requirement.
Q.11 When should an inkjet printer be used in the office?
An inkjet printer should be used in the office if color prints are needed though in small number (may be 10 to 15
prints in a month).
Q.12 List a most used storage device
A pen drive or USB drive is the most used storage device
Q.13 Does RAM stores data after the computer is switched off?
No, RAM does not store data after the computer is switched off.
Q.14 Which storage device stores data after the computer is switched off?
Hard disk can store data after the computer is switched off.
Q.15 Does a USB mouse needs device driver to be installed for using it?
No, USB mouse does not needs device driver as it automatically detected and drivers are installed for usage.
Q.16 Which technology is used to connect computers wirelessly to a network?
Wi-Fi is the technology used to connect computers wirelessly to a network.
Q.17 Which Microsoft utility improves the access speed of data on the computer by storing data alongside
to other on hard disk instead of on various parts of a hard disk?
Disk Defragmenter is a Microsoft utility improves the access speed of data on the computer.
Q.18 Where does the start button is located on the Windows desktop?
The start button is located on bottom left-most end, of the Windows desktop
Q.19 What is the shortcut key in Windows to copy a file?
We need to select the file to copy and press the control key and 'c' key both at once, to copy the selected file.
Q.20 How do you move a file in Windows?
In Windows to move a file, we first select the file and press control and 'x' keys both at once and then press
control and 'v' key where the file was to be moved to.
Q.21 How can we access a folder in Windows on a network?
We can access a folder in Windows on a network by enabling the sharing options of the folder.
Q.22 Which section shows date and time on the Windows desktop?
Notification Area on the Windows desktop shows the date and time.
Q.23 What is ASCII?
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange and is used for storing data on
computer.
Q.24 List the keyboard keys to create a new blank document in MS-Word?
The keyboard keys are control and 'n', both at once.
Q.25 The keyboard keys to open a file in MS-Excel, is?
The keyboard keys are control and 'o', both at once.
Q.26 Name a free web based email
Gmail is a free and popular web based email.
Q.27 What produces soft copy output?
Monitor produces soft copy output
Q.28 What produces hard copy output?
Printer produces hard copy output
Q.29 Which storage unit stores more data - MB or GB?
GB stores more data as 1 GB equals 1024 MB.
Q.30 How will you protect data on hard disk?
We should take regular backup, which will protect data on hard disk and will be accessible if the hard disk
crashes.
Q.31 What could be the reason for printouts being light on from the black and white laser printer?
The toner has depleted and new one needs to be placed before other prints.
Q.32 What to do if the icons on the desktop are too big in size?
The video device driver is absent or corrupt due to which correct video resolution has not been selected. Install
correct video device driver and select the correct resolution for addressing the issue.
Q.33 What to do if the computer is not connected to local network?
Check the network cable or the wireless connection for any loose or interruption. Network device driver should
be checked.
Q.34 What do you understand by buffer?
A buffer is a temporary storage to store data items and is used during data transfer between devices like
computer and pen drive.
Q.35 Which unit is used to describe the screen resolution?
Pixel is the unit for screen resolution.
Q.36 What is meant by booting of the system?
Booting of the system means that the computer has just been started and it is loading the operating system like
Windows along with other programs.
Q.37 What is BIOS?
BIOS stores hardware setting of the computer and is used by the operating system.
Q.38 What is FAT?
FAT is a file system from Microsoft used in Windows operating system.
Q.39 Which file system is used in Windows 10?
Windows 10 uses NTFS as its file system.
Q.40 Which character indicates division in Excel?
The character '/' is used for division in Excel
Q.41 List the smallest storage unit in a computer?
Bit is the smallest storage unit in a computer.
Q.42 How many GB are there in a TB?
1024 GB are present in one TB.
Q.43 Which default file extension is used for a compressed file in Windows?
ZIP is the default file extension used for a compressed file in Windows.
Q.44 What is the default file extension for Notepad files?
TXT is the default file extension for Notepad files.
Q.45 List the file extension being used by MS-Paint files
BMP is the default file extension for MS-Paint files.
Q.46 Which shortcut key will close the active window on Microsoft Windows?
The keys 'Alt' and 'F4' pressed both at once, will close the active window on Microsoft Windows.
Q.47 What is the benefit of graphic files with jpg extension as compared to bmp?
The jpg extension file takes lesser space as compared to bmp graphic files for same image.
Q.48 Which formatting can be applied to text in Notepad?
Notepad only supports font based formatting for a text which includes font type, size and style.
Q.49 Can we open multiple Notepad windows?
Yes, we can open multiple Notepad windows.
Q.50 Can we open same file in multiple Notepad windows at once?
Yes, we can open same file in multiple Notepad windows at once.
1) A process is a _______.
Answer: (b) program in the execution
Explanation: A process is a program that is executed by the threads. It consists of multiple threads of
execution.
2) The word processing feature that catches most random typographical errors and misspellings is known as
Answer: (b) Spell checker
Explanation: The word processing feature that catches most random typographical errors and misspellings is
known as spell checker.
3) What is smallest unit of the information?
Answer: (a) A bit
Explanation: The smallest unit of the information is a bit. All information is stored in the computer as bits.
4) What is the decimal equivalent of the binary number 10111?
Answer: (d) 23
5) What is the term for a temporary storage area that compensates for differences in data rate and data flow
between devices?
Answer: (a) Buffer
Explanation: Buffer is the temporary storage that can be used to compensate for a difference in data rate and
data flow between devices. In other words, a buffer is an area of physical memory storage used to store data
temporarily.
6) How many color dots make up one color pixel on a screen?
Answer: (d) 3
Explanation: Three color dots form a color pixel on a screen, and these are the following color dots: red, blue,
and green. you can make any color from these 3 colors on the screen
8) How is the data stored on the diskette?
Answer: (c) Magnetism
Explanation: The data is stored on the diskette in magnetism form. A diskette is a removable data storage, and
it is used with the PC.
9) Which of the following is the smallest visual element on a video monitor?
Answer: (b) Pixel
Explanation: A pixel is the smallest portion of the screen. The name Pixel is made from the "Picture element"
and is also called the PEL. All screen is made by putting millions of pixels together in a matrix form.
10) Which of the following natural element is the primary element in computer chips?
Answer: (a) Silicon
Explanation: Silicon is the primary element in computer chips. Silicon is a highly pure element which is now
perfect for the massive computer chip industry. It is cost efficient and easy to use.
11) Which of the following programs enables you to calculate numbers related to rows and columns?
Answer: (b) Spreadsheet program
Explanation: Spreadsheet programs help you to calculate numbers related to rows and columns. It can also
graphically represent the data as per the user's requirement.
12) Which of the following is a structured programming technique that graphically represents the detailed steps
required to solve a program?
Answer: (c) Flowchart
Explanation: Flowchart is a structured programming technique that graphically represents the detailed steps
required to solve a program. Usually, it shows the steps as boxes of different types, and these boxes are
connected with arrows.
14) Which of the following is an output device?
Answer: (d) VDU
Explanation: The full form of VDU is the Visual Display Unit. It is a hardware output device that uses a
cathode ray tube to display a visual image.
15) Which of the following is an input device?
Answer: (d) Mouse
Explanation: A mouse is a hardware input device that controls a cursor on a computer. With the help of the
mouse, you can select, open, and move files, icons, folders, and text on the PC.
16) Which of the following is the extension of Notepad?
Answer: (a) .txt
Explanation: The .txt file extension is a standard text document extension that contains the unformatted text. It
is the default file extension for the notepad.
17) BIOS is used?
Answer: (a) By operating system
Explanation: BIOS is used by the operating system. It is used to configure and identify the hardware in a
system such as the hard drive, floppy drive, optical drive, CPU, and memory.
18) What is the mean of the Booting in the system?
Answer: (a) Restarting computer
Explanation: Booting is a process of the restart the computer. After restarting it, there is no software in the
computer's main memory.
19) A computer is accurate, but if the result of a computation is false, what is the main reason for it?
Answer: (c) Incorrect data entry
20) The central processing unit is located in the _____.
Answer: (b) System unit
Explanation: The central processing unit is located in the system unit. The system unit controls the entire
computer. It includes RAM, Processors, Optical drive, Power supply, Fans, Hardware, Peripheral devices,
BIOS, etc.
21) Which one of the following groups contains graphical file extensions?
Answer: (d) JPG, GIF, BMP
Explanation: JPG, GIF, BMP are all extensions of graphical file. JPG stands for Joint Photographic Experts
Group, GIF stands for Graphics Interchange Format, and BMP stands for Bitmap Image File.
22) Which of the following is equal to a gigabyte?
Answer: (c) 1024 megabytes
23) How many bytes does 4 kilobytes represent?
Answer: (c) 4096
Explanation:
1 kb = 210 bytes in binary
1 kb = 1024 bytes in binary
4 kb = 4 * 1024 bytes
= 4096 bytes
24) Which type of program acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer hardware?
Answer: (a) Operating system
Explanation: An OS is a kind of program that acts as an intermediary for computer hardware and computer
user. The purpose of an operating system is to provide a user-friendly and effective environment.
25) What kind of language can computer understand?
Answer: (a) Assembly language
Explanation: An assembly language is a scripting language capable of telling the computer explicitly what to
do.
27) Which of the following is not one of the internal components of a CPU?
Answer: (d) Floppy disk
Explanation: Floppy disk is not an internal components of a CPU. It is a component of the secondary storage
and external storage. It is a kind of data storage device.
28) What is the speed of computer measured in?
Answer: (c) Gigahertz
Explanation: The computer clock speed is normally calculated in gigahertz (GHz) or megahertz (MHz). a
gigahertz is equal to one billion ticks per second, and a megahertz is equal to one million ticks per second.
29) What is the full form of RAM?
Answer: (b) Random Access Memory
Explanation: The full name of RAM is random access memory. It is a hardware device located in a computer
that stores data temporarily. Temporary means it only stores data for some time. RAM is also called main
memory, primary memory, or system memory.
30) What is the full form of DRAM?
Answer: (b) Dynamic Random-Access Memory
Explanation: The full name of DRAM is dynamic random-access memory. It needs a refresh power to work
and it has transistor and capacitor for the memory cell. It is used in video game consoles, networking hardware,
and system memory, etc.
31) Which one of the following software applications would be the most appropriate for performing numerical
and statistical calculations?
Answer: (d) Spreadsheet
32) Which of the following is not considered hardware?
Answer: (a) Operating system
Explanation: The operating system (OS) is a software that acts as an interface between a computer and a user.
It is also called system software. OS is the first program to be loaded into a computer. It manages all the
operations of the computer.
33) Which of the following is exclusively a sequential access storage device?
Answer: (c) Magnetic tape
Explanation: Magnetic tape is exclusively a sequential access storage device. Sequential access memory is a
type of data storage devices that read and write the data in a series.
34) Akshat has created a story of ten pages, but only wants to print the first two pages. Which printer command
should he choose?
Answer: (b) Print from 1 to 2
35) What is the full form of SRAM?
Answer: (a) Static Random-Access Memory
36) What is the full form of USB?
Answer: (d) Universal System Bus
Explanation: The full name of USB is Universal Serial Bus. It is a common interface that allows the
communication between two devices.
37) Which one of the following is not a form of data storage media?
Answer: (a) A database
Explanation: A database is a collection of information that is organized in such a way that information can be
easily accessed, managed, and updated. In the database
38) What is five main components of a computer system?
Answer: (d) CPU, Memory, System bus, Input, Output
39) Which of the following numbers is a binary number?
Answer: (d) 0 and 1
32744) A hard disk drive can be directly connected to a PC via a _____.
Answer: (a) SCSI interface
Explanation: A hard disk drive can be directly connected to a PC via a SCSI interface. SCSI is a group of
protocols that send the data between computers and external devices in a physical manner.
45) The use of the IC in a computer has ______.
Answer: (b) Reduced the size and cost of computers
Explanation: The use of the IC in a computer has reduced the cost of computers. It is an incredibly small
electronics chip integrated with a set of electrical circuits and transistors. It is a very small chip.
47) What is the full form of SCSI?
Answer: (b) Small computer system interface
Explanation: The full name of SCSI is Small computer system interface. SCSI is a group of protocols that send
the data between computers and external devices in a physical manner.
48) Which one of the following is not input device?
Answer: (c) Speaker
49) Which one of the following is an example of the browser software?
Answer: (d) Internet explorer
Explanation: Internet explorer is a web browser software on the windows computer.
50) Which one of the following commands can be used to work on a file?
Answer: (c) Ctrl + C
1. Who is the father of Computers?
b) Charles Babbage
2. Which of the following is the correct abbreviation of COMPUTER?
d) Commonly Operated Machines Used in Technical and Educational Research
3. Which of the following is the correct definition of Computer?
a) Computer is a machine or device that can be programmed to perform arithmetical or logic operation
sequences automatically
b) Computer understands only binary language which is written in the form of 0s & 1s
c) Computer is a programmable electronic device that stores, retrieves, and processes the data
d) All of the mentioned
4. What is the full form of CPU?
c) Central Processing Unit
5. Which of the following language does the computer understand?
c) Computer understands only Binary Language
6. Which of the following computer language is written in binary codes only?
b) machine language
7. Which of the following is the brain of the computer?
a) Central Processing Unit
8. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a computer?
d) I.Q.
9. Which of the following is the smallest unit of data in a computer?
a) Bit
10. Which of the following unit is responsible for converting the data received from the user into a computer
understandable format?
b) Input Unit
11. Which of the following monitor looks like a television and are normally used with non-portable computer
systems?
c) CRT
13. Which of the following part of a processor contains the hardware necessary to perform all the operations
required by a computer?
d) Data path
14. Which of the following is designed to control the operations of a computer?
c) System Software
15. Which of the following device use positional notation to represent a decimal number?
b) Abacus
16. Which of the following is used in EBCDIC?
b) Mainframes
17. Which of the following are physical devices of a computer?
a) Hardware
18. Which of the following defines the assigned ordering among the characters used by the computer?
c) Collating Sequence
19. Which of the following storage is a system where a robotic arm will connect or disconnect off-line mass
storage media according to the computer operating system demands?
d) Tertiary
20. Which of the following is known as the interval between the instant a computer makes a request for the
transfer of data from a disk system to the primary storage and the instance the operation is completed?
c) Disk access time
21. Which of the following devices provides the communication between a computer and the outer world?
b) I/O
22. Which of the following are the input devices that enable direct data entry into a computer system from
source documents?
d) Data Scanning devices
23. Which of the following is the device used for converting maps, pictures, and drawings into digital form for
storage in computers?
b) Digitizer
24. Which of the following can access the server?
a) Web Client
25. Which of the following is known as the language made up of binary-coded instructions?
d) Machine
26. Which of the following package allows individuals to use personal computers for storing and retrieving their
personal information?
a) Personal assistance package
27. Which of the following is created when a user opens an account in the computer system?
c) Subdirectory
28. Which of the following is a technique that marked the beginning of computer communications?
c) Time Sharing
29. Which of the following is a type of technique in which dumb terminals are connected to a central computer
system?
a) Time Sharing
30. Which of the following service allows a user to log in to another computer somewhere on the Internet?
c) Telnet
31. Which of the following is not a type of computer on the basis of operation?
d) Remote
32. Which of the following type of computer is mostly used for automatic operations?
c) hybrid
33. Which of the following invention gave birth to the much cheaper microcomputers?
b) Microprocessors
34. Which of the following computers are lower than mainframe computers in terms of speed and storage
capacity?
c) Mini
35. Which of the following is the first neural network computer?
d) SNARC
2.Structured Programming
1) What is Computer programming?
Computer Programming is also known as programming or coding. Programming is a process which includes
processes such as coding, maintaining, updating, debugging, writing, designing (algorithm), etc.
2) How does programming work?
Programming contains a set of instructions for the computer to perform different tasks.
3) What is debugging?
Debugging is the process of finding and removing errors in a program
4) Name different types of errors which can occur during the execution of a program?
 Syntax Errors
 Runtime Errors
 Logical errors
5) When a syntax error occurs?
A syntax error occurs when the program violates one or more grammatical rules of the programming language.
These errors are detected at compile time.
6) When a runtime error occurs?
A runtime error occurs when the computer is directed to perform an illegal operation by the program such as
dividing a number by zero.
7) When a logical error occurs?
The logical error happens when a program implements the wrong logic.
8) What is a flowchart?
The flowchart is a pictorial representation of a program which helps in understanding the flow of control and
data in the algorithm.
9) What is an algorithm?
An algorithm is a finite set of steps which, if followed, accomplish a particular task. An algorithm must be clear,
finite and effective.
11) What are variables?
Variables are named memory locations (memory cells) which are used to store the program’s input and its
computational results during program execution.
12) What are reserved words?
Reserved words or keywords are the words, which have predefined meanings. They have predefined uses and
cannot be used or redefined for any other purpose in a programming language.
Examples
 IF
 ELSE
 THEN
13) What are loops?
The loop is a structure which can repeat a set of statements up to a fixed number of times or until a certain
criterion is satisfied.
17) What is the use of Nested Loop?
Loop within a loop is called nested loop.
18) What is Documentation?
Documentation is a detailed description of a program’s algorithm, design, coding method, testing, and proper
usage.
19) What is the working of a compiler?
A compiler is a unique program that can process statements which are written in a particular programming
language and can turn them into machine language or “code.”
20) What do we call the binary form of a target language?
The binary form of a target language is also called “Binary Code”.
21) What are constants?
A constant is a quantity whose value cannot be changed.
22) Name two types of constants.
 Numeric Constants
 String Constants
23) Define Numeric constants.
Numeric constants consist of integers, single precision, or double-precision numbers.
24) Define String constants.
A string constant is a sequence of alphanumeric characters enclosed in double quotation marks.
25) Define Operators.
Operators are symbols which are used to perform certain operations on a data. These include arithmetic,
relational, logical, and assignment operators.
26) What is an Array?
An array is a collection of contiguous memory locations which can store data of the same type.
28) What is the purpose of arithmetic operators?
Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic operations on values (numbers).
29) What is the purpose of relational operators?
Relational operators are used to compare two values. These operators always evaluate to true or false.
32) What is Machine code?
Machine code is a language, which can be processed directly by a microprocessor without any need of the
previous transformation.
35) What is reliability?
It is the proper working of software during a specific period of time
36) What is modeling language?
An artificial language that can be used to express information or knowledge or systems in
an arrangement which is defined by a reliable number of rules.
37) Name some modeling languages.
Names of some modeling languages are listed below:
 Business Process Modeling Notation
 EXPRESS
 Extended Enterprise Modeling Language
 Flowchart
 Fundamental Modeling Concepts
 Jackson Structured Programming
 Unified Modeling Language
 Alloy (specification language
 Systems Modeling Language
38) What is software testing?
Software testing a process in which software is tested under certain conditions to test the quality of a program.
39) Tell a few reasons of software testing.
A few reasons for software testing are mentioned below:
 Proper working
 Satisfying quality
 Fulfills the requirements of the user
 Can be implemented with the identical
40) What is Beta version?
The beta version of a software is that version which is not ready for release and can be changed after the
feedback from the users. Beta version comes after alpha version.
41) What is the working of logical operators?
Logical operators let us combine simple conditions to construct more complex ones (By conditions, we mean an
expression evaluating to true or false).
42) What is the purpose of the assignment operator?
The assignment operator is used to store a value, string or a computational result in a variable.
43) What is analyzing a program?
The process in which program is decomposed into sub-problems. Rather on concentrating the bigger problem as
a whole, we try to solve each sub-problem separately. This leads to a simple solution. This technique is also
known as top-down design.
44) What is the working on an algorithm?
Every algorithm performs at least following three steps:
 Get data
 Perform computation
 Display results
 45) How is the division by zero defined?
Division by zero is undefined.
46) What is the meaning of implementation of a program?
Once the program has been tested thoroughly, it must be installed or put into operation at the site where it will
be used. This is known as the implementation of the program.
47) What are numeric variables?
The variables which can store numeric values are called number variables. Numeric values include both floating
point numbers and whole numbers.
48) What are string variables?
A string can be defined as a sequence of characters enclosed in double quotations.
49) What are commands?
Commands are executable instructions which are operated in the direct mode. They do not require a preceding
line number. Incorrect info
51) What is the execution of a program?
Execution of the program refers to carrying out the instruction of the program. The program must be loaded into
memory (RAM) before execution.

1. What is a Data Structure?

 A data structure is a storage format that defines the way data is stored, organized, and manipulated.
3. What is a Linked List?
 Like an array, a linked list refers to a linear data structure in which the elements are not necessarily
stored in a contiguous manner.
4. What is LIFO?
 LIFO is an abbreviation for Last In First Out
 It is a way of accessing, storing and retrieving data.
5. What is a Stack?
 A stack refers to a linear data structure performing operations in a LIFO (Last In First Out) order.
6. What is FIFO?
 FIFO stands for First In First Out.
 It is a way of accessing, storing and retrieving data.
7. What is a Queue?
 A queue refers to a linear data structure that performs operations in a FIFO order.
8. What are Binary Trees?
 A binary tree is an extension of the linked list structure where each node has at most two children.
9. What is Recursion?
 Recursion refers to a function calling itself based on a terminating condition.
 It uses LIFO and therefore makes use of the stack data structure.
10. What is the OOPs concept?
OOPs stands for Object-Oriented Programming System, a paradigm that provides concepts such as objects,
classes, and inheritance.
11. What are the concepts introduced in OOPs?
Following are the concepts introduced in OOPs:
 Object - A real-world entity having a particular state and behavior. We can define it as an instance of
a class.
 Class - A logical entity that defines the blueprint from which an object can be created or instantiated.
 Inheritance - A concept that refers to an object gaining all the properties and behaviors of a parent
object. It provides code reusability.
 Polymorphism - A concept that allows a task to be performed in different ways
 Abstraction - A concept that hides the internal details of an application and only shows the
functionality. Encapsulation - A concept that refers to the wrapping of code and data together into a
single unit.
12. Explain what a Binary Search Tree is.
  A binary search tree is used to store data in a manner that it can be retrieved very efficiently.
13. Explain Doubly Linked Lists?
 Doubly linked lists are categorized as a special type of linked list in which traversal across the data
elements can be done in both directions.
14. What is a Graph?
 A graph is a particular type of data structure that contains a set of ordered pairs.
16. What is a Deque?
 A deque is a double-ended queue.
 This is a structure in which elements can be inserted or removed from either end.
19. How does variable declaration affect memory?
 The amount of memory that is to be reserved or allocated depends on the data type being stored in
that variable.
20. What are dynamic data structures?
Dynamic data structures have the feature where they expand and contract as a program runs.
22. How do you determine if a string is a palindrome?
 A string is a palindrome when it stays the same on reversing the order of characters in that string.
 It can be achieved by reversing the original string first and then checking if the reversed string is
equal to the original string.
Question: What do you understand by maintaining and updating a computer program?
Answer: The maintenance and updating process of a computer program starts post its successful installation.
While program maintenance is the continuous process of monitoring the computer program for bugs and errors,
updating the computer program means making it better with minor and major changes over time.
Question: Every programming language has reserved words. What are they? Give some examples.
Answer: Reserved words, also known as keywords, are the words that have predefined meanings in a particular
programming language. These reserved words can’t be used or redefined for serving other purposes. Following
are some examples of reserved words:
 C – break, case, char, default, else, float, if, and int
 Java – abstract, boolean, catch, class, const, double, enum, finally, implements, instanceof, throws,
transient, and volatile
 Python – and, assert, continue, def, del, global, not, lambda, raise, and yield
Question: What is debugging? How is it related to testing?
Answer: During the testing of a computer program, a number of issues are discovered. These are called errors
and bugs. Debugging is the process of correcting them.
Question: Why do adding comments to code is highly recommended?
Answer: Any typical computer program contains hundreds to thousands of LOC. Adding comments is a way to
simplify the experience of examining or finding something within the code easier for others.
Question: Please explain bubble sorting?
Answer: Bubble sorting is a simple sorting algorithm in which adjacent elements in a data structure, such as an
array, are continuously compared until we get the right order. The compared elements are swapped only if they
are in the wrong order.
Question: What are some of the areas that leverage data structures?
Answer: Data structures are required about everywhere where data is involved. However, some notable
examples are:
 Artificial intelligence
 Compiler design
 Database management
 Graphics
 Numerical analysis
 Operating systems
 Statistical analysis
Question: What do you understand by sorting? Name some popular sorting techniques.
Answer: Sorting is the process of arranging the elements of an array in either ascending or descending order.
Some of the popular sorting techniques are:
 Bubble sort
 Heap sort
 Insertion sort
 Merge sort
 Quick sort
 Selection sort
Question: Please explain the binary search. What is the best scenario for using a binary search?
Answer: The binary search is best applied to a list in which all the elements are already sorted. The binary
search starts with searching in the middle of the list.
If the middle element is not the targeted element then it proceeds to search either the lower half or the upper half
of the list. The process keeps on repeating until the desired element is found.
Question: How will you reference all elements in a one-dimensional array?
Answer: We need to use an indexed loop for referencing all elements in a one-dimension array. The counter
starts from 0 to the number equal to 1 less than the array size. Hence, all elements are referenced in sequence by
employing the loop counter as the array subscript.
Question: Can you explain multi-dimensional array?
Answer: A multi-dimensional array is one that has multiple indexes. It is used where single-dimensional
indexing is insufficient.
Question: What is the difference between a linear and a non-linear data structure?
Answer: In a linear data structure, data elements are placed adjacent to each other. Arrays, linked lists, queues,
and stacks are some examples of linear data structure.
In a non-linear data structure, it is possible for data elements to be connected to more than two data elements.
Examples of the non-linear data structure are graphs and trees.
Question: Why do we use Huffman’s algorithm?
Answer: For extending binary trees that have minimum weighted path length from given weights, we use
Huffman’s algorithm. It uses a table containing the total number of times for each data element.
Question: Please explain Fibonacci search.
Answer: Fibonacci search is a type of search algorithm that applies to a sorted array. It uses the divide-and-
conquer approach for greatly reducing the time required for reaching the target element.
Question: How does the recursive algorithm works?
Answer: The recursive algorithm divides a problem into smaller, easy-to-manage sub-problems. The output
gained from one recursion after processing one sub-problem becomes input for the subsequent recursive
process.
Question: Please explain how does dynamic memory allocation help in managing data?
Answer: Dynamic memory allocation helps in storing simple structured data types. Moreover, it helps in
combining separately allocated structure blocks for forming composite structures that can be expanded or
contracted as required.
Question: What is the difference between NULL and VOID?
Answer: While NULL represents a value, VOID represents data type identifier. A variable with a NULL value
represents an empty value. Pointers that have no initial size are identified using VOID.
Question: Please explain how variable declaration affects memory allocation.
Answer: A particular data type is defined with a variable declaration. The total amount of memory to be
allocated depends on the data type a declared variable belongs to.
Question: Please explain data abstraction.
Answer: Data abstraction helps in breaking down a complex data problem into easily-manageable sub-
problems. Following data abstraction, first data objects and operations to be performed on the same are
specified. How the data objects will be stored in the memory becomes a secondary task.
 Algorithm

1) Explain what is an algorithm in computing?

An algorithm is a well-defined computational procedure that take some value as input and generate some value
as output. In simple words, it’s a sequence of computational steps that converts input into the output.

2) Explain what is Quick Sort algorithm?

Quick Sort algorithm has the ability to sort list or queries quickly. It is based on the principle of partition
exchange sort or Divide and conquer. This type of algorithm occupies less space, and it segregates the list into
three main parts.
 Elements less than the Pivot element
 Pivot element
 Elements greater than the Pivot element
3) Explain what is time complexity of Algorithm?
Time complexity of an algorithm indicates the total time needed by the program to run to completion. It is
usually expressed by using the big O notation.
4) Mention what are the types of Notation used for Time Complexity?
The types of Notations used for Time Complexity includes
 Big Oh: It indicates “fewer than or the same as” <expression>iterations
 Big Omega: It indicates “more than or same as” <expression>iterations
 Big Theta: It indicates “the same as”<expression>iterations
 Little Oh: It indicates “fewer than” <expression>iterations
 Little Omega: It indicates “more than” <expression>iterations

5) Explain how binary search works?

In binary search, we compare the key with the item in the middle position of the array. If the key is less than the
item searched then it must lie in the lower half of the array, if the key is greater than the item searched than it
should be in upper half of the array.
7) Explain what is heap sort?
Heap-sort can be defined as a comparison based sorting algorithm. It divides its input into the unsorted and
sorted region, until it shrinks the unsorted region by eliminating the smallest element and moving that to the
sorted region.
9) Explain what is Space complexity of insertion sort algorithm?
Insertion sort is an in-place sorting algorithm which means that it requires no extra or little. storage. For
insertion sort, it requires only single list elements to be stored out-side the initial data, making the space-
complexity 0(1).

10) Explain what a “Hash Algorithm” is and what are they used for?
“Hash Algorithm” is a hash function that takes a string of any length and decreases it to a unique fixed length
string. It is used for password validity, message & data integrity and for many other cryptographic systems.

Algorithm Interview Questions and Answers for Experienced

11) Explain how to find whether the linked list has a loop?
To know whether the linked list has a loop, we will take two pointer approach. If we maintain two pointers, and
we increase one pointer after processing two nodes and other after processing every node, we are likely to
encounter a situation where both the pointer will be pointing to the same node. This will only occur if linked list
has a loop.

12) Explain how encryption algorithm works?

Encryption is the process of converting plaintext into a secret code format referred as “Ciphertext”. To convert
the text, algorithm uses a string of bits referred as “keys” for calculations. The larger the key, the greater the
number of potential patterns for creating cipher text. Most encryption algorithm use codes fixed blocks of input
that have length about 64 to 128 bits, while some uses stream method.

13) List out some of the commonly used cryptographic algorithms?

Some of the commonly used cryptographic algorithms are
 3-way
 Blowfish
 CAST
 CMEA
 GOST
 DES and Triple DES
 IDEA
 LOKI and so on

14) Explain what is the difference between best case scenario and worst case scenario of an algorithm?
 Best case scenario: Best case scenario for an algorithm is explained as the arrangement of data for
which the algorithm performs best. For example, we take a binary search, for which the best case
scenario would be if the target value is at the very center of the data you are searching. The best case
time complexity would be 0 (1)
 Worst case scenario: It is referred for the worst set of input for a given algorithm. For example
quicksort, which can perform worst if you select the largest or smallest element of a sublist for the pivot
value. It will cause quicksort to degenerate to O (n2).

15) Explain what is Radix Sort algorithm?

Radix sort puts the element in order by comparing the digits of the numbers. It is one of the linear sorting
algorithms for integers.

16) Explain what is a recursive algorithm?

Recursive algorithm is a method of solving a complicated problem by breaking a problem down into smaller
and smaller sub-problems until you get the problem small enough that it can be solved easily. Usually, it
involves a function calling itself.

17) Mention what are the three laws of recursion algorithm?

All recursive algorithm must follow three laws
 It should have a base case
 A recursive algorithm must call itself
 A recursive algorithm must change its state and move towards the base case.
Need for Algorithm
The algorithm provides the basic idea of the problem and an approach to solve it. Some reasons to use an
algorithm are as follows.
o The algorithm improves the efficiency of an existing technique.
o To compare the performance of the algorithm with respect to other techniques.
o The algorithm gives a strong description of requirements and goal of the problems to the designer.
o The algorithm provides a reasonable understanding of the flow of the program.
o The algorithm measures the performance of the methods in different cases (Best cases, worst cases,
average cases).
o The algorithm identifies the resources (input/output, memory) cycles required by the algorithm.
o With the help of an algorithm, we can measure and analyze the complexity time and space of the
problems.
o The algorithm also reduces the cost of design.
2) What is the Complexity of Algorithm?
The complexity of the algorithm is a way to classify how efficient an algorithm is compared to alternative ones.
Its focus is on how execution time increases with the data set to be processed. The computational complexity of
the algorithm is important in computing.
It is very suitable to classify algorithm based on the relative amount of time or relative amount of space they
required and specify the growth of time/ space requirement as a function of input size.
Time complexity
Time complexity is a Running time of a program as a function of the size of the input.
Space complexity
Space complexity analyzes the algorithms, based on how much space an algorithm needs to complete its task.
Space complexity analysis was critical in the early days of computing (when storage space on the computer was
limited).
Nowadays, the problem of space rarely occurs because space on the computer is broadly enough.
We achieve the following types of analysis for complexity
Worst-case: f(n)
It is defined by the maximum number of steps taken on any instance of size n.
Best-case: f(n)
It is defined by the minimum number of steps taken on any instance of size n.
AD
Average-case: f(n)
It is defined by the average number of steps taken on any instance of size n.
5) What are the Asymptotic Notations?
Asymptotic analysis is used to measure the efficiency of an algorithm that doesn't depend on machine-specific
constants and prevents the algorithm from comparing the time taking algorithm. Asymptotic notation is a
mathematical tool that is used to represent the time complexity of algorithms for asymptotic analysis.
The three most used asymptotic notation is as follows.
θ Notation
θ Notation defines the exact asymptotic behavior. To define a behavior, it bounds functions from above and
below. A convenient way to get Theta notation of an expression is to drop low order terms and ignore leading
constants.

Big O Notation
The Big O notation bounds a function from above, it defines an upper bound of an algorithm. Let's consider the
case of insertion sort; it takes linear time in the best case and quadratic time in the worst case. The time
complexity of insertion sort is O(n2). It is useful when we only have upper bound on time complexity of an
algorithm.

Ω Notation
Just like Big O notation provides an asymptotic upper bound, the Ω Notation provides an asymptotic lower
bound on a function. It is useful when we have lower bound on time complexity of an algorithm.
7) How to swap two integers without swapping the temporary variable in Java?
It's a very commonly asked trick question. There are many ways to solve this problem.
But the necessary condition is we have to solve it without swapping the temporary variable.
If we think about integer overflow and consider its solution, then it creates an excellent impression in the eye of
interviewers.
8) What is a Hash Table? How can we use this structure to find all anagrams in a dictionary?
A Hash table is a data structure for storing values to keys of arbitrary type. The Hash table consists of an index
into an array by using a Hash function. Indexes are used to store the elements. We assign each possible element
to a bucket by using a hash function. Multiple keys can be assigned to the same bucket, so all the key and value
pairs are stored in lists within their respective buckets. Right hashing function has a great impact on
performance.
9) What is Divide and Conquer algorithms?
Divide and Conquer is not an algorithm; it's a pattern for the algorithm. It is designed in a way as to take dispute
on a huge input, break the input into minor pieces, and decide the problem for each of the small pieces. Now
merge all of the piecewise solutions into a global solution. This strategy is called divide and conquer.
Divide and conquer uses the following steps to make a dispute on an algorithm.
Divide: In this section, the algorithm divides the original problem into a set of subproblems.
Conquer: In this section, the algorithm solves every subproblem individually.
Combine: In this section, the algorithm puts together the solutions of the subproblems to get the solution to the
whole problem.
10) Explain the BFS algorithm?
BFS (Breadth First Search) is a graph traversal algorithm. It starts traversing the graph from the root node and
explores all the neighboring nodes. It selects the nearest node and visits all the unexplored nodes.

11) What is Dijkstra's shortest path algorithm?

Dijkstra's algorithm is an algorithm for finding the shortest path from a starting node to the target node in a
weighted graph. The algorithm makes a tree of shortest paths from the starting vertex and source vertex to all
other nodes in the graph.
12) Give some examples of Divide and Conquer algorithm?
Some problems that use Divide and conquer algorithm to find their solution are listed below.
o Merge Sort
o Quick Sort
o Binary Search
o Strassen's Matrix Multiplication
o Closest pair (points)
13) What are Greedy algorithms? Give some example of it?
A greedy algorithm is an algorithmic strategy which is made for the best optimal choice at each sub stage with
the goal of this, eventually leading to a globally optimum solution. This means that the algorithm chooses the
best solution at the moment without regard for consequences..
Below is a list of algorithms that finds their solution with the use of the Greedy algorithm.
o Travelling Salesman Problem
o Prim's Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithm
o Kruskal's Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithm
o Dijkstra's Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithm
o Graph - Map Coloring
o Graph - Vertex Cover
o Knapsack Problem
o Job Scheduling Problem
17) How to count leaf nodes of the binary tree?
Algorithm-
Steps for counting the number of leaf nodes are:
o If the node is null (contains null values) then return 0.
o If encountered leaf node. Left is null and node Right is null then return 1.
o Recursively calculate the number of leaf nodes using
No. of leaf nodes= no of leaf nodes in left subtree + number of leaf nodes in the right subtree.

18) How to find all possible words in a board of characters (Boggle game)?
In the given dictionary, a process to do a lookup in the dictionary and an M x N board where every cell has a
single character. Identify all possible words that can be formed by order of adjacent characters. Consider that we
can move to any of the available 8 adjacent characters, but a word should not have multiple instances of the
same cell.
23) What Are The Criteria Of Algorithm Analysis?
An algorithm is generally analyzed by two factors.
o Time complexity
o Space complexity
Time complexity deals with the quantification of the amount of time taken by a set of code or algorithm to
process or run as a function of the amount of input. In other words, the time complexity is efficiency or how
long a program function takes to process a given input.
Space complexity is the amount of memory used by the algorithm to execute and produce the result.
24) What are the differences between stack and Queue?
Stack and Queue both are non-primitive data structure used for storing data elements and are based on some
real-world equivalent.
Let's have a look at key differences based on the following parameters.
Working principle
The significant difference between stack and queue is that stack uses LIFO (Last in First Out) method to access
and add data elements whereas Queue uses FIFO (First in first out) method to obtain data member.
Structure
In Stack, the same end is used to store and delete elements, but in Queue, one end is used for insertion, i.e., rear
end and another end is used for deletion of elements.
Number of pointers used
Stack uses one pointer whereas Queue uses two pointers (in the simple case).
Operations performed
Stack operates as Push and pop while Queue operates as Enqueue and dequeuer.
Variants
Stack does not have variants while Queue has variants like a circular queue, Priority queue, doubly ended
Queue.
Implementation
The stack is simpler while Queue is comparatively complex.

3.Data Structure
1. What is a Data Structure?
The Data Structure is the way data is organized (stored) and manipulated for retrieval and access
2. Describe the types of Data Structures?
1. Lists: A collection of related things linked to the previous or/and following data items.
2. Arrays: A collection of values that are all the same.
3. Records: A collection of fields, each of which contains data from a single data type.
4. Trees: A data structure that organizes data in a hierarchical framework.
5. Tables: The data is saved in the form of rows and columns.
4. What are some applications of Data Structures?
Numerical analysis, operating system, AI, compiler design, database management, graphics, statistical analysis,
and simulation.
5. What is the difference between file structure and storage structure?
The difference lies in the memory area accessed. Storage structure refers to the data structure in the memory of
the computer system, whereas file structure represents the storage structure in the auxiliary memory.
6. What is a multidimensional array?
A multidimensional array is a multidimensional array with more than one dimension.
7. How are the elements of a 2D array stored in the memory?
1. Row-Major Order: -In row-major ordering, all of the rows of a 2D array are stored in memory in a
contiguous manner.
1. Column-Major Order: In column-major ordering, all of the columns of a 2D array are stored in memory
in the same order.
8. What is a linked list Data Structure?
A linked list is a dynamic data structure, where the number of nodes is not fixed, and the list has the ability to
grow and shrink on demand.
18. What are the operations that can be performed on a stack?
A stack is a linear data structure that operates on the same concept, in that components in a stack are added and
deleted only from one end, referred to as the TOP. As a result, a stack is known as a LIFO (Last-In-First-Out)
data structure because the piece that was put last is the first to be removed.
A stack may perform three fundamental operations:
1. PUSH: The push action inserts a new element into the stack.
2. POP: The pop operation is performed to remove the stack's topmost element.
3. PEEK: A peek action returns the value of the stack's topmost element without removing it
19. What is a postfix expression?
A postfix expression is made up of operators and operands, with the operator coming after the operands. That is,
in a postfix expression, the operator comes after the operands.
25. Where can stack Data Structure be used?
 Expression evaluation
 Backtracking
 Memory management
 Function calling and return
26. What is the difference between a PUSH and a POP?
 PUSH is used to add an item to a stack, while POP is used to remove an item.
 PUSH takes two arguments, the name of the stack to add the data to and the value of the entry to be
added. POP only needs the name of the stack.
 When the stack is filled and another PUSH command is issued, you get a stack overflow error, which
means that the stack can no longer accommodate the last PUSH. In POP, a stack underflow error occurs
when you’re trying to POP an already empty stack.
27. Which sorting algorithm is considered the fastest? Why?
A single sorting algorithm can’t be considered best, as each algorithm is designed for a particular data structure
and data set. However, the QuickSort algorithm is generally considered the fastest because it has the best
performance for most inputs.
28. What is the merge sort? How does it work?
Merge sort is a divide-and-conquer algorithm for sorting the data. It works by merging and sorting adjacent data
to create bigger sorted lists, which are then merged recursively to form even bigger sorted lists until you have
one single sorted list.
44. Explain the jagged array.
It is an array whose elements themselves are arrays and may be of different dimensions and sizes.
34) Define the tree data structure.
The Tree is a recursive data structure containing the set of one or more data nodes where one node is designated
as the root of the tree while the remaining nodes are called as the children of the root. The nodes other than the
root node are partitioned into the nonempty sets where each one of them is to be called sub-tree.
35) List the types of tree.
There are six types of tree given as follows.
o General Tree
o Forests
o Binary Tree
o Binary Search Tree
o Expression Tree
o Tournament Tree
40) Which data structure suits the most in the tree construction?
Queue data structure
48) Differentiate among cycle, path, and circuit?
o Path: A Path is the sequence of adjacent vertices connected by the edges with no restrictions.
o Cycle: A Cycle can be defined as the closed path where the initial vertex is identical to the end vertex.
 o Circuit: A Circuit can be defined as the closed path where the initial vertex is identical to the end
vertex. Any vertex may be repeated.
49) Mention the data structures which are used in graph implementation.
o In sequential representation, Adjacency matrix is used.
o In Linked representation, Adjacency list is used.
50) Which data structures are used in BFS and DFS algorithm?
o In BFS algorithm, Queue data structure is used.
o In DFS algorithm, Stack data structure is used.
53) What are the advantages of Selection Sort?
o It is simple and easy to implement.
o It can be used for small data sets.
o It is 60 per cent more efficient than bubble sort.
55) List Some Applications of Multilinked Structures?
o Sparse matrix,
o Index generation.
56) What is the difference between NULL and VOID?
o Null is actually a value, whereas Void is a data type identifier.
o A null variable simply indicates an empty value, whereas void is used to identify pointers as having no
initial size.

4.Object Oriented Programming

1) What is OOPS?
OOPS is abbreviated as Object Oriented Programming system in which programs are considered as a collection
of objects. Each object is nothing but an instance of a class.
2) Write basic concepts of OOPS?
Following are the concepts of OOPS:
1. Abstraction
2. Encapsulation
3. Inheritance
4. Polymorphism
3) What is a class?
A class is simply a representation of a type of object. It is the blueprint/plan/template that describes the details
of an object.
4) What is an Object?
An object is an instance of a class. It has its own state, behavior, and identity.
5) What is Encapsulation?
Encapsulation is an attribute of an object, and it contains all data which is hidden.
6) What is Polymorphism?
Polymorphism is nothing but assigning behavior or value in a subclass to something that was already declared
in the main class.
7) What is Inheritance?
Inheritance is a concept where one class shares the structure and behavior defined in another class.
8) What are manipulators?
Manipulators are the functions which can be used in conjunction with the insertion (<<) and extraction (>>)
operators on an object.
9) Explain the term constructor
A constructor is a method used to initialize the state of an object, and it gets invoked at the time of object
creation. Rules for constructor are:
 Constructor Name should be the same as a class name.
 A constructor must have no return type.
10) Define Destructor?
A destructor is a method which is automatically called when the object is made of scope or destroyed.
14) What is function overloading?
Function overloading is a regular function, but it is assigned with multiple parameters. It allows the creation of
several methods with the same name which differ from each other by the type of input and output of the
function.
15) What is operator overloading?
Operator overloading is a function where different operators are applied and depends on the arguments.
Operator,-,* can be used to pass through the function, and it has its own precedence to execute
16) What is an abstract class?
An abstract class is a class which cannot be instantiated. Creation of an object is not possible with an abstract
class, but it can be inherited. An abstract class can contain only an Abstract method.
19) What are the different types of arguments?
A parameter is a variable used during the declaration of the function or subroutine, and arguments are passed to
the function body, and it should match with the parameter defined. There are two types of Arguments.
 Call by Value – Value passed will get modified only inside the function, and it returns the same value
whatever it is passed into the function.
 Call by Reference – Value passed will get modified in both inside and outside the functions and it
returns the same or different value.
21) What is method overriding?
Method overriding is a feature that allows a subclass to provide the implementation of a method that overrides
in the main class.
22) What is an interface?
An interface is a collection of an abstract method. If the class implements an interface, it thereby inherits all the
abstract methods of an interface.
23) What is exception handling?
An exception is an event that occurs during the execution of a program. Exceptions can be of any type –
Runtime exception, Error exceptions
24) What are tokens?
A compiler recognizes a token, and it cannot be broken down into component elements.
25) What is the main difference between overloading and overriding?
Overloading is static Binding, whereas Overriding is dynamic Binding. Overloading is nothing but the same
method with different arguments, and it may or may not return the equal value in the same class itself.
Overriding is the same method names with the same arguments and return types associated with the class and its
child class.
26) What is the main difference between a class and an object?
An object is an instance of a class. Objects hold multiple information, but classes don’t have any information.
Definition of properties and functions can be done in class and can be used by the object.
A class can have sub-classes, while an object doesn’t have sub-objects.
27) What is an abstraction?
Abstraction is a useful feature of OOPS, and it shows only the necessary details to the client of an object.
Meaning, it shows only required details for an object, not the inner constructors, of an object.
28) What are the access modifiers?
Access modifiers determine the scope of the method or variables that can be accessed from other various
objects or classes. There are five types of access modifiers, and they are as follows:
 Private
 Protected
 Public
 Friend
 Protected Friend
31) What is the difference between new and override?
The new modifier instructs the compiler to use the new implementation instead of the base class function.
Whereas, Override modifier helps to override the base class function
32) What are the various types of constructors?
There are three types of constructors:
– Default Constructor – With no parameters.
– Parametric Constructor – With Parameters. Create a new instance of a class and also passing arguments
simultaneously.
– Copy Constructor – Which creates a new object as a copy of an existing object.
34) What is ‘this’ pointer?
THIS pointer refers to the current object of a class. THIS keyword is used as a pointer which differentiates
between the current object with the global object. It refers to the current object.
35) What is the difference between structure and a class?
The default access type of a Structure is public, but class access type is private. A structure is used for grouping
data, whereas a class can be used for grouping data and methods. Structures are exclusively used for data, and it
doesn’t require strict validation, but classes are used to encapsulate and inherent data, which requires strict
validation.
36) What is the default access modifier in a class?
The default access modifier of a class is Internal and the default access modifier of a class member is Private.
38) What are all the operators that cannot be overloaded?
Following are the operators that cannot be overloaded -.
1. Scope Resolution (::)
2. Member Selection (.)
3. Member selection through a pointer to function (.*)
39) What is dynamic or run time polymorphism?
Dynamic or Run time polymorphism is also known as method overriding in which call to an overridden
function is resolved during run time, not at the compile time. It means having two or more methods with the
same name, same signature but with different implementation.
40) Do we require a parameter for constructors?
No, we do not require a parameter for constructors.
41) What is a copy constructor?
This is a special constructor for creating a new object as a copy of an existing object.
42) What does the keyword virtual represented in the method definition?
It means we can override the method.
43) Whether static method can use non static members?
False.
44) What are a base class, subclass, and superclass?
The base class is the most generalized class, and it is said to be a root class.
A Subclass is a class that inherits from one or more base classes.
The superclass is the parent class from which another class inherits.
45) What is static and dynamic Binding?
Binding is nothing but the association of a name with the class. Static Binding is a binding in which name can
be associated with the class during compilation time, and it is also called as early Binding.
Dynamic Binding is a binding in which name can be associated with the class during execution time, and it is
also called as Late Binding.
46) How many instances can be created for an abstract class?
Zero instances will be created for an abstract class. you cannot create an instance of an Abstract Class.
47) Which keyword can be used for overloading?
Operator keyword is used for overloading.
48) What is the default access specifier in a class definition?
Private access specifier is used in a class definition.
49) Which OOPS concept is used as a reuse mechanism?
Inheritance is the OOPS concept that can be used as a reuse mechanism.
50) Which OOPS concept exposes only the necessary information to the calling functions?
Encapsulation
Question 29. What Is Sealed Modifiers?
Sealed modifiers are the access modifiers where it cannot be inherited by the methods. Sealed modifiers can
also be applied to properties, events and methods. This modifier cannot be applied to static members.
Question 30. How Can We Call The Base Method Without Creating An Instance?
Yes, it is possible to call the base method without creating an instance. And that method should be,.Static
method.Doing inheritance from that class.-Use Base Keyword from derived class.
Question 33. What Is Early And Late Binding?
Early binding refers to assignment of values to variables during design time whereas late binding refers to
assignment of values to variables during run time.
Question 36. What Is The Default Access Modifier In A Class?
The default access modifier of a class is Private by default.
Question 40. Do We Require Parameter For Constructors?
No, we do not require parameter for constructors.
Question 45. How Many Instances Can Be Created For An Abstract Class?
Zero instances will be created for an abstract class.
Question 46. Which Keyword Can Be Used For Overloading?
Operator keyword is used for overloading.
Question 47. What Is The Default Access Specifier In A Class Definition?
Private access specifier is used in a class definition.
Question 48. Which Oops Concept Is Used As Reuse Mechanism?
Inheritance is the OOPS concept that can be used as reuse mechanism.
Question 49. Which Oops Concept Exposes Only Necessary Information To The Calling Functions?
Data Hiding / Abstraction
2. Difference between Procedural programming and OOPs?

Procedural Programming OOPs

Object-oriented language is based on real-world

Procedural programming is based on functions
objects

Procedural language exposes the data to the

Object-oriented language encapsulates the data
entire program.

The procedural language provides less scope of The object-oriented language provides more
code reuse scope of code reuse

7. What is inheritance and its types?

A subclass can inherit the behaviors and states of its superclass are known as inheritance. There are various
types of inheritance:
 Hybrid Inheritance
 Multiple Inheritance
 Single Inheritance
 Multi-level Inheritance
 Hierarchical Inheritance
8. What is an object, method and class?
Object: An object is an instance of a class. It has its own identity and behaviour.
 Class: Class is a user-defined data type that contains variables, properties and methods. It determines
the properties of an object.
 Method: It is a set of instructions also called a procedure that is to be performed on the given data.
1. What is the difference between OOP and SOP?
Object-Oriented Programming Structural Programming
Bottom-up approach Top-down approach
Provides data hiding Does not provide data hiding
Can solve problems of any complexity Can solve moderate problems
3. Why use OOPs?
 OOPs allows clarity in programming thereby allowing simplicity in solving complex problems
 Code can be reused through inheritance thereby reducing redundancy
 Data and code are bound together by encapsulation
 OOPs allows data hiding, therefore, private data is kept confidential
 Problems can be divided into different parts making it simple to solve
9. What is the difference between a class and an object?
Object Class
An object is a physical entity A class is a logical entity
Objects take memory space when they are created A class does not take memory space when created
Objects can be declared as and when required Classes are declared just once
13. What is hybrid inheritance?
Hybrid inheritance is a combination of multiple and multi-level inheritance.
14. What is hierarchical inheritance?
Hierarchical inheritance refers to inheritance where one base class has more than one subclasses.
15. What are the limitations of inheritance?
 Increases the time and effort required to execute a program as it requires jumping back and forth
between different classes
 The parent class and the child class get tightly coupled
 Any modifications to the program would require changes both in the parent as well as the child class
 Needs careful implementation else would lead to incorrect results
19. What is static polymorphism?
Static polymorphism (static binding) is a kind of polymorphism that occurs at compile time.
20. What is dynamic polymorphism?
Runtime polymorphism or dynamic polymorphism (dynamic binding) is a type of polymorphism which is
resolved during runtime
24. Differentiate between overloading and overriding.
Overloading Overriding
Two or more methods having the same name but Child class redefining methods present in the base
different parameters or signature class with the same parameters/ signature
Resolved during compile-time Resolved during runtime
31. Can you create an instance of an abstract class?
No. Instances of an abstract class cannot be created because it does not have a complete implementation.
However, instances of subclass inheriting the abstract class can be created.
38. Types of constructors
Types of constructors differ from language to language. However, all the possible constructors are:
 Default constructor
 Parameterized constructor
 Copy constructor
 Static constructor
 Private constructor.
41. What is Garbage Collection(GC)?
GC is an implementation of automatic memory management. The Garbage collector frees up space occupied by
objects that are no longer in existence.

42. Differentiate between a class and a method.

Class Method
A class is basically a template that binds the code and
Callable set of instructions also called a procedure or
data together into a single unit. Classes consist of
function that are to be performed on the given data
methods, variables, etc
47. What is the difference between an error and an exception?
Error Exception
Errors are problems that should not be encountered by
Conditions that an application might try to catch
applications
48. What is a try/ catch block?
A try/ catch block is used to handle exceptions. The try block defines a set of statements that may lead to an
error. The catch block basically catches the exception.

5.Digital Logic Design

Question 6. What Is Difference Between Latch And Flipflop?

The main difference between latch and FF is that latches are level sensitive while FF are edge sensitive. They
both require the use of clock signal and are used in sequential logic.
Question 7. Difference Between Heap And Stack?
The Stack is more or less responsible for keeping track of what’s executing in our code. The Heap is more or
less responsible for keeping track of our objects.
Question 12. Tell Some Of Applications Of Buffer?
They are used to introduce small delays
o They are used to eliminate cross talk caused due to inter electrode capacitance due to close
routing.
Question 15. What Is A Multiplexer?
A multiplexer is a combinational circuit which selects one of many input signals and directs to the only output.
Question 16. What Is A Ring Counter?
A ring counter is a type of counter composed of a circular shift register.
Question 18. What Is A Johnson Counter?
Johnson counter connects the complement of the output of the last shift register to its input and circulates a
stream of ones followed by zeros around the ring.
Question 19. What Are The Differences Between A Flip-flop And A Latch?
o Flip-flops are edge-sensitive devices where as latches are level sensitive devices.
o Flip-flops are immune to glitches where are latches are sensitive to glitches.
o Latches require less number of gates (and hence less power) than flip-flops.
o Latches are faster than flip-flops.
1) What are the two important types of components in digital electronics?
Digital electronics are made of different components that carry out distinct functions. Usually, such components
are divided into two types: active components and passive components.
2) What is an active component?
An active component is an electronic component that possesses an analogue electronic filter that can produce a
power gain or amplify a signal.
3) What are the examples of active components?
The most common examples of active components are transistors, diodes, batteries, etc.
4) What is a passive component?
A passive component is a component that only has the ability to receive energy.
5) What are the examples of passive components?
The most common examples of passive components are resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc.
6) What is a diode?
Diodes are used for permitting the current flow in a particular direction. They are made using semiconductor
substances. The main five types of diodes are Zener Diode, Small Signal Diode, Light Emitting Diode, Small
Signal Diode.
7) What is a transistor?
A transistor is a semiconductor device that is used to amplify signals, and it also functions as a switching
device. Transistors usually have three terminals.
8) What are the three main parts of a transistor?
Emitter, base and collector are the three main parts of a transistor.
9) What is a capacitor?
A capacitor is used to store electrical energy and charge. It is composed of two conducting plates. An insulator
is placed between these plates.
10) What are the main parts of a capacitor?
A capacitor comprises two conductors divided by a non-conductive area. The non-conductive area can either be
an electrical insulator or a vacuum known as a dielectric.
11) What is an inductor?
An inductor is a passive electronic component with two terminals. It is mainly made of a coiled insulated wire.
An inductor is typically used to store energy in a magnetic field when current travels through it. The variation in
the current is resisted with the use of an inductor.
12) What are logic gates?
Logic gates are the fundamental digital circuits. They are used to represent different digital signals using binary
codes. NOT, AND, and OR gates are the basic logic gates. NAND, NOR, EX-OR and EX-NOR are derived
from the basic gets mentioned above.
13) Explain NOT, AND and AND gates?
A NOT gate carries out logical negation on the given signal. If the input signal is false, then the output signal
will be true.
An AND gate carries out logical conjunction. It gives a low output when low input is processed through the
AND gate, and it gives a high output when high input is applied.
OR gate performs logical disjunction. When one of the two input signals are high, the output signal will also be
high. If both input signals are not high, it results in a low output signal.
14) What is meant by a universal gate?
A universal gate is a logic gate that can perform any Boolean function without the need for any other type of
gate.
15) What are the two universal gates?
NOR and NAND are the two universal gates.
16) What is a battery?
A battery is a device used for supplying energy to electric circuits. By using the electrochemical oxidation-
reduction (redox) process, batteries convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
17) What is a switch?
A switch is an electronic device that connects or disconnects the conducting path in an electronic circuit. It
diverts or interrupts electric current from one conducting path to another.
18) What is a resistor?
A resistor is an electronic component that performs electrical resistance in a circuit. Resistors are used to control
current flow, divide voltages, adjust signal levels, terminate transmission lines, etc. Most of the resistors work
on the principles of Ohm’s law.
19) What are the main advantages of digital systems over analogue systems?
The main advantages of digital systems over analogue systems are:
 The data transmission in digital systems occurs without signal degradation due to noise. Digital systems
possess noise immunity, which enables efficient data processing. On the other hand, analogue systems
are susceptible to wear and tear, which deteriorates the stored information.
  Most digital systems have computer interfaces that allow for much easier control of the signals and
information. Updating the system software will enable us to resolve any bugs in the data or signal. Such
features are not present in the analogue systems.
20) What are the main disadvantages of digital systems?
 The energy consumption of digital systems is larger compared to analogue systems. This energy is used
to process signals and calculations.
 Digital communication systems require larger bandwidth than analogue systems. Digital systems are
expensive in terms of components and maintenance.
 Digital systems are vulnerable to errors if there is even slight misinterpretation in input data.
21) List a few practical uses of digital electronic components.
Digital circuits or Digital electronics are the most important parts of modern electronic devices. Here are some
of the familiar devices that use digital circuits:
Computers Digital Clocks Solid State Drives

Smart Televisions Digital Cameras Digital Stop Watches

ATMs Robots Drones and Guided Missiles

Smartphones Digital Thermometers Auto Piloted Vehicles

22) What is the use of resistors in digital electronics?
Resistors are used to control the current flow in digital electronics.
23) What is the use of logic gates in digital circuits?
Logic gates are used to store and process data. A storage network can be made by joining multiple gates in a
latch circuit.
24) What are the three fundamental Boolean operators?
Boolean operators are the basis of database logic and mathematical sets.
The three fundamental boolean operators are: OR, NOT and AND.
25) What is a binary number system?
The binary number system uses only digits 0 and 1 to represent numbers or data. As there are only two digits,
this is known as the “base-2 number system”.
26) _____ are stated as the basic building blocks of the digital electronics system.
Answer: Logic gates
Explanation: Logic gates are stated as the basic building blocks of the digital electronics system.
27) What is digital electronics?
Digital electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with the study of digital signals and devices that produce
or use them.
28) Who showed that concepts of logic and arithmetic could be joined?
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved the binary system and showed that concepts of logic and arithmetic could
be joined by applying the binary system.
2) What is the binary number system?
The system which has a base 2 is known as the binary system and it consists of only two digits 0 and 1.
3) State the De Morgan's Theorem?
De Morgan's Theorem stated two theorems:
1.The complement of a product of two numbers is the sum of the complements of those numbers.
(A. B)' = A' + B'
Truth Table:
2. The complement of the sum of two numbers is equal to the product of the complement of two numbers.
(A + B)' = A'B'
Truth Table:

4) Define Digital System?

Digital systems are the system that processes a discrete or digital signal.
5) What is meant by a bit?
Bits are the binary digits like 0 and 1.
6) What is the best Example of Digital system?
Digital Computer.
7) How many types of number system are there?
There are four types of number system:
1. Decimal Number System.
2. Binary Number System.
3. Octal Number System.
4. Hexadecimal Number System.
8) What is a Logic gate?
The basic gates that make up the digital system are called a logic gate. The circuit that can operate on many
binary inputs to perform a particular logic function is called an electronic circuit.
9) What are the basic Logic gates?
There are three basic logic gates-
1. AND gate.
2. OR gate.
3. NOT gate.
10) Which gates are called as Universal gate and what are its advantages?
The Universal gates are NAND and NOR. The advantages of these gates are that they can be used for any logic
calculation.
11) What are the applications of the octal number system?
The applications of the octal number system are as follows:
1. For the efficient use of microprocessors.
2. For the efficient use of digital circuits.
3. It is used to enter binary data and display of information.
12) What are the fundamental properties of Boolean algebra?
The basic properties of Boolean algebra are:
1. Commutative Property.
2. Associative Property.
3. Distributive Property.
14) What is meant by K-Map or Karnaugh Map?
K-Map is a pictorial representation of truth table in which the map is made up of cells, and each term in this
represents the min term or max term of the function. By this method, we can directly minimize the Boolean
function without following various steps.
15) Name the two forms of Boolean expression?
The two forms of Boolean expression are:
1. Sum of products (SOP) form.
2. The Product of sum (POS) form.
16) What are Minterm and Maxterm?
A minterm is called Product of sum because they are the logical AND of the set of variables and Maxterm are
called sum of product because they are the logical OR of the set of variables.
17) Write down the Characteristics of Digital ICs?
The characteristics of digital ICs are -
1. Propagation delay.
2. Power Dissipation.
3. Fan-in.
4. Fan-out.
5. Noise Margin.
18) What are the limitations of the Karnaugh Map?
The limitations of Karnaugh Map are as follows:
1. It is limited to six variable maps which means more than six variable involving expressions are not
reduced.
2. These are useful for only simplifying Boolean expression which is represented I standard form.
19) What are the advantages and disadvantages of the K-Map Method?
The advantages of the K-Map method are as follows-
1. It is an excellent method for simplifying expression up to four variables.
2. For the logical simplification, it gives us a visual method.
3. It is suitable for both SOP and POS forms of reduction.
4. It is more suitable for classroom teachings on logic simplification.
The disadvantages of the K-Map method are as follows:
1. It is not suitable when the number of variables exceeds more than four.
2. For Computer reduction, it is not suitable.
3. We have to take while entering the numbers in the cell-like 0, 1 and don't care terms.
24) What is Half-Adder?
Half-adder is the circuits that perform the addition of two bits. It has two inputs A and B and two outputs S
(sum) and C (carry). It is represented by XOR logic gate and an AND logic gate.
25) What is Full-Adder?
Full-adder is the circuits that perform the addition of three bits. It has three inputs A, B and a carry bit. Full
adders are represented with AND, OR and XOR logic gate.
26) What is power dissipation?
Period time is the electrical energy used by the logic circuits. It is expressed in milliwatts or nanowatts.
Power dissipation = Supply voltage * mean current taken from the supply.
27) What is a Multiplexer?
The multiplexer is a digital switch which combines all the digital information from several sources and gives
one output.
28) What are the applications of Multiplexer (MUX)?
The applications of the multiplexer are as follows:
1. It is used as a data selector from many inputs to get one output.
2. It is used as A/D to D/A Converter.
3. These are used in the data acquisition system.
4. These are used in time multiplexing system.
29) What is a Demultiplexer?
The demultiplexer is a circuit that receives the input on a single line and transmits this onto 2n possible output
line. A Demultiplexer of 2n outputs has n select lines, which are used to select which output line is to be sent to
the input. The demultiplexer is also called as Data Distributor.

30) What are the applications of Demultiplexer?

The applications of the demultiplexer are as follows:
1. It is used in the data transmission system with error detection.
2. It is used as a decoder for the conversion of binary to decimal.
3. It is used as a serial to parallel converter.
35) Define Hold time?
The minimum time at which the voltage level becomes constant after triggering the clock pulse in order to
reliably clock into the flip flop is called the Hold time. It is denoted by thold.
36) What is the difference between Synchronous and Asynchronous Counters?
The difference between Synchronous and Asynchronous Counters are as follows:
S.N Asynchronous Counters Synchronous Counters
o

1. These are low-speed Counters. These are high-speed Counters.

2. The Flip flops of these counters are not clocked In these counters, the flip-flops are clocked
 simultaneously. simultaneously.

3. Simple logic circuits are there for more number Complex logic circuits are there when the number of
of states. states increases.

37) What are the applications of Flip-Flops?

The applications of flip-flops are:
1. Flip-flops are used as the delay element.
2. These are used for Data transfer.
3. Flip-flops are used in Frequency Division and Counting.
4. Flip-Flops are used as the memory element.
38) What is the difference between D-latch and D Flip-flop?
D-latch is level sensitive whereas flip-flop is edge sensitive. Flip-flops are made up of latches.
39) What are the applications of Buffer?
Applications of buffer are as follows:
1. Buffer helps to introduce small delays.
2. Buffer helps for high Fan-out.
3. Buffer are used to eliminate cross talks.
1. Define CAM?
CAM is known as content available memories. It can carry out association operation in adding to the read
operations performed by the conformist memories.
2. Tell me the two forms of Boolean expressions?
The two forms are:
 The product of sum form
 Sum of products form
3. What do you mean by Maxterm and Minterm?
A Minterm is known as Product of sum because they are the rational AND of the place of variables and
Maxterm is known as the sum of product because they are the rational OR of the place of variables.
4. What are the characteristics of Digital ICs?
The characteristics of digital ICs are:
 Fan-in
 Fan out
 Propagation delay
 Power Dissipation
 Noise Margin
6. What is Digital system?
Digital system is the system that processes a digital signal.
9. Define edge triggered flip flop?
The difficulty of a contest around the state can be solved by using an edge-triggered flip-flop. The edge-
triggered flip-flop will alter its state either at the optimistic edge or unenthusiastic edge of the timepiece pulse.
The edge-triggered flip-flop is responsive to its inputs only at this business of a flip-flop.
13. State the difference between D- latch and D- flip – flop?
D-latch is level responsive, whereas flip-flop is edge responsive. Flip-flops are completed up of latches.
17. Name the applications of Buffer?
Some of them are:
 Buffer helps for high fan-out
 Buffer helps to introduce small delays
 Buffer is used to eliminating cross talks
18. What are the applications of demultiplexer?
The applications of demultiplexer:
 It is utilised as a serial to parallel converter
  It is used as a decorator for the conversion of binary to decimal
 It is utilised in the data transmission system with error detection
19. Define Full- Adder?
Full-adder is the circuits that carry out the adding up of three bits. It has three inputs A, B and a hold bit. Full
adders are represented with AND, OR and XOR reason gate.
22. What are the logic gates & types?
These are the fundamental building blocks of a digital system. It is an electronic circuit having one or more than
one input and only one output. There are three basic logic gates:
1. AND gate.
2. OR gate.
3. NOT gate.
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6.Database Management System

https://testbook.com/objective-questions/bn/mcq-on-dbms--5eea6a1639140f30f369f554

1) What do you understand by ‘Database’?

Answer: Database is an organized collection of related data where the data is stored and organized to serve
some specific purpose.
Q #2) Define DBMS.
Answer: DBMS stands for Database Management System. It is a collection of application programs which
allow the user to organize, restore and retrieve information about data efficiently and as effectively as possible.
Q #3) Define RDBMS.
Answer: Relational Database Management System(RDBMS) is based on a relational model of data that is
stored in databases in separate tables and they are related to the use of a common column. Data can be accessed
easily from the relational database using Structured Query Language (SQL).
Q #4) Enlist the advantages of DBMS.
Answer: The advantages of DBMS includes:
 Data is stored in a structured way and hence redundancy is controlled.
 Validates the data entered and provide restrictions on unauthorized access to the database.
 Provides backup and recovery of the data when required.
 It provides multiple user interfaces.
Q #5) What do you understand by Data Redundancy?
Answer: Duplication of data in the database is known as data redundancy.
Q #6) What are the various types of relationships in Database? Define them.
Answer: There are 3 types of relationships in Database:
 One-to-one: One table has a relationship with another table having the similar kind of column. Each
primary key relates to only one or no record in the related table.
 One-to-many: One table has a relationship with another table that has primary and foreign key
relations. The primary key table contains only one record that relates to none, one or many records in the
related table.
 Many-to-many: Each record in both the tables can relate to many numbers of records in another table.
Q #7) Explain Normalization and De-Normalization.
Normalization is the process of removing redundant data from the database by splitting the table in a well-
defined manner in order to maintain data integrity. This process saves much of the storage space.
De-normalization is the process of adding up redundant data on the table in order to speed up the complex
queries and thus achieve better performance.
Q #8) What are the different types of Normalization?
Answer: Different types of Normalization are:
  First Normal Form (1NF): A relation is said to be in 1NF only when all the entities of the table contain
unique or atomic values.
 Second Normal Form (2NF): A relation is said to be in 2NF only if it is in 1NF and all the non-key
attribute of the table is fully dependent on the primary key.
 Third Normal Form (3NF): A relation is said to be in 3NF only if it is in 2NF and every non-key
attribute of the table is not transitively dependent on the primary key.
Q #9) What is BCNF?
Answer: BCNF is the Boyce Code Normal form. It is the higher version of 3Nf which does not have any
multiple overlapping candidate keys.
Q #10) What is SQL?
Answer: Structured Query language, SQL is an ANSI(American National Standard Institute) standard
programming language that is designed specifically for storing and managing the data in the relational database
management system (RDBMS) using all kinds of data operations.
Q #11) How many SQL statements are used? Define them.
Answer: SQL statements are basically divided into three categories, DDL, DML, and DCL.
They can be defined as:
 Data Definition Language (DDL) commands are used to define the structure that holds the data. These
commands are auto-committed i.e. changes done by the DDL commands on the database are saved
permanently.
 Data Manipulation Language (DML) commands are used to manipulate the data of the database.
These commands are not auto-committed and can be rolled back.
 Data Control Language (DCL) commands are used to control the visibility of the data in the database
like revoke access permission for using data in the database.
Q #12) Enlist some commands of DDL, DML, and DCL.
Answer: Data Definition Language (DDL) commands:
 CREATE to create a new table or database.
 ALTER for alteration.
 TRUNCATE to delete data from the table.
 DROP to drop a table.
 RENAME to rename a table.
Data Manipulation Language (DML) commands:
 INSERT to insert a new row.
 UPDATE to update an existing row.
 DELETE to delete a row.
 MERGE for merging two rows or two tables.
Data Control Language (DCL) commands:
 COMMIT to permanently save.
 ROLLBACK to undo the change.
 SAVEPOINT to save temporarily.
Q #15) Enlist the advantages of SQL.
Answer: Advantages of SQL are:
 Simple SQL queries can be used to retrieve a large amount of data from the database very quickly and
efficiently.
 SQL is easy to learn and almost every DBMS supports SQL.
 It is easier to manage the database using SQL as no large amount of coding is required.
Q #16) Explain the terms ‘Record’, ‘Field’ and ‘Table’ in terms of database.
Answer:
Record: Record is a collection of values or fields of a specific entity. For Example, An employee, Salary
account, etc.
Field: A field refers to an area within a record that is reserved for specific data. For Example, Employee ID.
Table: Table is the collection of records of specific types. For Example, the Employee table is a collection of
records related to all the employees.
Q #17) What do you understand by Data Independence? What are its two types?
Answer: Data Independence refers to the ability to modify the schema definition in one level in such a way that
it does not affect the schema definition in the next higher level.
The 2 types of Data Independence are:
 Physical Data Independence: It modifies the schema at the physical level without affecting the schema
at the conceptual level.
 Logical Data Independence: It modifies the schema at the conceptual level without affecting or
causing changes in the schema at the view level.
Q #18) Define the relationship between ‘View’ and ‘Data Independence’.
Answer: View is a virtual table that does not have its data on its own rather the data is defined from one or
more underlying base tables.
Views account for logical data independence as the growth and restructuring of base tables are not reflected in
views.
Q #19) What are the advantages and disadvantages of views in the database?
Answer: Advantages of Views:
 As there is no physical location where the data in the view is stored, it generates output without wasting
resources.
 Data access is restricted as it does not allow commands like insertion, updation, and deletion.
Disadvantages of Views:
 The view becomes irrelevant if we drop a table related to that view.
 Much memory space is occupied when the view is created for large tables.
Q #20) What do you understand by Functional dependency?
Answer: A relation is said to be in functional dependency when one attribute uniquely defines another attribute.
Q #21) When is functional dependency said to be the fully functional dependent?
Answer: To fulfill the criteria of fully functional dependency, the relation must meet the requirement of
functional dependency.
A functional dependency ‘A’ and ‘B’ are said to be fully functional dependent when removal of any attribute say
‘X’ from ‘A’ means the dependency does not hold anymore.
Q #22) What do you understand by the E-R model?
Answer: E-R model is an Entity-Relationship model which defines the conceptual view of the database.
The E-R model basically shows the real-world entities and their association/relations. Entities here represent the
set of attributes in the database.
Q #23) Define Entity, Entity type, and Entity set.
Entity can be anything, be it a place, class or object which has an independent existence in the real world.
Entity Type represents a set of entities that have similar attributes.
Entity Set in the database represents a collection of entities having a particular entity type.
Q #24) Define a Weak Entity set.
Answer: Weak Entity set is the one whose primary key comprises its partial key as well as the primary key of
its parent entity. This is the case because the entity set may not have sufficient attributes to form a primary key.
Q #25) Explain the terms ‘Attribute’ and ‘Relations’
Attribute is described as the properties or characteristics of an entity. For Example, Employee ID, Employee
Name, Age, etc., can be attributes of the entity Employee.
Relation is a two-dimensional table containing a number of rows and columns where every row represents a
record of the relation. Here, rows are also known as ‘Tuples’ and columns are known as ‘Attributes’.
Q #28) What is the Database transaction?
Answer: Sequence of operation performed which changes the consistent state of the database to another is
known as the database transaction. After the completion of the transaction, either the successful completion is
reflected in the system or the transaction fails and no change is reflected.
Q #30) What is Data Warehousing?
Answer: The storage as well as access to data, that is being derived from the transactions and other sources,
from a central location in order to perform the analysis is called Data Warehousing.
Q #31) What do you understand by Join?
Answer: Join is the process of deriving the relationship between different tables by combining columns from
one or more tables having common values in each. When a table joins with itself, it is known as Self Join.
Q #32) What do you understand by Index hunting?
Answer: Index hunting is the process of boosting the collection of indexes which helps in improving the query
performance as well as the speed of the database.
Q #33) How to improve query performance using Index hunting?
Answer: Index hunting help in improving query performance by:
 Using a query optimizer to coordinate queries with the workload.
 Observing the performance and effect of index and query distribution.
Q #34) Differentiate between ‘Cluster’ and ‘Non-cluster’ index.
Answer: Clustered index alters the table and re-order the way in which the records are stored in the table. Data
retrieval is made faster by using the clustered index.
A Non-clustered index does alter the records that are stored in the table but creates a completely different object
within the table.
Q #35) What are the disadvantages of a Query?
Answer: Disadvantages of a Query are:
 Indexes are not present.
 Stored procedures are excessively compiled.
 Difficulty in interfacing.
Q #36) What do you understand by Fragmentation?
Answer: Fragmentation is a feature that controls the logical data units, also known as fragments that are stored
at different sites of a distributed database system.
Q #37) Define Join types.
a) Inner JOIN: Inner JOIN is also known as a simple JOIN. This SQL query returns results from both the
tables having a common value in rows.
b) Natural JOIN: This is a type of Inner JOIN that returns results from both the tables having the same data
values in the columns of both the tables to be joined.
c) Cross JOIN: Cross JOIN returns the result as all the records where each row from the first table is combined
with each row of the second table.
a) Right JOIN: Right JOIN is also known as Right Outer JOIN. This returns all the rows as a result from the
right table even if the JOIN condition does not match any records in the left table.
b) Left JOIN: Left JOIN is also known as Left Outer JOIN. This returns all the rows as a result of the left table
even if the JOIN condition does not match any records in the right table. This is exactly the opposite of Right
JOIN.
c) Outer/Full JOIN: Full JOIN return results in combining the result of both the Left JOIN and Right JOIN.
Aggregation is the concept of expressing the relationship with the collection of entities and their relationships.
Q #41) What is Database partitioning?
Answer: Database partitioning is the process of partitioning tables, indexes into smaller pieces in order to
manage and access the data at a finer level.
This process of partitioning reduces the cost of storing a large amount of data as well as enhances the
performance and manageability.
Q #42) Explain the importance of Database partitioning.
Answer: The importance of Database partitioning are:
 Improves query performance and manageability.
 Simplifies common administration tasks.
 Acts as a key tool for building systems with extremely high availability requirements.
 Allows accessing a large part of a single partition.
Q #43) Explain the Data Dictionary.
Answer: Data dictionary is a set of information describing the content and structure of the tables and database
objects. The job of the information stored in the data dictionary is to control, manipulate and access the
relationship between database elements.
Q #44) Explain the Primary Key and Composite Key.
Answer: Primary Key is that column of the table whose every row data is uniquely identified. Every row in
the table must have a primary key and no two rows can have the same primary key. Primary key value can never
be null nor can it be modified or updated.
Composite Key is a form of the candidate key where a set of columns will uniquely identify every row in the
table.
Q #45) What do you understand by the Unique key?
Answer: A Unique key is the same as the primary key whose every row data is uniquely identified with a
difference of null value i.e. Unique key allows one value as a NULL value.
Q #46) What do you understand by Database Triggers?
Answer: A set of commands that automatically get executed when an event like Before Insert, After Insert, On
Update, On Delete of row occurs in a table is called as Database trigger.
Q #47) Define Stored procedures.
Answer: A Stored procedure is a collection of pre-compiled SQL Queries, which when executed denotes a
program taking input, process and gives the output.
Q #49) Name the different data models that are available for database systems.
Answer: Different data models are:
 Relational model
 Network model
 Hierarchical model
2. What do you know about a Database Management system?
It is basically a program which is considered when it comes to maintaining, creating, deploying, controlling as
well as monitoring the use of a database.
5. How the Inner Join in SQL is different from that of Outer Join?
An Inner join is the one that is useful for the purpose of returning the rows provided at least two tables are met
critically. On the other hand, the outer join is the one that is useful for returning the value of rows and tables that
generally include the records that must be same in all the tables.
9. In SQL, what do you know about the composite primary key?
The key which is created on multiple columns in a table is generally considered as the Composite primary key.
However, it is not always necessary that all of them have the same meaning.
11. What do you know about Field in a Database?
It is basically a space that is allotted for storing some records that are present within a table. There are actually
different fields and it is not always necessary that all the fields are the same in terms of size and allocation
pattern.
15. Name any two commands that are used for the purpose of managing the data present in the database
Commands that are used for the purpose of managing the data present in the database:-
 Update
 Insert
17. Is it possible for the users to compare the test for the NULL values in SQL?
No, the same is not possible
18. What do you mean by the term SQL?
It stands for Structured Query Language and is a powerful language to communicate the database and monitor
the concerned tasks easily and reliably.
25. What do you know about the NULL value in the SQL?
It is basically a field which doesn’t have any value in SQL. It is totally different from that of a zero value and
must not be put equal or confused with the same. These fields are left blank during the creation of the records.
27. What do you know about the stored procedure?
It is nothing but an array of some important SQL statements that are stored in the database and are responsible
for performing a specific task.
28. Name the SQL procedure which makes sure an immediate action in response to an event?
The same is Trigger
29. In the Boolean Data Field, what are the possible values that users can simply store?
This can be TRUE or FALSE
30. Name the types of Indexes of which are available in SQL
There are three important types of Indexes and they are
 Unique Index
 Clustered Index
 Non-Clustered Index.
33. Difference between SQL & MYSQL?

34. What is SQL Server?

SQL Server is Microsoft’s relational database management system (RDBMS). End-user cannot interact directly
with the database server. If we want to interact with SQL database server then we have to interact with SQL.
35. What are the different types of SQL’s statements?
1. DQL – Data Query Language ( or) Data Retrieval Language
 SELECT Statement
2. DML – Data Manipulation Language
DML is used for manipulation of the data itself.
 INSERT Statement
 UPDATE Statement
 DELETE Statement
3. DDL – Data Definition Language
DDL is used to define the structure that holds the data.
 CREATE Statement
 ALTER Statement
 DROP Statement
 RENAME Statement
 TRUNCATE Statement
4. DCL – Data Control Language
DCL is used to control the visibility of data.
 GRANT Statement
 REVOKE Statement
5. TCL – Transaction Control Language
 COMMIT Statement
 ROLLBACK Statement
 SAVEPOINT Statement
40. What are Important SQL Functions?
LOWER Function: (Column/Expression):
It Converts Alpha Character Values to Lower Case.
The Return Value Has The Same Data Type as Argument CHAR Type (CHAR or VARCHAR2)
UPPER Function:
It Converts the Alpha Character Values to Upper Case.
The Return Value Has The Same Data Type as Argument CHAR.
INITCAP Function:
It Converts Alpha Character Values into Upper Case For The First Letter of Each Word, keeping all Other Letter
in Lower Case.
Words are Delimited by White Space or Characters That are Not Alphanumeric
LPAD Function:
Pads The Character Value Right Justified to a Total Width of ‘n’ Character Positions.
The Default Padding Character in Space.
RPAD Function:
Pads the Character Value Left Justified to a Total Width of ‘n’ Character positions.
The Default Padding Character is Space.
LTRIM Function:
It Enables to TRIM Heading Character From a Character String.
All The Leftmost Character That Appear in The SET are Removed.
RTRIM Function:
It Enables the Trimming of Trailing Character From a Character STRING.
All the Right Most Characters That Appear in The Set are Removed.
TRIM Function:
It Enables to TRIM Heading or Trailing Character or Both From a Character String.
If LEADING is Specified Concentrates On Leading Characters.
If TRAILING is Specified Concentrates on Trailing Characters.
If BOTH OR None is Specified Concentrates Both on LEADING and TRAILING.
Return the VARCHAR2 Type.
Advanced SQL Interview Questions & Answers
48. What is Tuple?
Tuples are the members of a relation. An entity type having attributes can be represented by a set of these
attributes called tuple.
52. What is data independence?
A database system keeps data separate from the software data structure.
53. What is Data Integrity?
Data must satisfy the integrity constraints of the system for data Quality.
54. What is Deadlocking?
It is the situation where two transactions are waiting for other to release a lock on an item.
55. What is Decryption?
Taking encoded text and converting it into text that you are able to read.
56. What is Projection?
The Projection of a relation is defined as a projection of all its tuples over a set of attributes. It yields a vertical
subset of the relation. The projection operation is used to view the number of attributes in the resultant relation
or to reorder attributes.
57. What is Encryption?
Encryption is the coding or scrambling of data so that humans can not read them directly.
82. What is Super Key?
A column or a combination of columns which uniquely identify a record in a table is called a Super Key.
83. What is Candidate Key?
A minimal super key uniquely identifying a record a table is called candidate key
85. What is Discard File?
This file extension is .dsc
Discards file we must specify within control file by using the discard file clause.
Discard file also stores rejected record based on when clause condition within the control file. This condition
must be satisfied into a table table_name clause.
3) What are the various kinds of interactions catered by DBMS?
The various kind of interactions catered by DBMS are:
 Data definition
 Update
 Retrieval
 Administration
4) Segregate database technology’s development.
The development of database technology is divided into:
 Structure or data model
 Navigational model
 SQL/ relational model
5) Who proposed the relational model?
Edgar F. Codd proposed the relational model in 1970.
7) What do database languages do?
As special-purpose languages, they have:
 Data definition language
 Data manipulation language
 Query language
8) Define database model.
A data model determining fundamentally how data can be stored, manipulated and organised and the structure
of the database logically is called database model.
 data which is seldom used.
41) Define Database system.
DBMS along with database is called Database system.
42) What do you mean by Query Evaluation Engine?
Query Evaluation Engine executes the low-level instructions that are generated by the compiler.
43) Define DDL Interpreter.
DDL statements are interpreted and recorded in tables called metadata.
48) What do you mean by Entity type?
A set of entries having similar attributes are entity types.
49) Define Entity Set.
Compilation of all entries of any particular type of entry in the database is called Entity Set.
50) What do you mean by Entity type extension?
Compilation of similar entity types into one particular type which is grouped together as an entity set.

7.Algorithm

1) What is an algorithm? What is the need for an algorithm?

An algorithm is a well-defined computational procedure that takes some values or the set of values, as an input
and produces a set of values or some values, as an output.
Need for Algorithm
The algorithm provides the basic idea of the problem and an approach to solve it. Some reasons to use an
algorithm are as follows.
o The algorithm improves the efficiency of an existing technique.
o To compare the performance of the algorithm with respect to other techniques.
o The algorithm gives a strong description of requirements and goal of the problems to the designer.
o The algorithm provides a reasonable understanding of the flow of the program.
o The algorithm identifies the resources (input/output, memory) cycles required by the algorithm.
o The algorithm also reduces the cost of design.
9) What is Divide and Conquer algorithms?
Divide and Conquer is not an algorithm; it's a pattern for the algorithm. It is designed in a way as to take dispute
on a huge input, break the input into minor pieces, and decide the problem for each of the small pieces. Now
merge all of the piecewise solutions into a global solution. This strategy is called divide and conquer.
Divide and conquer uses the following steps to make a dispute on an algorithm.
Divide: In this section, the algorithm divides the original problem into a set of subproblems.
Conquer: In this section, the algorithm solves every subproblem individually.
Combine: In this section, the algorithm puts together the solutions of the subproblems to get the solution to the
whole problem.
10) Explain the BFS algorithm?
BFS (Breadth First Search) is a graph traversal algorithm. It starts traversing the graph from the root node and
explores all the neighboring nodes.
11) What is Dijkstra's shortest path algorithm?
Dijkstra's algorithm is an algorithm for finding the shortest path from a starting node to the target node in a
weighted graph. The algorithm makes a tree of shortest paths from the starting vertex and source vertex to all
other nodes in the graph.
12) Give some examples of Divide and Conquer algorithm?
Some problems that use Divide and conquer algorithm to find their solution are listed below.
o Merge Sort
o Quick Sort
o Binary Search
o Strassen's Matrix Multiplication
o Closest pair (points)
2) Explain what is Quick Sort algorithm?
Quick Sort algorithm has the ability to sort list or queries quickly. It is based on the principle of partition
exchange sort or Divide and conquer. This type of algorithm occupies less space, and it segregates the list into
three main parts.
 Elements less than the Pivot element
 Pivot element
 Elements greater than the Pivot element
6) Explain whether it is possible to use binary search for linked lists?
Since random access is not acceptable in linked list, it is impossible to reach the middle element of O(1) time.
Thus, binary search is not possible for linked list.
7) Explain what is heap sort?
Heap-sort can be defined as a comparison based sorting algorithm. It divides its input into the unsorted and
sorted region, until it shrinks the unsorted region by eliminating the smallest element and moving that to the
sorted region.
9) Explain what is Space complexity of insertion sort algorithm?
Insertion sort is an in-place sorting algorithm which means that it requires no extra or little. storage. For
insertion sort, it requires only single list elements to be stored out-side the initial data, making the space-
complexity 0(1).
15) Explain what is Radix Sort algorithm?
Radix sort puts the element in order by comparing the digits of the numbers. It is one of the linear sorting
algorithms for integers.
16) Explain what is a recursive algorithm?
Recursive algorithm is a method of solving a complicated problem by breaking a problem down into smaller
and smaller sub-problems until you get the problem small enough that it can be solved easily. Usually, it
involves a function calling itself.
17) Mention what are the three laws of recursion algorithm?
All recursive algorithm must follow three laws
 It should have a base case
 A recursive algorithm must call itself
  A recursive algorithm must change its state and move towards the base case
18) Explain what is bubble sort algorithm?
Bubble sort algorithm is also referred as sinking sort. In this type of sorting, the list to be sorted out compares
the pair of adjacent items. If they are organized in the wrong order, it will swap the values and arrange them in
the correct order.
2. What is Quicksort?
This question is meant to test your ability to apply algorithms at least at a very basic level. A Quicksort
algorithm sorts queries or lists quickly.
Time Complexities:
 Best Case: O(nlogn) This occurs when the pivot element value is close to the middle
 Worst Case: O(n2) This occurs when the pivot element value is either the largest or smallest value
 Average Case: O(nlogn)
3. What is the function of a Pivot element?
There are many ways to pick a pivot element. For arrays, pivots can be the last or first element, chosen from the
middle, or even randomly selected. Depending on the algorithm, the way in which the pivot is selected may
yield better results.
5. Explain the different notations used when it comes to time complexity.
 Big Omega: This signifies “more than or same as” iterations. It is the tight lower-bound of the growth of
the algorithm’s running time. This would be the best case time complexity.
 Big-O: This signifies “fewer than or the same as” iterations. It is the tight upper-bound of the growth of
the algorithm’s running time. This would be the worst case time complexity.
 Big Theta: This signifies “the same as” iterations. It is both a tight upper-bound and tight lower-bound
on the growth of the algorithm’s running time.
 Little-O: This signifies “fewer than” iterations. It is an upper-bound that is not asymptotically tight.
 Little Omega: This signifies “more than” iterations. It is the lower-bound that is not asymptotically tight.

8.Operating System
1) What is an operating system?
The operating system is a software program that facilitates computer hardware to communicate and operate
with the computer software.
2) What is the main purpose of an operating system?
There are two main purposes of an operating system:
o It is designed to make sure that a computer system performs well by managing its computational
activities.
o It provides an environment for the development and execution of programs.
3) What are the different operating systems?
o Batched operating systems
o Distributed operating systems
o Timesharing operating systems
o Multi-programmed operating systems
o Real-time operating systems
4) What is a socket?
A socket is used to make connection between two applications. Endpoints of the connection are called socket.
5) What is a real-time system?
Real-time system is used in the case when rigid-time requirements have been placed on the operation of a
processor. It contains a well defined and fixed time constraints.
6) What is kernel?
Kernel is the core and most important part of a computer operating system which provides basic services for all
parts of the OS.
7) What is monolithic kernel?
A monolithic kernel is a kernel which includes all operating system code is in single executable image.
8) What do you mean by a process?
An executing program is known as process. There are two types of processes:
o Operating System Processes
o User Processes
9) What are the different states of a process?
A list of different states of process:
o New Process
o Running Process
o Waiting Process
o Ready Process
o Terminated Process
10) What is the difference between micro kernel and macro kernel?
Micro kernel: micro kernel is the kernel which runs minimal performance affecting services for operating
system. In micro kernel operating system all other operations are performed by processor.
Macro Kernel: Macro Kernel is a combination of micro and monolithic kernel.
12) What is the difference between process and program?
A program while running or executing is known as a process.
13) What is the use of paging in operating system?
Paging is used to solve the external fragmentation problem in operating system. This technique ensures that the
data you need is available as quickly as possible.
14) What is the concept of demand paging?
Demand paging specifies that if an area of memory is not currently being used, it is swapped to disk to make
room for an application's need.
15) What is the advantage of a multiprocessor system?
As many as processors are increased, you will get the considerable increment in throughput. It is cost effective
also because they can share resources. So, the overall reliability increases.
16) What is virtual memory?
Virtual memory is a very useful memory management technique which enables processes to execute outside of
memory. This technique is especially used when an executing program cannot fit in the physical memory.
17) What is thrashing?
Thrashing is a phenomenon in virtual memory scheme when the processor spends most of its time in swapping
pages, rather than executing instructions.
18) What are the four necessary and sufficient conditions behind the deadlock?
These are the 4 conditions:
1) Mutual Exclusion Condition: It specifies that the resources involved are non-sharable.
2) Hold and Wait Condition: It specifies that there must be a process that is holding a resource already allocated
to it while waiting for additional resource that are currently being held by other processes.
3) No-Preemptive Condition: Resources cannot be taken away while they are being used by processes.
4) Circular Wait Condition: It is an explanation of the second condition. It specifies that the processes in the
system form a circular list or a chain where each process in the chain is waiting for a resource held by next
process in the chain.
19) What is a thread?
A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization. It consists of a thread ID, program counter, register set and a stack.
20) What is FCFS?
FCFS stands for First Come, First Served. It is a type of scheduling algorithm. In this scheme, if a process
requests the CPU first, it is allocated to the CPU first. Its implementation is managed by a FIFO queue.
21) What is SMP?
SMP stands for Symmetric Multi Processing. It is the most common type of multiple processor system. In SMP,
each processor runs an identical copy of the operating system, and these copies communicate with one another
when required.
23) What is deadlock? Explain.
Deadlock is a specific situation or condition where two processes are waiting for each other to complete so that
they can start. But this situation causes hang for both of them.
24) Which are the necessary conditions to achieve a deadlock?
There are 4 necessary conditions to achieve a deadlock:
o Mutual Exclusion:
o Hold and Wait:
o No preemption:
o Circular Wait:
25) What is Banker's algorithm?
Banker's algorithm is used to avoid deadlock. It is the one of deadlock-avoidance method. It is named as
Banker's algorithm on the banking system where bank never allocates available cash in such a manner that it
can no longer satisfy the requirements of all of its customers.
26) What is the difference between logical address space and physical address space?
Logical address space specifies the address that is generated by CPU. On the other hand physical address space
specifies the address that is seen by the memory unit.
27) What is fragmentation?
Fragmentation is a phenomenon of memory wastage. It reduces the capacity and performance because space is
used inefficiently.
28) How many types of fragmentation occur in Operating System?
There are two types of fragmentation:
o Internal fragmentation: It is occurred when we deal with the systems that have fixed size allocation
units.
o External fragmentation: It is occurred when we deal with systems that have variable-size allocation
units.
30) What is the difference between internal commands and external commands?
Internal commands are the built-in part of the operating system while external commands are the separate file
programs that are stored in a separate folder or directory.
34) What is starvation in Operating System?
Starvation is Resource management problem. In this problem, a waiting process does not get the resources it
needs for a long time because the resources are being allocated to other processes.
36) What are the advantages of multithreaded programming?
A list of advantages of multithreaded programming:
o Enhance the responsiveness to the users.
o Resource sharing within the process.
o Economical
o Completely utilize the multiprocessing architecture.
37) What is the difference between logical and physical address space?
Logical address specifies the address which is generated by the CPU whereas physical address specifies to the
address which is seen by the memory unit.
40) What is a Batch Operating System?
Batch Operating System is a type of Operating System which creates Batches for the execution of certain jobs
or processes.
41) Do the Batch Operating System interact with Computer for processing the needs of jobs or processes
required?
No, this is not that kind of Operating Systems which tries to interact with the computer. But, this job is taken up
by the Operator present in the Batch Operating Systems.
42) What are the advantages of Batch Operating System?
Advantages of Batch Operating System:
1. The time which the Operating System is at rest is very small or also known as Idle Time for the
Operating System is very small.
2. Very big tasks can also be managed very easily with the help of Batch Operating Systems
 3. Many users can use this Batch Operating Systems.
4. It is incredibly challenging to estimate or determine how long it will take to finish any task. The batch
system processors are aware of how long a work will take to complete when it is in line.
43) What are the disadvantages of Batch Operating System?
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:
1. If any work fails in the Batch Operating System, the other jobs will have to wait for an indeterminate
period of time.
2. Batch Operating systems are very challenging to debug,
3. Batch Operating Systems can be expensive at times
4. The computer operators who are using Batch Operating Systems must to be knowledgeable with batch
systems.
44) Where is Batch Operating System used in Real Life
They are used in Payroll System and for generating Bank Statements.
45) What is the Function of Operating System?
The most important functions of Operating Systems are:
1. File Management
2. Job Management
3. Process Management
4. Device Management
5. Memory Management
46) What are the Services provided by the Operating System?
1. Security to your computer
2. Protects your computer from external threats
3. File Management
4. Program Execution
5. Helps in Controlling Input Output Devices
6. Useful in Program Creation
7. Helpful in Error Detection
8. Operating System helps in communicating between devices
9. Analyzes the Performance of all devices
47) What is a System Call in Operating Systems?
Programs can communicate with the operating system by making a system call. When a computer application
requests anything from the kernel of the operating system, it performs a system call.System call uses
Application Programming Interfaces(API)to deliver operating system services to user programs
48) What are the Types of System Calls in Operating Systems?
The System Calls in Operating Systems are:
1. Communication
2. Information Maintenance
3. File Management
4. Device Management
5. Process Contro
49) What are the functions which are present in the Process Control and File Management System Call?
1. Create
2. Allocate
3. Abort
4. End
5. Terminate
6. Free Memory
50) What are the functions which are present in the File Management System Call?
The Functions present in File Management System Calls are:
1. Create
2. Open
 3. Read
4. Close
5. Delete
51) What is a Process in Operating Systems?
The fundamental unit of work that has to be implemented in the system is called a process.
52) What are the types of Processes in Operating Systems?
The types of Operating System processes are:
1. Operating System Process
2. User Process
53) What is Process Control Block (PCB)?
A data structure called a Process Control Block houses details about the processes connected to it. The term
"process control block" can also refer to a "task control block," "process table entry," etc.
54) What are the Data Items in Process Control Block?
The Data Items in Process Control Block are:
1. Process State
2. Process Number
3. Program Counter
4. Registers
5. Memory Limits
6. List of Open Files
55) What are the Files used in the Process Control Block?
The Files used in Process Control Block are:
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) Scheduling Information
2. Memory Management Information
3. Accounting Information
4. Input Output Status Information
56) What are the differences between Thread and Process
Thread Process

Threads are executed within the same process Processes are executed in the different memory spaces

Threads are not independent of each other Processes are independent of each other

57) What are the advantages of Threads in Operating Systems?

The advantages of Threads in Operating System are:
1. Threads are executed very faster than Switches
2. Threads ensure that the communication between threads are very easier
3. The Throughput of the system is increased if the process is divided into multiple threads
4. When a thread in a multi-threaded process completes its execution, its output can be returned right away.
58) What are the disadvantages of Threads in Operating Systems?
The disadvantages of Threads in Operating System are:
1. The code becomes more challenging to maintain and debug as there are more threads.
2. The process of creating threads uses up system resources like memory and CPU.
3. Because unhandled exceptions might cause the application to crash, we must manage them inside the
worker method.
59) What are the types of Threads in Operating System?
The types of Threads in Operating System are:
1. User Level Threads
 2. Kernel Level Threads
60) What is User Kernel Thread?
The kernel is unaware of the user-level threads since they are implemented at the user level.
The User Kernel Threads are represented by a Small Process Control Block (PCB), Stack, Program Counter
(PC), Stack.
, the User Kernel Threads are independent of Kernel Involvement in Synchronization.
61) What are User Kernel Threads Advantages and Disadvantages?
The following are a few advantages of User Kernel Threads:
1. Creating user-level threads is quicker and simpler than creating kernel-level threads. They are also
simpler to handle.
2. Any operating system may be used to execute user-level threads.
3. Thread switching in user-level threads does not need kernel mode privileges.
The following are a few drawbacks of User Kernel Threads:
1. Multiprocessing cannot be used effectively by multithreaded applications in user-level threads.
2. If one user-level thread engages in a blocking action, the entire process is halted.
64) What is Process Scheduling In Operating Systems?
The task of the process manager that deals with removing the active process from the CPU and choosing a
different process based on a certain strategy is known as process scheduling.
65) What are types of Process Scheduling Techniques in Operating Systems?
The types of Process Scheduling Techniques in Operating Systems are:
1. Pre Emptive Process Scheduling
2. Non Pre Emptive Process Scheduling
66) What is Pre Emptive Process Scheduling in Operating Systems?
In this instance of Pre Emptive Process Scheduling, the OS allots the resources to a process for a predetermined
period of time.
67) What is Non Pre Emptive Process Scheduling in Operating Systems?
In this case of Non Pre Emptive Process Scheduling, the resource cannot be withdrawn from a process before
the process has finished running.
68) What is Context Switching?
Context switching is a technique or approach that the operating system use to move a process from one state to
another so that it can carry out its intended function using system CPUs.
71) What is Process Synchronization in Operating Systems?
Process synchronization, often known as synchronization, is the method an operating system uses to manage
processes that share the same memory space. By limiting the number of processes that may modify the shared
memory at once via hardware or variables, it helps ensure the consistency of the data.
72) What are the Classical Problems of Process Synchronization?
The Classical Problems of Process Synchronization are:
1. Bound Buffer Problem or Consumer Producer Problem
2. Dining Philosopher's Problem
3. Readers and writers Problem
4. Sleeping Barber Problem
76) What are the methods of Handling Deadlocks?
The methods of handling deadlock are:
1. Deadlock Prevention
2. Deadlock Detection and Recovery
3. Deadlock Avoidance
4. Deadlock Ignorance
77) How can we avoid Deadlock?
We can avoid Deadlock by using Banker's Algorithm.
78) How can we detect and recover the Deadlock occurred in Operating System?
First, what we need to do is to allow the process to enter the deadlock state. So, it is the time of recovery.
We can recover the process from deadlock state by terminating or aborting all deadlocked processes one at a
time.
Process Pre Emption is also another technique used for Deadlocked Process Recovery.
81) What is Translational Look Aside Buffer?
Whenever logical address is created by the Central Processing Unit (CPU), the page number is stored in the
Translational Look Aside Buffer. Along, with the page number, the frame number is also stored.
82) What are Page Replacement Algorithms in Operating Systems?
The Page Replacement Algorithms in Operating Systems are:
1. First In First Out
2. Optimal
3. Least Recently Used
4. Most Recently Used
85) What is Round Robin CPU Scheduling Algorithm?
Round Robin is a CPU scheduling mechanism whose cycles around assigning each task a specific time slot. It is
the First come First Serve CPU Scheduling method prior Pre Emptive Process Scheduling approach. The Round
Robin CPU algorithm frequently emphasizes the Time Sharing method.
86) What is Disk Scheduling in Operating Systems?
Operating systems use disk scheduling to plan when Input or Output requests for the disk will arrive. Input or
Output scheduling is another name for disk scheduling.
87) What is the importance of Disk Scheduling in Operating Systems?
1. One Input or Output request may be fulfilled by the disk controller at a time, even if several Input or
Output requests could come in from other processes. Other Input or Output requests must thus be
scheduled and made to wait in the waiting queue.
2. The movement of the disk arm might increase if two or more requests are placed far apart from one
another.
3. Since hard disks are among the slower components of the computer system, they must be accessible
quickly.
2) What is demand paging?
Demand paging is referred when not all of a process’s pages are in the RAM, then the OS brings the
missing(and required) pages from the disk into the RAM.
7) Describe the objective of multiprogramming.
The main objective of multiprogramming is to have a process running at all times. With this design, CPU
utilization is said to be maximized.
8 ) What is time- sharing system?
In a Time-sharing system, the CPU executes multiple jobs by switching among them, also known as
multitasking. This process happens so fast that users can interact with each program while it is running.
11) What is asymmetric clustering?
In asymmetric clustering, a machine is in a state known as hot standby mode where it does nothing but to
monitor the active server. That machine takes the active server’s role should the server fails.
12) What is a thread?
A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization. In general, a thread is composed of a thread ID, program counter,
register set, and the stack.
13) Give some benefits of multithreaded programming.
– there is increased responsiveness to the user
– resource sharing within the process
– economy
– utilization of multiprocessing architecture
29) When does thrashing occur?
Thrashing refers to an instance of high paging activity. This happens when it is spending more time paging
instead of executing.
35) What are the different types of CPU registers in a typical operating system design?
– Accumulators
– Index Registers
– Stack Pointer
– General Purpose Registers
36) What is the purpose of an I/O status information?
I/O status information provides information about which I/O devices are to be allocated for a particular process.
It also shows which files are opened, and other I/O device state.
37) What is multitasking?
Multitasking is the process within an operating system that allows the user to run several applications at the
same time.
39) What is caching?
Caching is the processing of utilizing a region of fast memory for a limited data and process. A cache memory is
usually much efficient because of its high access speed.
42) What are interrupts?
Interrupts are part of a hardware mechanism that sends a notification to the CPU when it wants to gain access to
a particular resource. An interrupt handler receives this interrupt signal and “tells” the processor to take action
based on the interrupt request.
43) What is GUI?
GUI is short for Graphical User Interface. It provides users with an interface wherein actions can be performed
by interacting with icons and graphical symbols.
44) What is preemptive multitasking?
Preemptive multitasking allows an operating system to switch between software programs.
46) What is plumbing/piping?
It is the process of using the output of one program as an input to another.
4. What are the differences between process and thread?
A thread has its own program counter (PC), a register set, and a stack space. Threads are not independent of one
another, like processes. As a result, threads share with other threads their code section, data section, and OS
resources like open files and signals.
5.What are the benefits of multithreaded programming?
It makes the system more responsive and enables resource sharing. It leads to the use of multiprocess
architecture. It is more economical and preferred.
14.What are the different scheduling algorithms?
First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling.
Shortest-Job-Next (SJN) Scheduling.
Priority Scheduling.
Shortest Remaining Time.
Round Robin(RR) Scheduling.
Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling.
22. What is the RR scheduling algorithm?
A round-robin scheduling algorithm is used to schedule the process fairly for each job a time slot or quantum
and interrupting the job if it is not completed by then the job comes after the other job which is arrived in the
quantum time that makes these scheduling fairly.
 Round-robin is cyclic in nature, so starvation doesn’t occur
 Round-robin is a variant of first come, first served scheduling
 No priority, special importance is given to any process or task
 RR scheduling is also known as Time slicing scheduling
27. State the main difference between logical and physical address space?
Parameter LOGICAL ADDRESS PHYSICAL ADDRESS

Basic generated by CPU. location in a memory unit.

Parameter LOGICAL ADDRESS PHYSICAL ADDRESS

Logical Address Space is a set of all logical Physical Address is a set of all physical
Address
addresses generated by the CPU in reference addresses mapped to the corresponding
Space
to a program. logical addresses.

Users can view the logical address of a Users can never view the physical address of
Visibility
program. the program.

Generation generated by the CPU. Computed by MMU.

The user can use the logical address to The user can indirectly access physical
Access
access the physical address. address but not directly.

49. What is the difference between preemptive and non-preemptive scheduling?

 In preemptive scheduling, the CPU is allocated to the processes for a limited time whereas, in Non-
preemptive scheduling, the CPU is allocated to the process till it terminates or switches to waiting for
state.
 The executing process in preemptive scheduling is interrupted in the middle of execution when higher
priority one comes whereas, the executing process in non-preemptive scheduling is not interrupted in the
middle of execution and waits till its execution.
 In Preemptive Scheduling, there is the overhead of switching the process from the ready state to running
state, vise-verse, and maintaining the ready queue. Whereas the case of non-preemptive scheduling has
no overhead of switching the process from running state to ready state.
 In preemptive scheduling, if a high-priority process frequently arrives in the ready queue then the
process with low priority has to wait for a long, and it may have to starve. On the other hand, in the non-
preemptive scheduling, if CPU is allocated to the process having a larger burst time then the processes
with small burst time may have to starve.
 Preemptive scheduling attains flexibility by allowing the critical processes to access the CPU as they
arrive into the ready queue, no matter what process is executing currently. Non-preemptive scheduling is
called rigid as even if a critical process enters the ready queue the process running CPU is not disturbed.
 Preemptive Scheduling has to maintain the integrity of shared data that’s why it is cost associative it
which is not the case with Non-preemptive Scheduling.
54. What is Context Switching?
In Context Switching the process is stored in the Process Control Block to serve the new process, so that the old
process can be resumed from the same part it was left.
55. What is the difference between the Operating system and kernel?
Operating System Kernel

The kernel is system software that is part of the

Operating System is system software. Microkerneloperating system.

Operating System provides interface b/w user and The kernel provides interface b/w application and
hardware. hardware.

Its main purpose is memory management, disk

management, process management and task
It also provides protection and security. management.
All system needs a real-time operating real-
time,Microkernel system to run. All operating system needs kernel to run.

Type of operating system includes single and multiuser Type of kernel includes Monolithic and Micro
OS, multiprocessor OS, realtime OS, Distributed OS. kernel.

It is the first program to load when the computer boots It is the first program to load when the operating
up. system loads
56. What is the difference between process and thread?
S.N
O Process Thread

1. Process means any program is in execution. Thread means a segment of a process.

The process is less efficient in terms of

2. communication. Thread is more efficient in terms of communication.

3. The process is isolated. Threads share memory.

The process is called heavyweight the

4. process. Thread is called lightweight process.

Process switching uses, another process Thread switching does not require to call an operating
5. interface in operating system. system and cause an interrupt to the kernel.

If one process is blocked then it will not The second, thread in the same task could not run,
6. affect the execution of other process while one server thread is blocked.

The process has its own Process Control Thread has Parents’ PCB, its own Thread Control
7. Block, Stack and Address Space. Block and Stack and common Address space.
67. Write a difference between a user-level thread and a kernel-level thread?
User-level thread Kernel level thread

User threads are implemented by users. kernel threads are implemented by OS.

OS doesn’t recognize user-level threads. Kernel threads are recognized by OS.

Implementation of the perform kernel thread is

Implementation of User threads is easy. complicated.

Context switch time is less. Context switch time is more.

Context switch requires no hardware support. Hardware support is needed.

If one user-level thread performs a blocking If one kernel thread perform a the blocking operation
operation then entire process will be blocked. then another thread can continue execution.

User-level threads are designed as dependent Kernel level threads are designed as independent
threads. threads.
69.Difference between Multithreading and Multitasking?
 S.No. Multi-threading Multi-tasking

Multiple threads are executing at the same

1. time at the same or different part of the Several programs are executed concurrently.
program.

CPU switches between multiple tasks and

2. CPU switches between multiple threads.
processes.

3. It is lightweight parts process. It is a heavyweight process.

4. It is a feature of the process. It is a feature of OS.

Multitasking is sharing of computing

Multi-threading is sharing of computing
5. resources(CPU, memory, devices, etc.) among
resources among threads of a single process.
processes.

80. How to recover from a deadlock?

We can recover from a deadlock by following methods:
 Process termination
 Abort all the deadlock processes
 Abort one process at a time until the deadlock is eliminated
 Resource preemption
 Rollback
 Selecting a victim

81. What is the goal and functionality of memory management?

The goal and functionality of memory management are as follows;
 Relocation
 Protection
 Sharing
 Logical organization
 Physical organization
82. Write a difference between physical address and logical address?

Parameter
S.NO. Logical address Physical Address
s

It is the virtual address generated by The physical address is a location in a

1. Basic
CPU. memory unit.

Set of all logical addresses generated Set of all physical addresses mapped to
2. Address by CPU in reference to a program is the corresponding logical addresses is
referred as Logical Address Space. referred as Physical Address.

3. Visibility The user can view the logical address The user can never view physical address
 of a program. of program

The user uses the logical address to The user can not directly access physical
4. Access
access the physical address. address

Generatio The Logical Address is generated by

5. Physical Address is Computed by MMU
n the CPU

83. Explain address binding?

The Association of program instruction and data to the actual physical memory locations is called the Address
Binding.
84. Write different types of address binding?
Address Binding divided into three types as follows.
 Compile-time Address Binding
 Load time Address Binding
 Execution time Address Binding
86. Write a difference between internal fragmentation and external fragmentation?
S.N
O Internal fragmentation External fragmentation

In internal fragmentation fixed-sized

In external fragmentation, variable-sized memory
1. memory, blocks square measure appointed
blocks square measure appointed to method.
to process.

Internal fragmentation happens when the

External fragmentation happens when the method or
2. method or process is larger than the
process is removed.
memory.

The solution of internal fragmentation is Solution of external fragmentation is compaction,

3.
best-fit block. paging and segmentation.

Internal fragmentation occurs when External fragmentation occurs when memory is

4. memory is divided into fixed sized divided into variable size partitions based on the size
partitions. of processes.

The difference between memory allocated The unused spaces formed between non-contiguous
5. and required space or memory is called memory fragments are too small to serve a new
Internal fragmentation. process, is called External fragmentation.

89. Write a difference between paging and segmentation?

S.N
O Paging Segmentation

2. For the paging operating system is accountable. For segmentation compiler is accountable.
S.N
O Paging Segmentation

3. Page size is determined by hardware. Here, the section size is given by the user.

4. It is faster in the comparison of segmentation. Segmentation is slow.

Segmentation could result in external

5. Paging could result in internal fragmentation.
fragmentation.

A page table is employed to keep up the page

8. Section Table maintains the section data.
data.

10. Paging is invisible to the user. Segmentation is visible to the user.

9.Computer Architecture and organization

1) Explain what is Computer Architecture?

Computer architecture can be defined as a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality,
management and implementation of computers.
2) How Computer Architecture is characterized?
The computer architecture is characterized into three categories
 System Design:
 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA):
 Microarchitecture:
3) Mention important steps for computer design?
A CPU architecture is defined by the set of machine language which can be defined as a
 Set of registers and their functions (capabilities)
 Sequence of micro-operations performed on the data stored in registers
 Control signals that initiate the sequence
5) Mention what are the basic components of a Microprocessor?
The basic components of a Microprocessor are
 Address lines to refer to the address of a block
 Data lines for data transfer
 IC chips for processing data
Computer Architecture Interview Questions
6) Mention what are different types of interrupts in a microprocessor system? Explain?
There are three types of interrupts that can cause a break.
 External Interrupts:
 Internal Interrupts:
 Software Interrupts:
7) Mention what are the common components of a microprocessor are?
The common components of a microprocessor include
 I/O Units
 Control Unit
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Registers
  Cache
9) Mention what is the simplest way to determine cache locations in which to store memory blocks?
Direct Mapping is the simplest way to define cache locations in which to store memory blocks.
10) What digital functions should be used to convert the octal code to binary code?
To convert the octal code to binary code multiplexers is used.
11) What technique is used to automatically move program and data blocks into the physical main
memory when they are required for execution?
Virtual Memory technique is used. It provides a mechanism for translating program generated address into
correct main memory locations. By means of mapping table translation or mapping is handled.
13) Explain what type of memory that can be erased with the electric discharge?
With the passage of electric discharge, EEPROM is the type of memory whose content is erased.
16) Mention what are the types of micro-operations?
The types of micro-operations are
 Register transfer micro-operations: These type of micro-operations are used to transfer information
from one register to another binary information
 Shift micro-operation: These operations are used to perform shift operations in data store in registers
 Logic micro-operation: These are used to perform on numeric data stored in the registers some
arithmetic operations
 Arithmetic micro-operations: These micro-operations are used to execute some arithmetic operations
on numeric data stored in the registers
17) What does DMA stands for?
DMA stands for Direct Memory Access.
18) When large number of registers are included in the CPU, what is the most efficient way to connect
them?
When large number of registers are included in the CPU, the most efficient way to connect them is through an
ALU.
19) Explain if the internal bus connects only register within the CPU, how would you get data to and
from memory?
The AR or Address Register is used to select a memory address, and the Data Register is used to send and
receive the data. Both these register are connected to the internal BUS, and the Data Register acts as a bridge
between the memory data BUS and internal BUS. So first we load AR with the desired memory address and
then transfer to or from Data Register.
20) Explain what is WAIT state?
A WAIT state plays a key role in preventing CPU speed incompatibilities.
21) Explain how you can deal with WAIT state?
The one way to deal with WAIT state is increasing the microprocessor clock period by reducing the clock
frequency The second way is by using special control input READY. It allows the memory to set its own
memory cycle time.
3. What are the components in a Microprocessor?
its a general purpose register. its components are one processor along with external ROM, RAM, etc
7. Explain What are the five stages in a DLX pipeline?
The instruction sets can be differentiated by
* Operand storage in the CPU
* Number of explicit operands per instruction
* Operand location
* Operations
* Type and size of operands
10. Explain What is a cache?
Caching is a technology based on the memory subsystem of your computer. The main purpose of a cache is to
accelerate your computer while keeping the price of the computer low.
13. Explain What is Virtual Memory?
Virtual memory is a memory management technique where secondary memory can be used as if it were a part
of the main memory.
14. What the difference between Write-Through and Write-Back Caches? Explain advantages and disadvantages
of each?
The comparison can be made out of two factors
1) Performance and
2) Integrity of Data
15. How do you handle precise exceptions or interrupts?
Like java have a feature for handling exception handling "prime catch". the exception like divide by zero, out of
bound.
18. The CPU is busy but you want to stop and do some other task. How do you do it?
Arise a non maskable interrupt.
Then give jump instruction to required subroutine.
27. What is the pipelining?
A technique used in advanced microprocessors where the microprocessor begins executing a second instruction
before the first has been completed
2. Tell About Von Neumann Architecture?
The Von Neumann architecture is a design model for computer systems. It includes a central processing and
memory unit, with the CPU able to read and write data to the memory. The Von Neumann architecture contains
a single, shared memory for programs and data, a single bus for memory access, an arithmetic unit, and a
program control unit. John von Neumann planned this architecture in 1945 based on the idea of a stored
program. The storage of instructions and data are stored in the same memory. The Von Neumann processor
operates fetching and execution cycles seriously.
9. In A Microprocessor System, What Are The Types Of Interrupts? Explain?
During the execution of an instruction, many types of interrupts can cause a break.
External Interrupts External devices, such as a keyboard or a mouse, cause interruptions.
Internal Interrupts: These interruptions are caused by the microprocessor program itself, such as a timer,
invalid opcode, or software interrupt instruction.
Spurious Interrupts: There is no role of an external device in this interruption. They are caused by internal
errors or by noise on the data lines.
Maskable interrupts: These interrupts can be disabled by the software, permitting the microprocessor to
ignore them temporarily.
10. List The Components That Make Up A Microprocessor And Tell Their Functions Briefly.
The common components of a microprocessor include:
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) that performs mathematical and logical operations.
 Control Unit that controls the flow of data and instructions in the microprocessor.
 The instruction decoder decodes the instruction got from memory to execute them.
 Registers storage locations in the microprocessor that contain data and instructions briefly.
 Bus Interface Unit controls the interface between the microprocessor and the memory and input/output
devices.
 Cache memory is used to store frequently retrieved data and instructions.
12. What Is An Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)?
ISA stands for “Instruction Set Architecture.” It is the line between the computer’s software and its hardware.
16. What Is A Memory Hierarchy?
A memory hierarchy is a storage system that organizes and structures computer memory. It is helpful to access
the data easily and efficiently. It includes multiple capacities and speeds, so some data is better suited to certain
memories. The memory hierarchy includes registers, cache, main, and disk storage. It effectively keeps the most
frequently-used data in the most easily-accessible memory and stores less frequently-used data in slower, larger-
capacity memory.
17. Explain If The Internal Bus Connects Only Register Within The CPU, How Would You Get Data To
And From Memory?
The AR or Address Register is used to select a memory address, and the Data Register is used to send and
receive the data. Both these registers are connected to the internal BUS, and the Data Register acts as a bridge
between the memory data BUS and the internal BUS. So first, I load AR with the desired memory address and
then transfer it to or from Data Register.
25. How Do You Handle Criticism And Feedback As A Computer Architect?
As a computer architect, I acknowledge that being open to feedback and criticism is crucial. By using the
relevant information, I improve the design and performance of computer systems accordingly.With a
constructive mindset, I took criticism positively as it regularly helped evaluate the system’s performance. After
that, I make adjustments as necessary.

10.Data Communications

1. What is data communication?

Data communication is the process of transmitting data from one location to another.
2. Can you explain what a protocol is in the context of data communication?
A protocol is a set of rules that govern how data is exchanged between devices. In order for two devices to
communicate with each other, they must be using the same protocol.
3. What are some common examples of open and closed protocols?
Some common examples of open protocols are HTTP, FTP, and SMTP. Some common examples of closed
protocols are proprietary protocols like Skype and AOL Instant Messenger.
4. What are the main responsibilities of a network administrator?
The main responsibilities of a network administrator are to ensure that the network is up and running, to
monitor network usage, to configure network hardware and software, and to troubleshoot network problems.
5. Can you describe how authentication works?
Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a user or device.
6. What types of networks exist?
There are three types of networks: Local Area Networks (LANs), Wide Area Networks (WANs), and
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs).
7. How do computers talk to each other over a network?
Computers communicate over a network by sending and receiving data packets. These data packets are sent and
received over a network protocol, which defines the rules for how data is formatted and transmitted.
8. What’s the difference between a client-server model and peer-to-peer communication?
The main difference between a client-server model and peer-to-peer communication is that, in a client-server
model, communication is typically between two devices where one device is acting as a server and the other is
acting as a client. In peer-to-peer communication, there is no server, and communication is between two or more
devices that are all considered peers.
9. What are the different types of transmission media used for data communication?
The different types of transmission media used for data communication include twisted pair cables, coaxial
cables, optical fibers, and wireless media.
10. What are the basic components of a computer network?
The basic components of a computer network are the nodes, which are the individual computers or devices, and
the links, which are the connections between the nodes.
11. What is latency? Why does it happen?
Latency is the time it takes for a data packet to travel from its source to its destination. It can be caused by a
number of factors, including network congestion, distance, and the speed of the connection.
12. What are the advantages of using an Ethernet LAN over a WiFi LAN?
The advantages of using an Ethernet LAN over a WiFi LAN are many. For one, Ethernet is much faster than
WiFi, so if you need to transfer large amounts of data quickly, Ethernet is the way to go. Additionally, Ethernet
is much more secure than WiFi, so if you are worried about data being intercepted or hacked, Ethernet is a
better option. Finally, Ethernet is much more reliable than WiFi, so if you need a consistent connection,
Ethernet is the better choice.
13. What does the OSI Model represent?
The OSI Model is a standard for how data should be transmitted between two devices. It is divided into seven
layers, each of which handles a different part of the process. The model is often used as a reference point for
troubleshooting data communication issues.
14. Can you explain how TCP/IP works?
TCP/IP is a two-layer program that provides communication services for computers on a network. The TCP
layer provides for reliable, ordered delivery of data packets from one computer to another, while the IP layer
handles the routing of those packets from one network to another.
15. What is the definition of bandwidth?
The bandwidth is the range of frequencies that a signal can carry, or the maximum amount of data that can be
transmitted in a given amount of time.
16. What are some ways to increase bandwidth?
There are a few ways to increase bandwidth:
1. Use a higher data rate
2. Use a wider channel
3. Use a more efficient modulation scheme
4. Use error-correction coding
5. Use multiplexing
17. What are MAC addresses?
MAC addresses are unique identifiers assigned to network devices. They are used to identify devices on a
network so that data can be properly routed. MAC addresses are usually assigned by the manufacturer of the
device and are stored in the device’s firmware.
18. What is your understanding of packet switching?
Packet switching is a method of data communication in which data is broken into small packets and then routed
through a network to its destination. This is in contrast to other methods of data communication, such as circuit
switching, in which a dedicated connection is established between two devices and then data is sent through that
connection.
19. What is a router?
A router is a device that connects two or more computer networks. Routers use special software and hardware to
forward data packets between networks.
20. What is your opinion on the future of wireless communications?
I believe that wireless communications will continue to grow in popularity and importance. As more and more
devices are connected to the internet, the need for reliable and efficient wireless communications will only
increase. I think we will see more and more innovation in this area, with new technologies and applications
being developed to take advantage of the wireless medium.
1. How are Network types classified?
Network types can be classified and divided based on the area of distribution of the network. The below
diagram would help to understand the same:
 Network
2. Explain different types of networks.
Below are few types of networks:
Type Description
PAN (Personal Area Let devices connect and communicate over the range of a person. E.g. connecting
Network) Bluetooth devices.
It is a privately owned network that operates within and nearby a single building
LAN (Local Area Network)
like a home, office, or factory
MAN (Metropolitan Area
It connects and covers the whole city. E.g. TV Cable connection over the city
Network)
It spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. The Internet is the
WAN (Wide Area Network)
largest WAN
GAN (Global Area It is also known as the Internet which connects the globe using satellites. The
Network) Internet is also called the Network of WANs.

4. Tell me something about VPN (Virtual Private Network)

VPN or the Virtual Private Network is a private WAN (Wide Area Network) built on the internet. It allows the
creation of a secured tunnel (protected network) between different networks using the internet (public network).
5. What are the advantages of using a VPN?
Below are few advantages of using VPN:
 VPN is used to connect offices in different geographical locations remotely and is cheaper when
compared to WAN connections.
 VPN is used for secure transactions and confidential data transfer between multiple offices located in
different geographical locations.
 VPN keeps an organization’s information secured against any potential threats or intrusions by using
virtualization.
  VPN encrypts the internet traffic and disguises the online identity.
6. What are the different types of VPN?
Few types of VPN are:
 Access VPN:
 Site-to-Site VPN:
 Intranet VPN
 Extranet VPN:
7. What are nodes and links?
Node: Any communicating device in a network is called a Node.
Link: A link or edge refers to the connectivity between two nodes in the network.
8. What is the network topology?
Network topology is a physical layout of the network, connecting the different nodes using the links. It depicts
the connectivity between the computers, devices, cables, etc.
9. Define different types of network topology
The different types of network topology are given below:
Bus Topology:
Bus Topology
 All the nodes are connected using the central link known as the bus.
 It is useful to connect a smaller number of devices.
 If the main cable gets damaged, it will damage the whole network.
Star Topology:
Star Topology
 All the nodes are connected to one single node known as the central node.
 It is more robust.
 If the central node fails the complete network is damaged.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Mainly used in home and office networks.
Ring Topology:
Ring Topology
 Each node is connected to exactly two nodes forming a ring structure
 If one of the nodes are damaged, it will damage the whole network
 It is used very rarely as it is expensive and hard to install and manage
Mesh Topology:
Mesh Topology
 Each node is connected to one or many nodes.
 It is robust as failure in one link only disconnects that node.
 It is rarely used and installation and management are difficult.
Tree Topology:
Tree Topology
 A combination of star and bus topology also know as an extended bus topology.
 All the smaller star networks are connected to a single bus.
 If the main bus fails, the whole network is damaged.
Hybrid:
 It is a combination of different topologies to form a new topology.
 It helps to ignore the drawback of a particular topology and helps to pick the strengths from other.
10. What is an IPv4 address? What are the different classes of IPv4?
An IP address is a 32-bit dynamic address of a node in the network. An IPv4 address has 4 octets of 8-bit each
with each number with a value up to 255.
IPv4 classes are differentiated based on the number of hosts it supports on the network. There are five types of
IPv4 classes and are based on the first octet of IP addresses which are classified as Class A, B, C, D, or E.
IPv4 Class IPv4 Start Address IPv4 End Address Usage
A 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255 Used for Large Network
B 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255 Used for Medium Size Network
C 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255 Used for Local Area Network
D 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255 Reserved for Multicasting
E 240.0.0.0 255.255.255.254 Study and R&D
11. What are Private and Special IP addresses?
Private Address: For each class, there are specific IPs that are reserved specifically for private use only. This IP
address cannot be used for devices on the Internet as they are non-routable.
IPv4 Class Private IPv4 Start Address Private IPv4 End Address
A 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255
B 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255
C 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255
Special Address: IP Range from 127.0.0.1 to 127.255.255.255 are network testing addresses also known as
loopback addresses are the special IP address.
13. Define the 7 different layers of the OSI Reference Model
Here the 7 layers of the OSI reference model:

Layer Unit Exchanged Description

 It is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel.
Physical Bit  Chooses which type of transmission mode is to be selected for the
transmission. The available transmission modes are Simplex, Half
Duplex and Full Duplex.,
 The main task of this layer is to transform a raw transmission
facility into a line that appears free of undetected transmission
errors.
 It also allows detecting damaged packets using the CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) error-detecting, code.
Data Link Frame
 When more than one node is connected to a shared link, Data Link
Layer protocols are required to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.
 It is implemented by protocols like CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA,
ALOHA, and Token Passing.
Network Packet  It controls the operation of the subnet.
 The network layer takes care of feedback messaging through ICMP
Layer Unit Exchanged Description
messages.
 The basic functionality of this layer is to accept data from the
above layers, split it up into smaller units if needed, pass these to
TPDU - Transaction
Transport the network layer, and ensure that all the pieces arrive correctly at
Protocol Data Unit
the other end.
 The Transport Layer takes care of Segmentation and Reassembly.
 The session layer allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them.
SPDU - Session
Session  Dialogue control is using the full-duplex link as half-duplex. It
Protocol Data Unit
sends out dummy packets from the client to the server when the
client is ideal.
 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics
PPDU - Presentation of the information transmitted.
Presentation
Protocol Data Unit  It translates a message from a common form to the encoded format
which will be understood by the receiver.
 It contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by
APDU - Application
Application users.
Protocol Data Unit
 The application layer sends data of any size to the transport layer.
14. Describe the TCP/IP Reference Model
It is a compressed version of the OSI model with only 4 layers. It was developed by the US Department of
Defence (DoD) in the 1980s. The name of this model is based on 2 standard protocols used i.e. TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol).
15. Define the 4 different layers of the TCP/IP Reference Model

Layers of TCP/IP
Layer Description
Decides which links such as serial lines or classic Ethernet must be used to meet the needs of the
Link
connectionless internet layer.
 The internet layer is the most important layer which holds the whole architecture together.
Internet
 It delivers the IP packets where they are supposed to be delivered.
Its functionality is almost the same as the OSI transport layer. It enables peer entities on the
Transport
network to carry on a conversation.
Application It contains all the higher-level protocols.
16. Differentiate OSI Reference Model with TCP/IP Reference Model
OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Reference Model
7 layered architecture 4 layered architecture
Fixed boundaries and functionality for each layer Flexible architecture with no strict boundaries between layers
Low Reliability High Reliability
Vertical Layer Approach Horizontal Layer Approach
17. What are the HTTP and the HTTPS protocol?
HTTP is the HyperText Transfer Protocol which defines the set of rules and standards on how the information
can be transmitted on the World Wide Web (WWW). It helps the web browsers and web servers for
communication. It is a ‘stateless protocol’ where each command is independent with respect to the previous
command. HTTP is an application layer protocol built upon the TCP. It uses port 80 by default.
HTTPS is the HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure or Secure HTTP. It is an advanced and secured version of
HTTP. On top of HTTP, SSL/TLS protocol is used to provide security. It enables secure transactions by
encrypting the communication and also helps identify network servers securely. It uses port 443 by default.
18. What is the SMTP protocol?
SMTP is the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. SMTP sets the rule for communication between servers. It is in
always-listening mode on port 25.
19. What is the DNS?
DNS is the Domain Name System. It is considered as the devices/services directory of the Internet.It uses port
53 by default.
20. What is the use of a router and how is it different from a gateway?
The router is a networking device used for connecting two or more network segments. It directs the traffic in the
network. It transfers information and data like web pages, emails, images, videos, etc. from source to
destination in the form of packets.
21. What is the TCP protocol?
TCP or TCP/IP is the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It is a set of rules that decides how a
computer connects to the Internet and how to transmit the data over the network.
22. What is the UDP protocol?
UDP is the User Datagram Protocol and is based on Datagrams.
23. Compare between TCP and UDP
TCP/IP UDP
Connection-Oriented Protocol Connectionless Protocol
TCP/IP UDP
More Reliable Less Reliable
Slower Transmission Faster Transmission
Packets order is not fixed and packets are independent of
Packets order can be preserved or can be rearranged
each other
Uses three ways handshake model for connection No handshake for establishing the connection
TCP packets are heavy-weight UDP packets are light-weight
Offers error checking mechanism No error checking mechanism
Protocols like HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP, HTTPS, Protocols like DNS, RIP, SNMP, RTP, BOOTP, TFTP,
etc use TCP at the transport layer NIP, etc use UDP at the transport layer
24. What is the ICMP protocol?
ICMP is the Internet Control Message Protocol. It uses port 7 by default.
25. What do you mean by the DHCP Protocol?
DHCP is the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.
It is an application layer protocol used to auto-configure devices on IP networks enabling them to use the TCP
and UDP-based protocols. It uses port 67 by default.
26. What is the ARP protocol?
ARP is Address Resolution Protocol. It is a network-level protocol used to convert the logical address i.e.
27. What is the FTP protocol?
FTP is a File Transfer Protocol. It is an application layer protocol used to transfer files and data reliably and
efficiently between hosts. It uses port 27 by default.
28. What is the MAC address and how is it related to NIC?
MAC address is the Media Access Control address. It is a 48-bit or 64-bit unique identifier of devices in the
network. It is also called the physical address embedded with Network Interface Card (NIC) used at the Data
Link Layer. NIC is a hardware component in the networking device using which a device can connect to the
network.
29. Differentiate the MAC address with the IP address
The difference between MAC address and IP address are as follows:
MAC Address IP Address
Media Access Control Address Internet Protocol Address
6 or 8-byte hexadecimal number 4 (IPv4) or 16 (IPv6) Byte address
It is embedded with NIC It is obtained from the network
Physical Address Logical Address
Operates at Data Link Layer Operates at Network Layer.
Helps to identify the device Helps to identify the device connectivity on the network.
30. What is a subnet?
A subnet is a network inside a network achieved by the process called subnetting which helps divide a network
into subnets.
31. Compare the hub vs switch
Hub Switch
Operates at Physical Layer Operates at Data Link Layer
Half-Duplex transmission mode Full-Duplex transmission mode
Ethernet devices can be connectedsend LAN devices can be connected
Less complex, less intelligent, and cheaper Intelligent and effective
No software support for the administration Administration software support is present
Less speed up to 100 MBPS Supports high speed in GBPS
33. What is the firewall?
The firewall is a network security system that is used to monitor the incoming and outgoing traffic and blocks
the same based on the firewall security policies.
34. What are Unicasting, Anycasting, Multicasting and Broadcasting?
 Unicasting: If the message is sent to a single node from the source then it is known as unicasting. This
is commonly used in networks to establish a new connection.
 Anycasting: If the message is sent to any of the nodes from the source then it is known as anycasting. It
is mainly used to get the content from any of the servers in the Content Delivery System.
 Multicasting: If the message is sent to a subset of nodes from the source then it is known as
multicasting. Used to send the same data to multiple receivers.
 Broadcasting: If the message is sent to all the nodes in a network from a source then it is known as
broadcasting. DHCP and ARP in the local network use broadcasting.
35. What happens when you enter google.com in the web browser?
Below are the steps that are being followed:
 Check the browser cache first if the content is fresh and present in cache display the same.
 If not, the browser checks if the IP of the URL is present in the cache (browser and OS) if not then
request the OS to do a DNS lookup using UDP to get the corresponding IP address of the URL from the
DNS server to establish a new TCP connection.
 A new TCP connection is set between the browser and the server using three-way handshaking.
 An HTTP request is sent to the server using the TCP connection.
 The web servers running on the Servers handle the incoming HTTP request and send the HTTP
response.
 The browser process the HTTP response sent by the server and may close the TCP connection or reuse
the same for future requests.
 If the response data is cacheable then browsers cache the same.
 Browser decodes the response and renders the content.
1) What is the network?
o A network is a collection of devices connected to each other to allow the sharing of data.
4) What is the criteria to check the network reliability?
Network reliability: Network reliability means the ability of the network to carry out the desired operation
through a network such as communication through a network..
The reliability of a network can be measured by the following factors:
o Downtime: The downtime is defined as the required time to recover.
o Failure Frequency: It is the frequency when it fails to work the way it is intended.
o Catastrophe: It indicates that the network has been attacked by some unexpected event such as fire,
earthquake.
5) Which are the different factors that affect the security of a network?
o Unauthorized Access
o Viruses
6) Which are the different factors that affect the reliability of a network?
o Frequency of failure
o Recovery time of a network after a failure
7) Which are the different factors that affect the performance of a network?
o Large number of users
o Transmission medium types
o Hardware
o Software
8) What makes a network effective and efficient?
o Performance: : performance can be measured in many ways like transmit time and response time.
o Reliability: reliability is measured by frequency of failure.
o Robustness: robustness specifies the quality or condition of being strong and in good condition.
o Security: It specifies how to protect data from unauthorized access and viruses.
9) What is bandwidth?
Every signal has a limit of upper range frequency and lower range frequency. The range of limit of network
between its upper and lower frequency is called bandwidth.
11) What is a gateway? Is there any difference between a gateway and router?
A node that is connected to two or more networks is commonly known as a gateway. It is also known as a
router. It is used to forward messages from one network to another.
12) What is DNS?
DNS is an acronym stands for Domain Name System.
o DNS was introduced by Paul Mockapetris and Jon Postel in 1983.
o It is a naming system for all the resources over the internet which includes physical nodes and
applications. It is used to locate to resource easily over a network.
o DNS is an internet which maps the domain names to their associated IP addresses.
o Without DNS, users must know the IP address of the web page that you wanted to access.

14) What is NIC?

o NIC stands for Network Interface Card. It is a peripheral card attached to the PC to connect to a
network. Every NIC has its own MAC address that identifies the PC on the network.
o It provides a wireless connection to a local area network.
o NICs were mainly used in desktop computers.
15) What is the meaning of 10Base-T?
It is used to specify data transfer rate. In 10Base-T, 10 specify the data transfer rate, i.e., 10Mbps. The word
Base specifies the baseband as opposed to broadband. T specifies the type of the cable which is a twisted pair.
16) What is NOS in computer networking?
o NOS stands for Network Operating System. It is specialized software which is used to provide network
connectivity to a computer to make communication possible with other computers and connected
devices.
o NOS is the software which allows the device to communicate, share files with other devices.
o The first network operating system was Novel NetWare released in 1983. Some other examples of NOS
are Windows 2000, Windows XP, Linux, etc.
17) What are the different types of networks?
Networks can be divided on the basis of area of distribution. For example:
o PAN (Personal Area Network): Its range limit is up to 10 meters. It is created for personal use.
Generally, personal devices are connected to this network. For example computers, telephones, fax,
printers, etc.
o LAN (Local Area Network): It is used for a small geographical location like office, hospital, school,
etc.
o HAN (House Area Network): It is actually a LAN that is used within a house and used to connect
homely devices like personal computers, phones, printers, etc.
o CAN (Campus Area Network): It is a connection of devices within a campus area which links to other
departments of the organization within the same campus.
o MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): It is used to connect the devices which span to large cities like
metropolitan cities over a wide geographical area.
o WAN (Wide Area Network): It is used over a wide geographical location that may range to connect
cities and countries.
o GAN (Global Area Network): It uses satellites to connect devices over global are.

18) What is POP3?

POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol version3. POP is responsible for accessing the mail service on a client
machine. POP3 works on two models such as Delete mode and Keep mode.
20) What is IP address?
IP address is a unique 32 bit software address of a computer in a network system.
21) What is private IP address?
There are three ranges of IP addresses that have been reserved for IP addresses. They are not valid for use on the
internet. If you want to access internet on these private IPs, you must have to use proxy server or NAT server.
22) What is public IP address?
A public IP address is an address taken by the Internet Service Provider which facilitates you to communication
on the internet.
27) What is protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules which is used to govern all the aspects of information communication.
28) What are the main elements of a protocol?
The main elements of a protocol are:
o Syntax: It specifies the structure or format of the data. It also specifies the order in which they are
presented.
o Semantics: It specifies the meaning of each section of bits.
o Timing: Timing specifies two characteristics: When data should be sent and how fast it can be sent.
29 What is the Domain Name System?
There are two types of client/server programs. First is directly used by the users and the second supports
application programs.
31) How many layers are in OSI reference model?
OSI reference model: OSI reference model is an ISO standard which defines a networking framework for
implementing the protocols in seven layers. These seven layers can be grouped into three categories:
o Network layer: Layer 1, Layer 2 and layer 3 are the network layers.
o Transport layer: Layer 4 is a transport layer.
o Application layer. Layer 5, Layer 6 and Layer 7 are the application layers.
There are 7 layers in the OSI reference model.
1. Physical Layer
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI reference model.
o It is used for the transmission of an unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium.
o Physical layer transmits the data either in the form of electrical/optical or mechanical form.
o The physical layer is mainly used for the physical connection between the devices, and such physical
connection can be made by using twisted-pair cable, fibre-optic or wireless transmission media.
2. DataLink Layer
o It is used for transferring the data from one node to another node.
o It receives the data from the network layer and converts the data into data frames and then attach the
physical address to these frames which are sent to the physical layer.
o It enables the error-free transfer of data from one node to another node.
Functions of Data-link layer:

o Frame synchronization: Data-link layer converts the data into frames, and it ensures that the
destination must recognize the starting and ending of each frame.
o Flow control: Data-link layer controls the data flow within the network.
o Error control: It detects and corrects the error occurred during the transmission from source to
destination.
o Addressing: Data-link layer attach the physical address with the data frames so that the individual
machines can be easily identified.
o Link management: Data-link layer manages the initiation, maintenance and, termination of the link
between the source and destination for the effective exchange of data.
3. Network Layer
o Network layer converts the logical address into the physical address.
o It provides the routing concept means it determines the best route for the packet to travel from source to
the destination.
Functions of network layer:
 o Routing: The network layer determines the best route from source to destination. This function is
known as routing.
o Logical addressing: The network layer defines the addressing scheme to identify each device uniquely.
o Packetizing: The network layer receives the data from the upper layer and converts the data into
packets. This process is known as packetizing.
o Internetworking: The network layer provides the logical connection between the different types of
networks for forming a bigger network.
o Fragmentation: It is a process of dividing the packets into the fragments.
4. Transport Layer
o It delivers the message through the network and provides error checking so that no error occurs during
the transfer of data.
o It provides two kinds of services:
o Connection-oriented transmission: In this transmission, the receiver sends the
acknowledgement to the sender after the packet has been received.
o Connectionless transmission: In this transmission, the receiver does not send the
acknowledgement to the sender.
5. Session Layer
o The main responsibility of the session layer is beginning, maintaining and ending the communication
between the devices.
o Session layer also reports the error coming from the upper layers.
o Session layer establishes and maintains the session between the two users.
6. Presentation Layer
o The presentation layer is also known as a Translation layer as it translates the data from one format to
another format.
o At the sender side, this layer translates the data format used by the application layer to the common
format and at the receiver side, this layer translates the common format into a format used by the
application layer.
Functions of presentation layer:
o Character code translation
o Data conversion
o Data compression
o Data encryption
7. Application Layer
o Application layer enables the user to access the network.
o It is the topmost layer of the OSI reference model.
o Application layer protocols are file transfer protocol, simple mail transfer protocol, domain name
system, etc.
o The most widely used application protocol is HTTP(Hypertext transfer protocol ). A user sends the
request for the web page using HTTP.
32) What is the usage of OSI physical layer?
The OSI physical layer is used to convert data bits into electrical signals and vice versa. On this layer, network
devices and cable types are considered and setup.
33) Explain the functionality of OSI session layer?
OSI session layer provides the protocols and means for two devices on the network to communicate with each
other by holding a session. This layer is responsible for setting up the session, managing information exchange
during the session, and tear-down process upon termination of the session.
34) What is the maximum length allowed for a UTP cable?
The maximum length of UTP cable is 90 to 100 meters.
42) What is multiplexing in networking?
In Networking, multiplexing is the set of techniques that is used to allow the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link.
44) What is RSA Algorithm?
RSA is short for Rivest-Shamir-Adleman algorithm. It is mostly used for public key encryption.
45) How many layers are in TCP/IP?
There are basic 4 layers in TCP/IP:
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Layer
2. What are the Characteristics of Data Communications?
The effectiveness of a Data Communication and Computer Networks system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
 Delivery:
 Accuracy:
 Timeliness:
 4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
.3. What are the Components of Data Communication?
The different components of Data communication are shown in the following figure.
 Message:
 Sender:
 Receiver:
 Transmission medium:
 Protocol:
4. What are Different Data Flow Directions?
Communication between any two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
 Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive which can be represented in the following
figure.
 Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa which will represent in the
following figure.
 Full-Duplex: In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously as shown in the following figure.The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with
traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
5. Different Types of Connections
 Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
2.Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link as shown in the following figure.
OSI LAYER

DEVICES PROTOCOLS

APPLICATION SNMP, SMTP, FTP, TELNET, HTTP,

NCP, SMB, AppleTalk
layer 7

PRESENTATION NCP, AFP, TDI

layer 6
 SESSION NetBIOS

layer 5

TRANSPORT NetBEUI, TCP, SPX, NWlink

layer 4

NETWORK Routers, layer 3 (or IP) switches. IP, IPX, NWlink, NetBEUI

layer 3

DATA LINK Bridges and switches, Ethernet -

incorporates both this layer and
layer 2 the Physical layer.

PHYSICAL Hubs, repeaters, network adapters, -

Parallel SCSI buses. Various
layer 1 physical-layer Ethernet
incorporates both this layer and
the data-link layer. Token ring,
FDDI, and IEEE 802.11.

Devices used in each layer are….

1. Physical layer or below : Hubs, Repeaters, Cables, Fibers, Wireless..
2. Data-link layer: Bridges, Modems, Network cards, 2-layer switches.
3. Network layer: Routers, Brouters, 3-layer switches.
4. Transport layer: Gateways, Firewalls.
5. Session layer: Gateways, Firewalls, PC’s.
6. Presentation layer : Gateways, Firewalls, PC’s.
7. Application layer: Gateways,Firewalls, all end devices like PC’s, Phones, Servers..

11.Microprocessor and assembly language

1. What Is a Microprocessor?
Answer: The microprocessor is a program-controlled device, which reads a set of steps to be executed from
memory and executes them.
2. What Are the Flags In 8086?
Answer: . In 8086, carry flag, parity flag, auxiliary carry flag, zero flags, an overflow flag, trace flag, interrupt
flag, direction flag, and sign flag are present.

3. Why Crystal Is Preferred for A Clock Source?

Answer: The main reason to use crystal is high stability, large O, and accurate frequency, which remains
constant all the time.
4. What is the program Counter?
Answer: Program counter holds a location in memory of the next step to be performed .
5. What Is the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th Generation Processor?
Answer: The processor made of PMOS / NMOS/ HMOS/ HCMOS technology is called 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th
generation processor, and it contains 4/8/16/32 bits.
7. Classify Interrupts Based on The Signal. State Their Differences?
Answer: Based on levels, there are two types of signals.
 Single level interrupts
 Multi-level interrupts
8. Explain the Trap Input for 8085 Briefly?
Answer:
 Trap responds to both edge and level.
 The pulse width for trap input should be more than the normal noise width.
 The second trap never responds the second time as the first trap goes from high to low transition.
 To prevent unwanted false triggers, the pulse width should be wider than normal widths.
9. Explain the differences Between the Hlt and Hold States?
Answer:
 When the HLT state is executed, the processor stops functioning; buses go into tri-state. The processor
gives no acknowledgment in any form.
 In the case of Hold, the processor goes into a hold state, but the buses are not driven to tri-state.
11. Explain briefly what happened when the Intr signal goes High in 8085?
Answer: The INTR is the lowest priority, non-vectored, and masks able interrupt for 8085. This INTR signal
goes into a High state in many instances; whenever this condition occurs,
14. What Is the Significance of Interrupt in Any Microprocessor?
Answer: There is an utmost significance of interrupt in any microprocessor especially when it comes to
generate signals using external nodes or say peripherals. These external nodes or peripherals are mostly used for
performance with the current task with start and stop triggers having another usage it mostly has five interrupts
starting from 5.5, 6.5, INTR, 7.5, TRAP, and RST.
15. What Is the Relevance of Bus in Any Microprocessor?
Answer: Bus is a common component in any of the microprocessors used mostly for transmission of data over
the network, therefore, establishing streamlined communication.
 Address bus: It is a one-directional bus that includes the address of any memory in a binary format
making the memory flow or communication with proper input and output.
 Control bus: This bus has another significance in that it is used for mainly making the external
peripherals transfer required and necessary information to the destined location.
 Data Bus: As its name signifies it is mostly used for making the informational flow two-directional
making memory flow with input to output in one way or vice-versa is also possible.
16. Why Registers Are Used Inside of Microprocessors?
Answer: Registers play an important role in microprocessor as it makes some of the temporary locations for
storage within CPU. This register is then used for making the data and addresses with operations optional.
18. What Is the Significance of Interfacing in Microprocessor Type 8086?
Answer: Interface acts as a medium between two entities so do it does in microprocessor type 8086 referring to
the path of two components communicate and linked with each other
19. What Is Macro in A Microprocessor?
Answer: Macro in any microprocessor has some set of instructions that is used as a single unit within a group.
20. What Is Memory Mapping with Relation to Microprocessor?
Answer: All the logical address spacing in physical memory is carried out using transfer of the logical address
spacing in physical memory using smaller size microprocessor which in turn have some of the microprocessor
setting and relevancy with external memory sizing.
21. What Are Mnemonics in Microprocessor?
Answer: It is basically any abbreviation or acronym related to the operation.
What is an Assembly Language?
Ans. Assembly language is a low-level programming language that uses mnemonic codes to represent machine
instructions.
What are the Differences Between Assembly and High-Level Languages?
Ans. The main difference between assembly and high-level languages is that assembly language programs are
closer to the machine code that is executed by the processor.
What is a Processor?
Ans. A processor is an electronic component that performs the instructions of a computer program.
What is Machine Code?
Ans. Machine code is a set of binary codes that represent the instructions of a computer program.
What are Registers?
Ans. Registers are small areas of memory that are specifically allocated for storing data values.
What is an Instruction Set?
Ans. An instruction set is a collection of binary codes that represent the instructions of a computer program
1) What is microprocessor?
A microprocessor is a processing unit of electronic devices which is including multiple
transistors, diodes, register, etc electronics components.
The Microprocessor made up of three terms:
 ALU(Arithmetic Logical Unit): This is used for arithmetic and logical performance which is received
by memory or input data.
 Register Array: this is used for access and store the data in memory location temporarily using
instruction and make the operation successful. Register array consists of Accumulator and B, C, D, E, H,
L registers.
 Control Unit: Contol Unit controls the data and instruction flow in the system.
2) What is microprocessor 8085?
The 8085 (eight zero eight five) microprocessor is an 8-bit microprocessor. It is developed by Intel using
NMOS technology and introduced in 1976, March. The 8085 is the version of 8080 microprocessor were
added to the interrupt and serial input/output features.
The 8085 microprocessor has an 8-bit data width and 16-bit address width. This microprocessor has 60 pins.
This is used for many electronic devices like oven, mobiles, etc.
3) What is interrupt in microprocessor?
The Interrupt in the microprocessor is a signal which is generated by external peripherals. There are five
interrupt in the microprocessor which is:- RST 5.5, 6.5, 7.5, INTR, TRAP.
4) What is 8086 microprocessor?
The 8086 microprocessor is a 16-bit microprocessor. It is a developer by Intel and it is an advanced version
of 8085. This processor has a 16-bit data width, a 20-bit address width, and 1MB memory storage. It provides
a powerful instruction set. Using 8086 microprocessor make some operation like multiplication and division
and so on easily.
5) What is bus in microprocessor?
The Bus is common terms in the microprocessor which is mostly used for transmission. The system of the bus
is to transmit the data/information and address in binary form.
1. Address Bus:
2. Data Bus:
3. Control Bus:
6) What is flag in microprocessor?
The Flag register is a Special Purpose Register which shows the status of the task. This is an 8-bit register but
the only 5bit is used for the operation.
7) What is interfacing in microprocessor?
The microprocessor accesses the memory to read the instruction code and store the data called memory
interface.
8) What is register in microprocessor?
The register in the microprocessor is a temporary storage location in CPU. The register stores the data and
addresses temporary for operation.
10) What is polling in microprocessor?
The polling method used for checking, the state of preparedness of external devices connection.
11) What is interfacing in microprocessor 8086
Interface refers to the path for communication between two components. Interfacing is of two types, memory
interfacing, and I/O interfacing.
14) What is opcode and operand in microprocessor?
The Opcode is operation codes in the microprocessor which is done addition, multiplication, etc operation.
The operand contains the data or memory location in the register.
16) What is 16 bit microprocessor?
The 16-bit microprocessor has a 16-bit data width, 20-bit address width, and 1MB memory storage. This has a
powerful instruction set to do many operations. 8086 is an example of a 16-bit microprocessor.
17) What is 8 bit microprocessor?
The 8-bit microprocessor has an 8-bit data width, a 16-bit address width. The 8085 is an example of an 8-
bit microprocessor.
18) What is assembler in microprocessor?
The assembler in microprocessor used to convert instruction code to machine code.
19) What is data bus in microprocessor?
The data bus is bidirectional and carries the data and information. The data bus either 8bit or 16 bit.
24) What is ale in microprocessor?
The ALE is an acronym of Address Enable Latch. If pulse goes high i.e. ALE=1, it means address bus enable
and pulse goes low i.e. ALE=0, it means data bus enable. The ALE controls the signal when the pulse goes high
because the new task started.
29) How many pins in 8086 microprocessor have?
The 8086 has a 16-bit microprocessor which is 40 pins available. 16 data bus, 20 address bus, 2 ground pin, 1
reset pin, and 1 supply pin.
30) When was the first microprocessor introduced?
The first microprocessor is invented in1971. It is 4 bit Intel 4004 microprocessor.
33) What is difference between microprocessor and microcontroller?
Difference between microprocessor and microcontroller
The microprocessor - used in the computer system. Memory and I/O device connected externally. The
microprocessor actually processes the data.
The microcontroller - used in the embedded system. The memory and I/O devices have inbuilt. The
microcontroller determines the process of data.

https://engineerspower.com/microprocessor-interview-questions-answers/

12.Computer Networking

1) What is a Link?
A link refers to the connectivity between two devices. It includes the type of cables and protocols used for one
device to be able to communicate with the other.
2) What are the layers of the OSI reference model?
There are 7 OSI layers: 1) Physical Layer, 2) Data Link Layer, 3) Network Layer, 4) Transport Layer, 5)
Session Layer, 6) Presentation Layer, and 7) Application Layer.
3) What is the backbone network?
A backbone network is a centralized infrastructure that is designed to distribute different routes and data to
various networks. It also handles the management of bandwidth and multiple channels.
5) What is a node?
A node refers to a point or joint where a connection takes place.
9) What is a subnet mask?
A subnet mask is combined with an IP address to identify two parts: the extended network address and the host
address. Like an IP address, a subnet mask is made up of 32 bits.
10) What is the maximum length allowed for a UTP cable?
A single segment of UTP cable has an allowable length of 90 to 100 meters.
11) What is data encapsulation?
Data encapsulation is the process of breaking down information into smaller, manageable chunks before it is
transmitted across the network.
12) Describe Network Topology
Network Topology refers to the layout of a computer network. It shows how devices and cables are physically
laid out, as well as how they connect.
13) What is a VPN?
VPN means Virtual Private Network, a technology that allows a secure tunnel to be created across a network
such as the Internet.
14) Briefly describe NAT
NAT is Network Address Translation. This is a protocol that provides a way for multiple computers on a
common network to share a single connection to the Internet.
15) What is the job of the Network Layer under the OSI reference model?
The Network layer is responsible for data routing, packet switching, and control of network congestion. Routers
operate under this layer.
16) How does a network topology affect your decision to set a network?
Network topology dictates what media you must use to interconnect devices. It also serves as a basis on what
materials, connectors, and terminations that is applicable for the setup.
18) What are the different ways of securing a computer network?
There are several ways to do this. Install a reliable and updated anti-virus program on all computers. Make sure
firewalls are setup and configured correctly. User authentication will also help a lot. All these combined would
make a highly secured network.
20) What is WAN?
WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is an interconnection of computers and devices that are geographically
dispersed. It connects networks that are located in different regions and countries.
21) What is the importance of the OSI Physical Layer?
The physical layer does the conversion from data bits to the electrical signal, and vice versa. This is where
network devices and cable types are considered and setup.
23) What are proxy servers, and how do they protect computer networks?
Proxy servers primarily prevent external users who are identifying the IP addresses of an internal network.
24) What is the function of the OSI Session Layer?
This layer provides the protocols and means for two devices on the network to communicate with each other by
holding a session. This includes setting up the session, managing information exchange during the session, and
tear-down process upon termination of the session.
25) What is the importance of implementing a Fault Tolerance System?
A fault tolerance system ensures continuous data availability. This is done by eliminating a single point of
failure.
28) What is NOS?
NOS, or Network Operating System, is specialized software. The main task of this software is to provide
network connectivity to a computer in order to communicate with other computers and connected devices.
30) What is OSI, and what role does it play in computer networks?
OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) serves as a reference model for data communication. It is made up of 7 layers,
with each layer defining a particular aspect of how network devices connect and communicate with one another.
One layer may deal with the physical media used, while another layer dictates how data is transmitted across the
network.
31) What is the purpose of cables being shielded and having twisted pairs?
The primary purpose of this is to prevent crosstalk. Crosstalk’s are electromagnetic interferences or noise that
can affect data being transmitted across cables.
32) What is the advantage of address sharing?
By using address translation instead of routing, address sharing provides an inherent security benefit. That’s
because host PCs on the Internet can only see the public IP address of the external interface on the computer.
Instead, it provides address translation and not the private IP addresses on the internal network.
35) How can you identify the IP class of a given IP address?
By looking at the first octet of any given IP address, you can identify whether it’s Class A, B, or C. If the first
octet begins with a 0 bit, that address is Class A. If it begins with bits 10 then that address is a Class B address.
If it begins with 110, then it’s a Class C network.
36) What is the main purpose of OSPF?
OSPF, or Open Shortest Path First, is a link-state routing protocol that uses routing tables to determine the best
possible path for data exchange.
39) What are gateways?
Gateways provide connectivity between two or more network segments. It is usually a computer that runs the
gateway software and provides translation services.
41) What is SLIP?
SLIP, or Serial Line Interface Protocol, is an old protocol developed during the early UNIX days. This is one of
the protocols that are used for remote access.
46) What is a Hybrid Network?
A hybrid network is a network setup that makes use of both client-server and peer-to-peer architecture.
50) How can you manage a network using a router?
Routers have a built-in console that lets you configure different settings, like security and data logging. You can
assign restrictions to computers, such as what resources it is allowed access or what particular time of the day,
they can browse the Internet. You can even put restrictions on what websites are not viewable across the entire
network.
51) What protocol can be applied when you want to transfer files between different platforms, such as
UNIX systems and Windows servers?
Use FTP (File Transfer Protocol) for file transfers between such different servers. This is possible because FTP
is platform-independent.
52) What is the use of a default gateway?
Default gateways provide means for the local networks to connect to the external network. The default gateway
for connecting to the external network is usually the address of the external router port.
53) What can be considered as good passwords?
Good passwords are made up of not just letters, but by combining letters and numbers.
54) What is the proper termination rate for UTP cables?
The proper termination for unshielded twisted pair network cable is 100 ohms.
56) What is the number of network IDs in a Class C network?
For a Class C network, the number of usable Network ID bits is 21. The number of possible network IDs is 2
raised to 21 or 2,097,152. The number of host IDs per network ID is 2 raised to 8 minus 2, or 254.
57) What happens when you use cables longer than the prescribed length?
Cables that are too long would result in signal loss. It means that data transmission and reception would be
affected because the signal degrades over length.
58) What common software problems can lead to network defects?
Software related problems can be any or a combination of the following:
 Client-server problems
 Application conflicts
 Error in configuration
 Protocol mismatch
 Security issues
 User policy and rights issues
63) What advantages does fiber optics have over other media?
One major advantage of fiber optics is that it is less susceptible to electrical interference. It also supports higher
bandwidth, meaning more data can be transmitted and received. Signal degrading is also very minimal over
long distances.
65) What are the different network protocols that are supported by Windows RRAS services?
There are three main network protocols supported: NetBEUI, TCP/IP, and IPX.
66) What are the maximum networks and hosts in class A, B, and C network?
For Class A, there are 126 possible networks and 16,777,214 hosts. For Class B, there are 16,384 possible
networks and 65,534 hosts. For Class C, there are 2,097,152 possible networks and 254 hosts
67) What is the standard color sequence of a straight-through cable?
Orange/white, orange, green/white, blue, blue/white, green, brown/white, brown.
68) What protocols fall under the Application layer of the TCP/IP stack?
The following are the protocols under the TCP/IP Application layer: FTP, TFTP, Telnet, and SMTP.
69) You need to connect two computers for file sharing. Is it possible to do this without using a hub or a
router?
Yes, you can connect two computers, using only one cable. A crossover type cable can be used in this scenario.
In this setup, the data transmit pin of one cable is connected to the data receive pin of the other cable, and vice
versa.
70) What is ipconfig?
Ipconfig is a utility program that is commonly used to identify the addresses information of a computer on a
network. It can show the physical address as well as the IP address.
71) What is the difference between a straight-through and crossover cable?
A straight-through cable is used to connect computers to a switch, hub, or router. A crossover cable is used to
connect two similar devices, such as a PC to PC or Hub, to the Hub.
72) What is the client/server?
Client/server is a type of network wherein one or more computers act as servers. Servers provide a centralized
repository of resources such as printers and files. Clients refer to a workstation that accesses the server.
73) Describe networking.
Networking refers to the interconnection between computers and peripherals for data communication.
Networking can be done using wired cabling or through a wireless link.
74) When you move the NIC cards from one PC to another PC, does the MAC address gets transferred as
well?
Yes, that’s because MAC addresses are hard-wired into the NIC circuitry, not the PC. This also means that a PC
can have a different MAC address when another one replaced the NIC card.
75) Explain clustering support
Clustering support refers to the ability of a network operating system to connect multiple servers in a fault-
tolerant group. The main purpose of this is the if one server fails, all processing will continue with the next
server in the cluster.
76) Where is the best place to install an Anti-virus program?
An anti-virus program must be installed on all servers and workstations to ensure protection. That’s because
individual users can access any workstation and introduce a computer virus. You can plug in their removable
hard drives or flash drives.
79) What is the difference between CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA?
CSMA/CD, or Collision Detect, retransmits data frames whenever a collision occurred. CSMA/CA, or Collision
Avoidance, will first broadcast intent to send prior to data transmission.
80) What is SMTP?
SMTP is short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. This protocol deals with all internal mail and provides the
necessary mail delivery services on the TCP/IP protocol stack.
81) What is multicast routing?
Multicast routing is a targeted form of broadcasting that sends a message to a selected group of the user instead
of sending it to all users on a subnet.
82) What is the importance of Encryption on a network?
Encryption is the process of translating information into a code that is unreadable by the user. It is then
translated back or decrypted back to its normal readable format using a secret key or password. Encryption
ensures that information that is intercepted halfway would remain unreadable because the user must have the
correct password or key for it.
83) How are IP addresses arranged and displayed?
IP addresses are displayed as a series of four decimal numbers that are separated by period or dots. Another
term for this arrangement is the dotted-decimal format. An example is 192.168.101.2
84) Explain the importance of authentication.
Authentication is the process of verifying a user’s credentials before he can log into the network. It is normally
performed using a username and password. This provides a secure means of limiting access from unwanted
intruders on the network.
85) What is meaning by tunnel mode?
This is a mode of data exchange wherein two communicating computers do not use IPsec themselves. Instead,
the gateway that is connecting their LANs to the transit network creates a virtual tunnel. So, it uses the IPsec
protocol to secure all communication that passes through it.
86) What are the different technologies involved in establishing WAN links?
 Analog connections – using conventional telephone lines
 Digital connections – using digital-grade telephone lines
 Switched connections – using multiple sets of links between the sender and receiver to move data.
88) When troubleshooting computer network problems, what common hardware-related problems can
occur?
A large percentage of a network is made up of hardware. Problems in these areas can range from
malfunctioning hard drives, broken NICs, and even hardware startups. Incorrect hardware configuration is also
one of those culprits to look into.
89) How can you fix signal attenuation problems?
A common way of dealing with such a problem is to use repeaters and hubs because it will help regenerate the
signal and therefore prevent signal loss. Checking if cables are properly terminated is also a must.
90) How does dynamic host configuration protocol aid in network administration?
Instead of having to visit each client computer to configure a static IP address, the network administrator can
apply dynamic host configuration protocol to create a pool of IP addresses known as scopes that can be
dynamically assigned to clients.
91) Explain profile in terms of networking concepts
Profiles are the configuration settings made for each user. A profile may be created that puts a user in a group,
96) What is one basic requirement for establishing VLANs?
A VLAN is required because at the switch level. There is only one broadcast domain. It means whenever a new
user is connected to switch. This information is spread throughout the network. VLAN on switch helps to create
a separate broadcast domain at the switch level. It is used for security purposes.
97) What is IPv6?
IPv6, or Internet Protocol version 6, was developed to replace IPv4. At present, IPv4 is being used to control
internet traffic but is expected to get saturated in the near future. IPv6 was designed to overcome this limitation.
98) What is the RSA algorithm?
RSA is short for the Rivest-Shamir-Adleman algorithm. It is the most commonly used public-key encryption
algorithm in use today.
100) what is the maximum segment length of a 100Base-FX network?
The maximum allowable length for a network segment using 100Base-FX is 412 meters. The maximum length
for the entire network is 5 kilometers.
104) What is the maximum segment length of a 100Base-FX network?
The maximum length for a network segment using 100Base-FX is 412 meters.
105) What is a Decoder?
The decoder is a type of circuit that converts the encoded data to its original format. It also converts the digital
signal into an analog signal.
106) What is Brouter?
Brouter is also known as Bridge Router. It is a device that acts as both a bridge and a router. As a bridge can
forwards data between the networks. It also routes the data to specified systems within a network.
108) Why the standard OSI model is known as 802.xx?
The OSI model was started in February 1980. In 802.XX, ’80’ stands for the year 1980, and ‘2’ represents the
month of February.
109) What is NVT (Network Virtual Terminal)?
NVT is a set of pre-defined rules to very simple virtual terminal interaction. This terminal helps you to start a
Telnet session.
110) What is the source route?
The source route is a sequence of IP addresses that helps you to identify the route a datagram. You can include
the source route in the IP datagram header.
111) Explain the term Pipelining
Pipelining describes the sequencing of processes. When any new task begins before an ongoing task is finished,
it is called sequencing.
112) Which measurement unit is used to measure the transmission speed of Ethernet?
The transmission speed of Ethernet is mostly measured in Mbps.
113) What is the maximum length of Thinnet cable?
The length of the Thinnet cable is 185 meters.
114) Which cable is also called as the RG8 cable?
Thicknet cable is also called as the RG8 cable.
115) Is coaxial cable still used in the computer network?
No, Nowadays, coaxial cable no longer used in a computer network.
116) Which cable uses the RJ11 connector?
Most of the telephone cable uses the RJ11 connector.
117) Explain Multi-homed Host
It is a host that has multiple network interfaces that multiple IP addresses is called a Multi-homed Host.
128) What are the types of MAC Addresses?
Here are the important types of MAC addresses:
 Universally Administered AddressUAA(Universally Administered Address) is the most used type of
MAC address. It is given to the network adapter at the time of manufacturing.
 Locally Administered AddressLAA (Locally Administered Address) is an address that changes the MAC
address of the adapter. You may assign this address to a device used by network administrator.
130) What is an Analog Signal?
Analog signal is a continuous signal in which one time-varying quantity represents another time-based variable.
These kind of signals works with physical values and natural phenomena such as earthquake, frequency,
volcano, speed of wind, weight, lighting, etc.
131) What is a Digital Signal?
A digital signal is a signal that is used to represent data as a sequence of separate values at any point in time. It
can only take on one of a fixed number of values. This type of signal represents a real number within a constant
range of values.
132) What are the differences between analog and digital signal?
Here are the main differences between Analog and Digital Signal:
Analog Digital
It is denoted by sine waves It is denoted by square waves.
It uses a continuous range of values that help you to The Digital signal uses discrete 0 and 1 to represent
represent information. information.
The analog signal bandwidth is low The digital signal bandwidth is high.
Digital hardware offers flexibility in
Analog hardware never offers flexible implementation.
implementation.

It is suited for audio and video transmission. It is suited for Computing and digital electronics.

The Analog signal doesn’t offer any fixed range. Digital signal has a finite number, i.e., 0 and 1.
134) What is Modem?
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog signal to digital information.
135) What are the advantages of a Modem?
Here, are pros/advantage of Modem:
  More useful in connecting LAN with the Internet
 Speed depends on the cost
 The Modem is the most widely used data communication roadway.
Q2. What are the different types of networks?
Ans. Considering the size or span of a network, we can classify them as follows:
 PAN (Personal Area Network) – PAN is made up of devices used by a single person. It has a range of a
few meters.
 WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Network) – It is a PAN network that uses wireless technologies as a
medium.
 LAN (Local Area Network) – LAN is a network whose range is limited to a relatively small area, such
as a room, a building, an aero plane, etc.
 WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) – WLAN is a LAN network that uses wireless means of
communication. It is a widely used configuration due to its scalability and because it does not require the
installation of cables.
 CAN (Campus Area Network) – A network of high-speed devices that connects LANs in a limited
geographical area, such as a university campus, a military base, etc.
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) – MAN is a high-speed (broadband) network providing coverage
in a larger geographic area than a campus, but still limited.
 WAN (Wide Area Network) – WAN extends over a large geographical area using unusual means of
communication, such as satellites, interoceanic cables, fibre optics, etc. Use public media.
 VLAN – It is a type of logical or virtual LAN, mounted on a physical network, in order to increase
security and performance. In special cases, thanks to the 802.11Q protocol (also called QinQ), it is
possible to mount virtual networks on WAN networks. It is important not to confuse this implementation
with VPN technology.
Q4. What are the different types of network cables used in networking?
Ans. The different types of cables used in networks are –
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Cable Installation Guides
 Coaxial Cable
 Fibre Optic Cable
 Wireless LANs
Q5. What is a ‘subnet’?
Ans. A ‘subnet’ is a generic term for a section of an extensive network, usually separated by a bridge or a router.
Q11. What are the different features of Frame Relay?
Ans. The different features of Frame Relay are:
 Frame Relay is a connectionless service, which means that every data packet that passes over the
network contains address information
 Frame Relay is a service that is provided with a variety of speeds from 56 Kbs to 25 Mbs. Although the
speeds most used for the service are currently 56 Kbs and 1,544 Mbs
 The frames are of variable length and go up to 4,096 bytes
 Frame Relay is considered a broadband ISDN service
 It operates at high speed (1,544 Mbps to 44,376 Mbps).
 It operates only on the physical and data link layers. Therefore, it can be easily used on the Internet.
 It has a large frame size of 9000 bytes. Therefore, it can accommodate all local area network frame
sizes.
 Frame Relay can only detect errors (at the data link layer). But there is no flow control or error control.
It operates in the data link layer.
Q15. Differentiate between ‘attenuation’, ‘distortion’, and ‘noise’.
Ans. When a signal travels through a medium, it loses some of its energy due to the medium’s resistance. This
loss of energy is called attenuation.
When a signal travels through a medium from one point to another, it may change the form or shape of the
signal. This is known as distortion.
Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the quality of signals and data.
Q21. What are the major types of networks?
Ans. There are two major type of networks: Server-based network and Peer-to-peer network.
Q22. What are the important topologies for networks?
Ans. There are three essential topologies: Star, Bus, and Ring.
Q23. Differentiate between static IP addressing and dynamic IP addressing.
Ans. In a static IP address, a computer (or another device) is always configured to use the same IP address. In a
dynamic IP address, the IP address can change periodically and is managed by a centralized network service.
Q24. What are the different ways to exchange data?
Ans. Following are the different ways to exchange data:
 Simplex
 Half-duplex
 Full-duplex
Q26. What are the criteria for the best path selection of a router?
Ans. The following parameters define the path selection:
 Longest prefix match
 Minimum AD (administrative distance)
 Lowest metric value
Q32. What are the perquisites to configure a server?
Ans. The perquisites to configure a server are:
 LAN card should be connected
 Root (partition on which window is installed) should be in NTFS format.
 A server should be configured with a static IP address.
Q41. A gateway works in which layer of the OSI model?
Ans. Transport layer.
Q43. What common software problems lead to network defects?
Ans. It can be any or a combination of:
 Application conflicts
 Client-server problems
 Configuration error
 Protocol mismatch
 Security issues
 User policy & rights issues
Q47. What is TELNET?
Ans. TELNET is a client-service protocol on the internet or local area network, allowing a user to log on to a
remote device and have access to it.
Q58. What is the difference between Communication and Transmission?
Ans. Transmission – A process of sending and receiving data between source and destination, in only one way.
It is regarded as the physical movement of data.
Communication – A process of sending and receiving data between source and destination, in both ways.
Q77. What are the Triggers?
Ans. Triggers are event-driven specialized procedures and are managed by database management systems. It is
capable of performing complex actions and uses procedural languages full throttle.
Q79. Is there a difference between a gateway and a router?
Ans. A gateway sends the data between two dissimilar networks, while a router sends the data between two
similar networks.
Q83. Explain 10Base-T.
Ans. 10Base-T specifies data transfer rate, i.e., 10Mbps. Here the usage of the term ‘Base’ defines ‘Baseband’
and not ‘Broadband’. T denotes the type of cable, which is a twisted pair.
Q84. Name the user support layers.
Ans. There are three types of user support layers –
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer and
 Application Layer
Q88. What are the different types of transmission media?
Ans. Transmission media has two broad types –
 Guided media (wired)
 Unguided media (wireless)
Q89. What is Process Sigma?
Ans. Process Sigma measures the frequency of a task that is performed without any error. It is expressed as a
number of standard deviations on a normal distribution.
Q93. What is the range of addresses in the classes of internet addresses?
Ans. Following are the five different ranges of addresses in the classes of the internet:
 Class A: 0.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255
 Class B: 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255
 Class C: 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255
 Class D: 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255
 Class E: 240.0.0.0 – 247.255.255.255
Q95. What are the functions of a Network Layer?
Ans. The Network Layer or OSI Layer 3 provides services for exchanging individual sections of data over the
network between identified end devices. To perform this end-to-end transport Layer 3 uses four basic processes:
 Addressing
 Encapsulation
 Routing
 Decapsulation
Q96. Name the access method used in the 1000BaseTX network.
Ans. CSMA/CD access method is used in the 1000BaseTX network.
Q97. Mention the different types of links used to build a computer network.
Ans. Following are the different types of links used to build a computer network:
 Cables
 Wireless Links
 Last-Mile Links
 Leased Lines
Q98. Mention the types of wires used for data transmission in UTP cable.
Ans. There are four types of wires used for data transmission in UTP cable, which is wire 1, 2, 3, and 6. Where
wires 1 and 2 are used to transmit the data while wires 3 and 6 are used to receive the data.
Q99. Can we use RG59 and RG6 cables in a computer network?
Ans. RG59 and RG6 cables are not used in the computer network. These cables are made for the cable TV
network.
Q101. Name the cable used in the 10BaseFL network.
Ans. Fibre optical cable is the cable used in the 10BaseFL network.
Q102. Why is IP protocol deliberated as a connectionless protocol?
Ans. An IP protocol is deliberated as a connectionless protocol because it does not build up a connection before
sending data to the endpoint.
Q103. How many network segments can be populated in 10Base2?
Ans. 10Base2 networks allow a maximum of five segments with only three of those segments populated. Each
of the three populated segments can have a maximum of 30 nodes attached.
Q104. What is the point-to-point protocol?
Ans. A communications protocol is used to connect computers to remote networking services, including
Internet service providers.
Q106. Mention any five applications that use TCP port.
Ans. Following are the five application that uses TCP port:
  FTP
 POP
 SSH
 SMTP
 Telnet
Q108. Name the measurement unit used to measure the transmission speed of Ethernet?
Ans. Mbps is the measurement unit used to measure the transmission speed of Ethernet.
Q109. Name the switching method used to explore the destination Mac address.
Ans. The switching method that is used to explore the destination Mac address is Cut Through.
Q110. Mention the use of DDR on Cisco routers.
Ans. DDR stands for dial-on-demand routing used to generate and close a circuit-switched session. It provides
on-demand routing to the low volume and periodic traffic.
Q111. Mention the number of access lists required per interface.
Ans. One access list can be used per interface and per protocol.
Q112. What is the possible way to convert the user data from DTE to the WAN Service Form?
Ans. To convert the user data from DTE to WAN Service Form, we can use the Modem, CSU/DSU, and
TA/NT1.
Q125. Mention the maximum number of networks and hosts used in classes A, B, and C networks.
Ans. The maximum number of networks and hosts used in class A, B, and C networks are:
 Class A: 126 networks, 16,777,214 hosts.
 Class B: 16,384 networks, 65,534 hosts.
 Class C: 2,097,152 networks, 254 hosts.
Q126. Differentiate between a ‘bit rate’ and ‘baud rate’.
Ans. A bit rate is the number of bits transmitted during one second, whereas, baud rate refers to the number of
signal units per second that are required to represent those bits.
Baud rate = bit rate / N, where N is the no. of bits represented by each signal shift.
Q127. What is Project 802?
Ans. It is a project started by IEEE to set standards to enable intercommunication between equipment from a
variety of manufacturers.
12. Describe the OSI Reference Model
Open System Interconnections (OSI) is a network architecture model based on the ISO standards. It is called the
OSI model as it deals with connecting the systems that are open for communication with other systems.
The OSI model has seven layers. The principles used to arrive at the seven layers can be summarized briefly as
below:
 Create a new layer if a different abstraction is needed.
 Each layer should have a well-defined function.
 The function of each layer is chosen based on internationally standardized protocols.
13. Define the 7 different layers of the OSI Reference Model
Here the 7 layers of the OSI reference model:
 Layers of OSI Model
Layer Unit Exchanged Description
 It is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel.
Physical Bit  Chooses which type of transmission mode is to be selected for the
transmission. The available transmission modes are Simplex, Half
Duplex and Full Duplex.,
 The main task of this layer is to transform a raw transmission
facility into a line that appears free of undetected transmission
errors.
 It also allows detecting damaged packets using the CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) error-detecting, code.
Data Link Frame
 When more than one node is connected to a shared link, Data Link
Layer protocols are required to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.
 It is implemented by protocols like CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA,
ALOHA, and Token Passing.
 It controls the operation of the subnet.
Network Packet  The network layer takes care of feedback messaging through ICMP
messages.
 The basic functionality of this layer is to accept data from the
above layers, split it up into smaller units if needed, pass these to
TPDU - Transaction
Transport the network layer, and ensure that all the pieces arrive correctly at
Protocol Data Unit
the other end.
 The Transport Layer takes care of Segmentation and Reassembly.
 The session layer allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them.
SPDU - Session
Session  Dialogue control is using the full-duplex link as half-duplex. It
Protocol Data Unit
sends out dummy packets from the client to the server when the
client is ideal.
 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics
PPDU - Presentation of the information transmitted.
Presentation
Protocol Data Unit  It translates a message from a common form to the encoded format
which will be understood by the receiver.
 It contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by
APDU - Application
Application users.
Protocol Data Unit
 The application layer sends data of any size to the transport layer.
14. Describe the TCP/IP Reference Model
It is a compressed version of the OSI model with only 4 layers. It was developed by the US Department of
Defence (DoD) in the 1980s. The name of this model is based on 2 standard protocols used i.e. TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol).
15. Define the 4 different layers of the TCP/IP Reference Model

Layers of TCP/IP
Layer Description
Decides which links such as serial lines or classic Ethernet must be used to meet the needs of the
Link
connectionless internet layer.
 The internet layer is the most important layer which holds the whole architecture together.
Internet
 It delivers the IP packets where they are supposed to be delivered.
Its functionality is almost the same as the OSI transport layer. It enables peer entities on the
Transport
network to carry on a conversation.
Application It contains all the higher-level protocols.
21. What is the TCP protocol?
TCP or TCP/IP is the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
22. What is the UDP protocol?
UDP is the User Datagram Protocol and is based on Datagrams. Mainly, it is used for multicasting and
broadcasting.
24. What is the ICMP protocol?
ICMP is the Internet Control Message Protocol. It is a network layer protocol used for error handling. It is
mainly used by network devices like routers for diagnosing the network connection issues and crucial for error
reporting and testing if the data is reaching the preferred destination in time. It uses port 7 by default.
29. Differentiate the MAC address with the IP address
The difference between MAC address and IP address are as follows:
MAC Address IP Address
Media Access Control Address Internet Protocol Address
6 or 8-byte hexadecimal number 4 (IPv4) or 16 (IPv6) Byte address
It is embedded with NIC It is obtained from the network
Physical Address Logical Address
Operates at Data Link Layer Operates at Network Layer.
Helps to identify the device Helps to identify the device connectivity on the network.

13.Software Engineering
1) What are the important categories of software?
  System software
 Application software
 Embedded software
 Web Applications
 Artificial Intelligence software
 Scientific software.
2) What is the main difference between a computer program and computer software?
A computer program is a piece of programming code. It performs a well-defined task. On the other hand, the
software includes programming code, documentation and user guide.
3) What is software re-engineering?
It is a process of software development which is done to improve the maintainability of a software system.
4) Describe the software development process in brief:
The software development is a life cycle is composed of the following stages:
 Requirement analysis
 Specification
 Software architecture
 Implementation
 Testing
 Documentation
 Training and support
 Maintenance
5) What are SDLC models available?
Waterfall Model, Spiral Model, Big-bag model, Iterative Model, and V- Model are some of the famous SDLC
models
6) What is verification and validation?
Verification:
Verification is a term that refers to the set of activities which ensure that software implements a specific
function.
Validation:
It refers to the set of activities which ensure that software that has been built according to the need of clients.
7) In software development process what is the meaning of debugging?
Debugging is the process that results in the removal of error. It is very important part of the successful testing.
8) How can you make sure that your code is both safe and fast?
In the software, development security is always first. So if the execution of the program is slow then, I will try
to identify the reason out ways to its time complexity.
9) Name two tools which are used for keeping track of software requirements?
There many l ways to keep track of requirements.
Two commonly used are:
 Make a requirements specifications document to list all of the requirements.
 Create an excel sheet the list down the requirement, type, dependency, priority, etc.
10) What is the main difference between a stubs, a mock?
A stub is a minimal implementation of an interface which generally returns hardcoded data while mock usually
verifies outputs against expectations. Those expectations are set in the test.
11) What language do you like to write programming algorithms?
Every developer has their views when it comes to the programming language choices. Though, one should
prefer high-level languages because they are dynamic. Like C and C++ languages.
12) What is computer software?
Computer software is a package which includes a software program, its documentation, and user guide on how
to use the software.

13) According to you which SDLC model is the best?

There, is no such ranking, as SDLC Models are adopted as per the need for the development process. It may
differ software-to-software.
14) Who is software project manager? What is his role?
A software project manager is a person responsible for managing the software development project.
The project manager is doing the project planning, monitoring the progress, communication. He or she also
manages risks and resources to deliver the project within time, cost, and quality constraints.
15) What is mean by software scope?
Software scope is a well-defined boundary. It includes all kind of activities that are done to develop and deliver
the software product.
The software scope defines all functionalities and artifacts to be delivered as a part of the software.
16) How to find the size of a software product?
The size of software product can be calculated using by following two methods
 Counting the lines of delivered code
 Counting delivered function points
17) What are function points?
Function points are the features which are provided by the software product.
18) What are software project estimation techniques available?
Most widely used estimation techniques are:
 Decomposition technique
 Empirical technique
19) What is Software configuration management?
Software configuration management is a process of tracking and controlling changes that happen in the
software.
20) How can you measure project execution?
We can measure project execution using Activity Monitoring, Status Reports, and Milestone Checklists.
21) Tell me about some project management tools.
There are many types of management tools used as per the need for a software project. Some of them are Pert
Chart, Gantt Chart, Resource Histogram, Status Reports, etc.
22) What are software requirements?
Software requirements are a functional description of a proposed software system. It is assumed to be the
description of the target system, its functionalities, and features.
23) What is feasibility study?
It is a measure to find out how practical and beneficial the software project development will prove to the
organization.
1. Economic:
2. Technical:
3. Operational:
24) What are functional and non-functional requirements?
Functional requirements are functional features which are expected by users from the proposed software
product.
Non-functional requirements are related to security, performance, look, and feel of the user interface.
25) What is software metric?
Software Metrics offers measures for various aspects of software process which are divided into:
1. Requirement metrics: Length requirements, completeness
2. Product metrics: Number of coding Lines, Object-oriented metrics, design and test metrics.
26) What is modularization?
Modularization is a technique which is used for dividing a software system into various discreet modules.
27) What is cohesion?
Cohesion is a measure that defines the intra-dependability among the elements of the module.
28) Mentions some software analysis & design tools?
Some of the most important software analysis and designing tools are:
 Data Flow Diagrams
  Structured Charts
 Structured English
 Data Dictionary
 Hierarchical Input Process Output diagrams
 Entity Relationship Diagrams and Decision tables
29) What is mean by level-0 Data flow diagram?
Highest abstraction level is called Level 0 of DFD. It is also called context level DFD. It portrays the entire
information system as one diagram
30) What is the major difference between structured English and Pseudo Code?
Structured English is native English language. It is used to write the structure of a program module. It uses
programming language keywords. On the other hand, Pseudo Code is more like to the programming language
without syntax of any specific language.
31) What is structured design?
Structured design is a conceptualization of problem. It also called solution design and which is based on ‘divide
and conquer’ strategy.
33) What is Quality Assurance vs. Quality Control?
Quality Assurance checks if proper process is followed while developing the software while Quality Control
deals with maintaining the quality of software product.
34) What are CASE tools?
CASE means Computer Aided Software Engineering. They are set of automated software application programs,
which are used to support, enhance and strengthen the SDLC activities.
35) Which process model removes defects before software get into trouble?
Clean room software engineering method removes defects before software gets into trouble.
37) How you can make sure that your written code which can handle various kinds of error situation?
I can write tests that define the expected error situations.
38) Explain the differences between a Thread and a Process?
A process is instance of the computer program. In a single program it is possible to have one or more threads.
40) What is strong-typing and weak-typing? Which is preferred? Why?
Strong typing checks the types of variables at compile time. On the other hand, weak typing checks the types of
the system at run-time. Among them, Strong typing is always preferred because it minimizes the bugs.
41) Describe the difference between Interface-oriented, Object-oriented and Aspect-oriented
programming.
 Interface programming is contract based.
 Object-oriented is a way to write granular objects which have a single purpose.
 Aspect Oriented Programming is to segregate the code in such a manner that various objects carry the
main tasks, and the subsidiary tasks are carried by independent objects.
42) Why using catch (exception) is always a bad idea?
It is a bad idea because:
 As there is no variable defined, it is not possible to read the exception
 It’s good to use an exception when you have known exception types.
43) What type of data is passed via HTTP Headers?
Script and metadata passed via HTTP headers.
44) How do you prioritize requirements?
First, you need to design a system by evaluating data structure. Then you should move on to the code structure
needed to support it.
45) Give me differences between object-oriented and component-based design?
Object-oriented design can easily be encapsulated to some degree in component-based design.
46) When do you use polymorphism?
Polymorphism is used when there is a need for override functionality when inheriting class.
48) What is essential for testing the quality of the code?
According to me, the unit testing framework is essential for testing the quality of the code.
49) Do you think that the maintenance of software is expensive?
According to me, maintenances of software will never be expensive if we are using proper development
process.
50) Give me differences between tags and branches?
Tags are for versioning releases which are temporary holding places for doing such thing. However, branches
are deleted when those changes are merged into the trunk.
51) Where is a protected class-level variable available?
Protected class-level variables are available to any sub-class derived from the base class.
52) Is it possible to execute multiple catch blocks for a single try statement?
Yes. Multiple catch blocks can be executed for a single try statement.
53) When do you need to declare a class as abstract?
We should declare a class as abstract in the following situations:
1. When the class is inherited from an abstract class, but not all the abstract methods have been overridden.
2. In the case when minimum one of the methods in the class is declared as an abstract.
1. What are the various categories of software?
Software products are mainly categorized into:
 System software: Software’s like operating systems, compilers, drivers, etc. fall into this category.
 Networking and web development software: Computer networking software offers the necessary
functionality for computers to communicate with one another and with data storage facilities.
 Embedded Software: Software used in instrumentation and control applications such as washing
machines, satellites, microwaves, TVs, etc.
 Artificial Intelligence Software: Expert systems, decision support systems, pattern recognition
software, artificial neural networks, and other types of software are included in this category.
 Scientific software: These support a scientific or engineering user's requirements for performing
enterprise-specific tasks. Examples include MATLAB, AUTOCAD, etc.
3. What is a framework?
A framework is a well-known method of developing and deploying software.
4. What is the main difference between a computer program and computer software?
The key difference between software is a collection of several programs used to complete tasks, whereas a
program is a set of instructions expressed in a programming language. A program can be software, but software
the vice versa is not true.
5. Describe the Software Development Process in Brief.
1. Requirements Gathering:
2. Software Design:
3. Software Development:
4. Testing and Integration:
5. Deployment:
6. Operation and Maintenance:
10. What is the waterfall method and what are its use cases?
approach, the development process is linear, and each step is finished one by one.
The software has to cover the following phases in a waterfall model:
 Requirements
 Design
 Implementation
 Testing and integration
 Deployment
 Maintenance
13. What is Software prototyping and POC?
A software prototype is a working model with limited functionality. POC (Proof of Concept) is a method used
by organizations to validate an idea or concept's practicality.

14. What are the drawbacks of the spiral model?

The spiral model is a hybrid of the iterative development process and the waterfall model, with a focus on risk
analysis. In the SDLC Spiral model, the development process begins with a limited set of requirements and
progresses through each development phase. Until the application is ready for production, the software
engineering team adds functionality for the increased requirement in ever-increasing spirals.
Drawbacks of the spiral model are:
 It's significantly more complicated than other SDLC models. The procedure is intricate.
 Due to its high cost, it is not recommended for small projects.
 Risk Analysis is overly reliant, and it necessitates a high level of skill.
 Time estimation is challenging
 The spiral could continue endlessly.
15. What is baseline in Software Development?
A baseline is a software development milestone and reference point marked by the completion or delivery of
one or more software deliverables. The main objective of the baseline is to decrease and regulate vulnerability,
or project weaknesses that can easily damage the project and lead to uncontrollable changes.
16. What is SRS?
SRS is a formal report that serves as a representation of software that allows customers to assess whether it
meets their needs. It is a list of requirements for a certain software product, program, or set of apps that execute
specific tasks in a specific environment
22. What is Concurrency?
In software engineering, concurrency refers to a set of techniques and mechanisms that allow the software to do
many tasks at the same time.
25. What is Data Flow Diagram?
A Data Flow Diagram (DFD) shows the flow of information flows through a system.
27. What is Software Configuration Management?
When a piece of software is created, there is always room for improvement. To modify or improve an existing
solution or to establish a new solution for a problem, changes may be required. Changes to the existing system
should be examined before being implemented, recorded before being implemented, documented with details of
before and after, and controlled in a way that improves quality and reduces error. This is where System
Configuration Management is required.
28. What are functional and non-functional requirements?
Functional Requirements Non-functional Requirements
These are the needs that the end-user specifies as These are the quality requirements that the system must
essential features that the system should provide. meet in order to fulfil the project contract.
Technical individuals, such as architects, technical
The user specifies the functional requirements. leaders, and software engineers, specify non-functional
requirements.
Functional Requirements are mandatory. For example, Non-functional requirements are not Mandatory. For
the client might want certain mandatory changes in UI, example, the requirement to enhance readability is non-
like dark mode. functional.
29. What is the difference between Quality Assurance and Quality control?
Quality Assurance Quality Control
Quality Assurance focuses on assuring that the Quality control focuses on controlling the processes, methods,
end product (software) will be of the requested or techniques used in the development of software so that the
quality. quality requested is fulfilled.
It is a preventive measure. It is a corrective measure.
It applies to the full software development life
It is applied in the testing phase.
cycle.
3) What does a System Engineering Model accomplish?
System Engineering Model accomplishes the following:
 Define Processes that serve needs of view
 Represent behavior of process and assumption
  Explicitly define Exogenous and Endogenous Input
 It represents all Linkages that enable an engineer to understand aspect better.
5) What are the characteristics of the software?
Characteristics of the software are:
 Software is engineered, not manufactured.
 Software does not wear out.
 Most software is custom-built rather than being assembled from components.
6) What are the various categories of software?
The various categories of software are:
 System software Application.
 Software Engineering / Scientific.
 Software Embedded software.
 Web Applications.
 Artificial Intelligence software.
7) What are the challenges in software?
The challenges in the software are:
 Copying with legacy systems.
 Heterogeneity challenge.
 Delivery times challenge.
10) What is the limitation of RAD Model?
Limitation of RAD Model are:
 It requires a sufficient number of Human Resources to create enough number of teams.
 Developers and Users are not committed, the system fails.
 It is not Properly Modularized building component may be Problematic.
 It is not applicable when there is more possibility for Technical Risk.
11) What are the disadvantages of classic life cycle model?
Disadvantages of the classic life cycle model are:
 Real projects rarely follow the sequential flow. Iteration always occurs and creates a problem.
 Challenging for the customer to state all requirements.
 The working version of the program is not available. So the customer must have patience.
12) What are the merits of the incremental model?
The merits of the incremental model are:
 The incremental model can be accepted when there is less number of people include in the project.
 Technical risks can be handle with each increment.
 For a minimal period, at least the core product can be delivered to the user.
13) What is the disadvantage of the spiral model?
The disadvantage of the spiral model are:
 It is based on user communication. If the interface is not proper, then the software product which gets
created will not be the up to the mark.
 It demands a vast risk assessment. If the risk assessment is completed correctly, then only the successful
product can be obtained.
14) Name the Evolutionary process Models.
Evolutionary powers models are:
 Incremental model
 Spiral model
 WIN-WIN spiral model
 Concurrent Development

15) Define Software Prototyping.

Software prototyping is represented as rapid software development for validating the requirements.
16) What are the benefits of prototyping?
The benefits of prototyping are:
 Prototype services as a basis for developing system specification.
 Design quality can be revised.
 The system can be managed easily.
 Development efforts may get decreased.
 System usability can be upgraded.
17) What are the prototyping methods in software process?
The prototyping methods in the software process are:
 Evolutionary prototyping: In this method of system development, the initial prototype is arranged, and it
is then precise through the number of phases to the final stage.
 Throw-away prototyping: Using this method, a rough practical implementation of the system is
produced. The requirement issues can be identified from this implementation. It is then rejected. System
is then developed using some various engineering paradigm.
18) What are the advantages of evolutionary prototyping?
 Fast delivery of the working system.
 User is contained while developing the system.
 The more useful system can be delivered.
 Specification, design and implementation work in equivalent manner.
19) What are the various Rapid prototyping techniques?
The various rapid prototyping techniques are:
 Dynamic high-level language development.
 Database programming.
 Component and application assembly.
20) What are the uses of User-Interface Prototyping?
This prototyping is used to pre-specify the looks and effectively feel of customer interface.
21) What is the principle of the prototype model?
A prototype is built to quickly determine to the user what the product would look like. The only minimal
functionality of the actual product is supported during the prototyping phase.
22) Define System Context Diagram (SCD)?
System Context Diagram (SCD):
Establish data boundary between System being implemented and Environment in which system operates.
Describes all external producers, external consumers, and entities that communicate through the customer
interface.
23) Define Quality Function Deployment (QFD)?
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a method that translates the needs of the user into a technical
requirement. It concentrates on maximizing user satisfaction from the software engineering process.
24) What is Requirement Engineering?
Requirement engineering is the process of establishing services which the user required from the system and
constraint under which it operates and is developed.
25) What is ERD?
Entity Relationship Diagram is the graphical description of the object relationship pair.
26) What is DFD?
Data Flow Diagram depicts the data flow and the transforms which are applied to the data as it moves from
input to output.
27) What is a state transition diagram?
State transition diagram is a collection of states and events. The events cause the operation to change its state. It
also describes what actions are to be taken on the occurrence of particular events.
29) What is the use of CMM?
Software Quality means Conformance to state functional explicitly and performance requirements, explicitly
documented development standards, inherent characteristics expected for professionally developed software.
32) Define Refactoring.
Refactoring means changing a software system in a way that does not alter the external behavior of code.
33) What is Software Architecture?
Software Architecture means the overall structure of the software and how that software provides conceptual
integrity for the system.
34) Define Stamp coupling.
When a portion of the data structure is passed via the module interface, then it is called as stamp coupling.
37) Define metrics.
Metrics are defined as the degree to which a system component or process possesses a given attribute.
38) What is COCOMO model?
Constructive Cost Model is a cost model, which gives the estimate of several staff-months it will take to
develop the software product.
39) What is the purpose of the timeline chart?
The objective of the timeline chart is to emphasize the scope of the individual task. Hence set of functions are
given as input to the timeline chart.
40) Define Smoke Testing?
Smoke testing is Integration Testing and frequently used when software products are being developed.
41) What are the benefits of Smoke Testing?
 Benefits of doing Smoke Testing are:
 Integration Risk is minimized.
 Quality of end-product is improved.
 Error diagnosis and Correction are simplified.
 Progress is easy to assess.
42) What is Equivalence Partition?
Equivalence Partitions Derives an input domain of a program into classes of data from which test cases are
derived. It is a Set of Objects have linked by relationships as Symmetric, Transitive, and Reflexive an
equivalence class is present.
43) What are the steps followed in testing?
The steps followed in testing are:
 Unit testing: The individual elements are tested in this type of testing.
 Module testing: Related group of independent items is tested.
 Sub-system testing: This is a type of integration testing. Different modules are integrated into a sub-
system, and the entire subsystem is tested.
 System testing: The entire system is tested in this system.
 Acceptance testing: This type of testing contains testing of the system with user data if the system
behaves as per client need, then it is accepted.
44) Distinguish between Alpha and Beta testing.
Alpha and Beta testing’s are the two types of acceptance testing.
 Alpha test: The alpha testing is attesting in which the customer tests the version of complete software
under the supervision of the developer. This testing is implement at the developer's site.
 Beta test: The beta testing is a testing in which the customer tests the version of the software without the
developer being present. This testing is performed at the customer's site.
45) What are the types of Static Testing tools?
There are the three types of static testing tools.
 Code-based testing tools: These tools take source code as input and generate test cases.
 Specialized testing tools: Using this language, the detailed test specification can be written for each test
case.
 Requirement-based testing tools: These tools help in designing as per user requirements.
46) Define maintenance.
Maintenance is described as the process in which changes are implemented by either modifying the existing
system architecture or by adding new components to the system.
47) What are the types of software maintenance?
Types of software maintenance are:
 Corrective Maintenance: It means the maintenance for correcting the software faults.
 Adaptive maintenance: It means maintenance for adapting the change in environment.
 Perfective maintenance: It means modifying or enhancing the system to meet the new requirements.
 Preventive maintenance: It means changes made to improve future maintainability.
49) What is Risk management?
Risk management is the phase of anticipating hurdles in carrying out the original plan and providing alternate
methods so that the impact on the anticipated initially outcome is minimal.
Q.What is computer software?
A. Computer software is a complete package, which includes software program, its documentation and user
guide on how to use the software.
Q.What is software engineering?
A. Software engineering is an engineering branch associated with software system development.
Q.When you know programming, what is the need to learn software engineering concepts?
A. A person who knows how to build a wall may not be good at building an entire house. Likewise, a person
who can write programs may not have knowledge of other concepts of Software Engineering. The software
engineering concepts guide programmers on how to assess requirements of end user, design the algorithms
before actual coding starts, create programs by coding, testing the code and its documentation.
Q.What is software process or Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)?
A.Software Development Life Cycle, or software process is the systematic development of software by
following every stage in the development process namely, Requirement Gathering, System Analysis, Design,
Coding, Testing, Maintenance and Documentation in that order.
Q.What is software project management?
A. Software project management is process of managing all activities like time, cost and quality management
involved in software development.
Q.Who is software project manager?
A. A software project manager is a person who undertakes the responsibility of carrying out the software
project.
Q.What is project estimation?
A. It is a process to estimate various aspects of software product in order to calculate the cost of development in
terms of efforts, time and resources.
Q.What is Software configuration management?
A. Software Configuration management is a process of tracking and controlling the changes in software in
terms of the requirements, design, functions and development of the product.
Q.What is change control?
A. Change control is function of configuration management, which ensures that all changes made to software
system are consistent and made as per organizational rules and regulations.
Q.How can you gather requirements?
A. Requirements can be gathered from users via interviews, surveys, task analysis, brainstorming, domain
analysis, prototyping, studying existing usable version of software, and by observation.
Q.What is coupling?
A. Coupling is a measure that defines the level of inter-dependability among modules of a program.
Q.What is data dictionary?
A. Data dictionary is referred to as meta-data. Meaning, it is a repository of data about data.
Q.What is structured design?
A. Structured design is a conceptualization of problem into several well-organized elements of solution. It is
concern with the solution design and based on ‘divide and conquer’ strategy.
Q.Briefly define top-down and bottom-up design model.
A. Top-down model starts with generalized view of system and decomposes it to more specific ones, whereas
bottom-up model starts with most specific and basic components first and keeps composing the components to
get higher level of abstraction.
Q.What is the basis of Halstead’s complexity measure?
A. Halstead’s complexity measure depends up on the actual implementation of the program and it considers
tokens used in the program as basis of measure.
Q.Mention the formula to calculate Cyclomatic complexity of a program?
A. Cyclomatic complexity uses graph theory’s formula: V(G) = e – n + 2
Q.What is functional programming?
A. Functional programming is style of programming language, which uses the concepts of mathematical
function. It provides means of computation as mathematical functions, which produces results irrespective of
program state.
Q.What are various types of software maintenance?
A. Maintenance types are: corrective, adaptive, perfective and preventive.
 Corrective
Removing errors spotted by users
 Adaptive
tackling the changes in the hardware and software environment where the software works
 Perfective maintenance
implementing changes in existing or new requirements of user
 Preventive maintenance
taking appropriate measures to avoid future problems

14.Artificial Intelligence

2. What are Intelligent Agents, and How are They Used in AI?
Intelligent agents are autonomous entities that use sensors to know what is going on, and then use actuators to
perform their tasks or goals. They can be simple or complex and can be programmed to learn to accomplish
their jobs better.
3. What is TensorFlow, and What is It Used For?
TensorFlow is an open-source software library initially developed by the Google Brain Team
4. What is Machine Learning, and How Does It Relate to AI?
Machine learning is a subset of AI. The idea is that machines will “learn” and get better at tasks over time rather
than having humans continually having to input parameters. Machine learning is a practical application of AI.
5. What are Neural Networks, and How Do They Relate to AI?
Neural networks are a class of machine learning algorithms. The neuron part of the neural is the computational
component, and the network part is how the neurons are connected.
6. What is Deep Learning, and How Does It Relate to AI?
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning. It refers to using multi-layered neural networks to process data in
increasingly sophisticated ways, enabling the software to train itself to perform tasks like speech and image
recognition through exposure to these vast amounts of data for continual improvement in the ability to
recognize and process information. Layers of neural networks stacked on top of each for use in deep learning
are called deep neural networks.
7. Why is Image Recognition a Key Function of AI?
Humans are visual, and AI is designed to emulate human brains. Therefore, teaching machines to recognize and
categorize images is a crucial part of AI. Image recognition also helps machines to learn (as in machine
learning) because the more images that are processed, the better the software gets at recognizing and processing
those images.
8. What is Automatic Programming?
Automatic programming is describing what a program should do, and then having the AI system “write” the
program.
10. What are Constraint Satisfaction Problems?
Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSPs) are mathematical problems defined as a set of objects, the state of
which must meet several constraints.
11. What is Supervised Versus Unsupervised Learning?
This is one of the next important AI questions. Supervised learning is a machine learning process in which
outputs are fed back into a computer for the software to learn from, for more accurate results the next time. With
supervised learning, the “machine” receives initial training to start. In contrast, unsupervised learning means a
computer will learn without initial training to base its knowledge.
12. What are some common misunderstandings about AI?
Since the beginning of the development of artificial intelligence, there have been a number of
misunderstandings regarding it. The following are examples of some of these common misunderstandings:
13. What Role Does Computer Vision Play in AI?
Artificial intelligence (AI) is broken down into a number of subfields, one of which is known as computer
vision. Computer vision is the process of teaching computers to understand and collect data from the visual
environment, such as graphics. Therefore, AI technology is used by computer vision in order to address
complicated challenges such as image analysis, object identification, and other similar issues.
14. How Does the Strong AI Differ From the Weak AI?
Strong AI
The goal of strong artificial intelligence is to create actual intelligence artificially, which refers to an intellect
created by humans that possesses feelings, consciousness, and emotions comparable to those of humans. The
idea of creating AI entities with perceiving, analyzing, and decision-making skills comparable to those of
humans is still only an assumption at this point.

Weak AI
The present phase of artificial intelligence research is known as "weak AI," and it is concerned with the
construction of expert systems and robots that can assist people and solve challenging real-world issues. Weak
artificial intelligence systems like Alexa and Siri are examples.
15. Where Does Artificial Intelligence Go From Here?
This is one of the next important AI questions. It is anticipated that artificial intelligence will continue to have a
significant impact on a large number of people as well as almost every sector. Artificial intelligence has become
the primary impetus behind the development of new technologies such as robots, the Internet of Things, and
large data sets. AI is capable of making an ideal judgment in a split second, which is almost difficult for a
person to do.
Cancer treatment, cutting-edge global climate solutions, smart transportation, and space research are all being
aided by AI. We don't expect it to renounce its position as the driving force behind computer innovation and
progress any time soon. Artificial Intelligence will have a greater influence on the globe than any other
technological advancement in human history.
16. What Do You Comprehend by the Phrase “Reward Maximization”?
Reinforcement learning uses the phrase "reward maximization" to describe the purpose of the agent, which is to
maximize rewards. Real-world rewards are positive feedback for doing an action that results in a change in a
state. A reward is given to the agent if he uses optimum policies to complete a good deed, and a reward is
deducted if he fails to do so. Rewards are maximized by using the best rules possible, which is known as reward
maximization.
17. How Many Different Kinds of Agents Exist in Artificial Intelligence?
Simple Reflex Agents
Simulation-Based Reflex Agents
Goal-Based Agents
Utilitarian Agents
Educative Agents
18. What is Your Comprehension of Hyperparameters?
This is one of the next important AI questions. The training process is controlled by hyperparameters. Model
train performance is directly influenced by these factors, which may be changed to one's liking. They are made
known in advance. Algorithm hyperparameters that have no influence on simulation results but can influence
the efficiency and acquisition of skills are the other two categories of hyperparameters that may be inferred
when accommodating the machine to the learning algorithm.
19. What are the Various Expert System Components?
The following are the primary components that make up an expert system:
User Interface
Inference Engine
Knowledge Base
20. What is a Chatbot?
A chatbot is a computer program with artificial intelligence (AI) that can converse with humans using natural
language processing.
21. How Can Artificial Intelligence Be Used to Identify Fraud?
This is one of the next important AI questions. It is possible to use artificial intelligence in fraud detection
utilizing various machine learning techniques (e.g., supervised and unsupervised). Machine learning's rule-
based algorithms may be used to identify and stop fraudulent transactions. Machine learning is used to identify
fraud in the following ways:
Extracting Data
Data Cleaning
Data Analysis and Exploration
Building Models
22. Why Do We Utilize an Inference Engine in AI?
AI's inference engine extracts valuable learning from its knowledge base by following a set of predefined
logical rules. For the most part, it operates in two distinct modes:
Backward Chaining
It starts with the end aim and then works backward to figure out the evidence that points in that direction.
Forward Chaining
It begins with facts that are already known and then claims new facts.
1. What is Artificial Intelligence?
The replication of human intellectual processes by machines, particularly computer systems, is known as
artificial intelligence. Expert systems, natural language processing, speech recognition, and machine vision are
examples of AI applications.
2. What are Different Platforms for Artificial Intelligence (AI) Development?
Some of the best Artificial Intelligence Platforms are Google AI Platform, Microsoft Azure, TensorFlow,
Infosys Nia, Rainbird, Wipro HOLMES, Premonition, Dialogflow, Ayasdi, Meya, MindMeld, KAI, Wit, Vital
A.I, Receptiviti, Lumiata, Watson Studio, and Infrrd.
3. What are the Programming Languages Used for Artificial Intelligence?
Prolog (generic core, modules) is an early 1970s logic programming language that is particularly well suited for
artificial intelligence applications. Python is presently the most popular language. Others:
R.
Julia.
Java and
C++.
4. What is the Future of Artificial Intelligence?
Machine learning and natural language processing are projected to advance further in the artificial intelligence
future (AI), resulting in the creation of more complex and autonomously AI systems. These systems may be
used in a wide range of applications, such as autonomous vehicles, personal assistants, and intelligent robots.
Additionally, AI is expected to play a significant role in areas such as healthcare, finance, and manufacturing.
However, as AI becomes more advanced and integrated into society, it is also important to consider the ethical
and societal implications of this technology and to ensure that it is developed and used responsibly.
5. What are the Types of Artificial Intelligence?
This is one of the next important AI questions for freshers. There are several types of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
that are commonly categorized based on their level of complexity and autonomy. These include:
  Reactive Machines:
 Limited Memory:
 Theory of Mind:
 Self-Aware:
 Narrow AI or ANI:
7. How are Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Related?
This is one of the most basic, yet most important AI questions. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a broad field that
encompasses a variety of techniques and approaches for creating intelligent systems that can perform tasks that
typically require human intelligence, such as recognizing speech, understanding natural language, and making
decisions.
Machine Learning (ML), on the other hand, is a specific approach to achieving AI. It involves the development
of algorithms and statistical models that enable systems to improve their performance over time by learning
from data. Machine learning algorithms can be categorized into three main categories: supervised learning,
unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning.
8. What are Different Types of Machine Learning?
Supervised learning: An example of supervised learning would be when a model was trained on a labeled
dataset, with the best outputs provided for each input. The model then uses this labeled dataset to make
predictions on new, unseen data. Eg: linear regression, and support vector machines.

Unsupervised learning:
Reinforcement learning:
Semi-supervised learning:
Self-supervised learning:
1. What is Q-Learning?
Q-learning is a type of reinforcement learning algorithm that is used to find the optimal policy for an agent to
follow in an environment.
2. Which Assessment is Used to Test the Intelligence of a Machine? Explain It.
This is one of the most frequently asked AI questions. There are several ways to assess the intelligence of a
machine, but one of the most widely used methods is the Turing test. Essentially, the Turing test measures a
machine's ability to exhibit human-like intelligence.
3. What is Reinforcement Learning, and How Does It Work?
Reinforcement learning (RL) is a type of machine learning where an agent learns to make decisions in an
environment by interacting with it and receiving feedback in the form of rewards or penalties.
7. What is Overfitting?
Overfitting in AI occurs when a machine learning model becomes too complex and starts to fit the training data
too closely, to the point where it memorizes the training data rather than learning the underlying patterns and
relationships.
8. What are the Techniques Used to Avoid Overfitting?
 Cross-validation:
 Regularization:
 Early stopping:
 Ensemble methods:
 Pruning:
 Dropout:
 Bayesian approaches:
9. What is Natural Language Processing?
Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a field of artificial intelligence and computer science that focuses on the
interaction between computers and humans in natural language.
10. What is the Difference Between Natural Language Processing and Text Mining?
NLP is a branch of artificial intelligence that focuses on the interaction between computers and humans in
natural language. It involves using techniques from computer science, linguistics, and mathematics to process
and analyze human language. NLP tasks include speech recognition, natural language understanding, natural
language generation, machine translation, and sentiment analysis.
Text Mining, on the other hand, is a broader field that involves the use of NLP techniques to extract valuable
information from unstructured text data. Text Mining often used in business, social science, and information
science. It includes tasks such as information retrieval, text classification, text clustering, text summarization,
and entity recognition.
11. What is Fuzzy Logic?
Fuzzy logic is a type of logic that allows reasoning with imprecise or uncertain information. It is an extension of
classical logic and allows for partial truth, rather than the traditional binary true or false. This means that
propositions in fuzzy logic can have a truth value between 0 and 1, representing the degree of truth.
14. What is an Artificial Neural Network? What are Some Commonly Used Artificial Neural Networks?
Artificial neural networks are developed to simulate the human brain digitally. These networks may be used to
create the next generation of computers. They are now employed for complicated studies in a variety of
disciplines, from engineering to medical.
15. What is a Rational Agent, and What is Rationality?
A rational agent is a system that makes decisions based on maximizing a specific objective. The concept of
rationality refers to the idea that the agent's decisions and actions are consistent with its objectives and beliefs.
In other words, a rational agent is one that makes the best decisions possible based on the information it has
available. This is often formalized through the use of decision theory and game theory.

1. If you are starting a new business, how Will you use AI to promote your business?
There are many ways that AI can be used to promote a new business. Some potential strategies include:
 Chatbots:
 Personalization
 Predictive analytics:
 Image and voice recognition:
 Social Media:
 Email Marketing:
 SEO:
2. Suppose you know a farmer. He tells you that despite working hard in the fields, his crop yield is
deteriorating. How can AI help him?
There are several ways that AI can help a farmer improve crop yield, some of which include:
 Crop monitoring:
 Weather forecasting:
 Precision agriculture:
 Crop yield prediction:
 Livestock monitoring:
3. “Customers who bought this also bought this”, you might have seen this when shopping on Amazon. How do
you think this works?
The "Customers who bought this also bought" feature on Amazon is a form of collaborative filtering.
Collaborative filtering is a method of making recommendations based on the past behavior of customers.
The system works by analyzing the purchase history of customers and identifying patterns in the items they
have bought together. For example, if a large number of customers who bought a specific book also bought
another book, the system will suggest the second book to customers who purchase the first one.
In order to accomplish this, Amazon uses a number of algorithms and techniques, such as:
Item-based collaborative filtering: This technique compares the purchase history of customers who bought a
specific item and makes recommendations based on the items they also bought.
User-based collaborative filtering: This technique compares the purchase history of customers who have bought
similar items, and makes recommendations based on the items they also bought.
Matrix Factorization: This method is used to factorize the user-item interaction matrix into a low-dimensional
representation, which allows for the generalization of customer preferences and the generation of
recommendations.
Deep learning techniques: These techniques are used to learn patterns in the data and make predictions based on
them.
4. Suppose you have to explain to a beginner how a face detection system works. How would you do that?
A face detection system is a computer program that uses artificial intelligence to identify human faces in digital
images or videos. Here is a simple explanation of how it works:

First, the system captures an image or a video frame.

Next, the system applies a face detection algorithm to the image or video frame. This algorithm uses
mathematical algorithms and models to scan the image and identify patterns and features that are characteristic
of human faces, such as the eyes, nose, and mouth.

Once a face is detected, the system applies a face recognition algorithm to identify the person. This algorithm
compares the features of the detected face to a database of known faces, and makes a prediction about who the
person is.

Finally, the system outputs the result, which can be displayed on a screen, saved to a database, or used to trigger
other actions.
1) What is Artificial Intelligence?
Artificial Intelligence is an area of computer science that emphasizes the creation of intelligent machine that
work and reacts like humans.
2) What is an artificial intelligence Neural Networks?
Artificial intelligence Neural Networks can model mathematically the way biological brain works, allowing the
machine to think and learn the same way the humans do- making them capable of recognizing things like
speech, objects and animals like we do.
3) What are the various areas where AI (Artificial Intelligence) can be used?
Artificial Intelligence can be used in many areas like Computing, Speech recognition, Bio-informatics,
Humanoid robot, Computer software, Space and Aeronautics’s etc.
4) Which is not commonly used programming language for AI?
Perl language is not commonly used programming language for AI
5) What is Prolog in AI?
In AI, Prolog is a programming language based on logic.
6) Give an explanation on the difference between strong AI and weak AI?
Strong AI makes strong claims that computers can be made to think on a level equal to humans while weak AI
simply predicts that some features that are resembling to human intelligence can be incorporated to computer to
make it more useful tools.
7) Mention the difference between statistical AI and Classical AI ?
Statistical AI is more concerned with “inductive” thought like given a set of pattern, induce the trend etc.
While, classical AI, on the other hand, is more concerned with “ deductive” thought given as a set of
constraints, deduce a conclusion etc.
8) What is alternate, artificial, compound and natural key?
Alternate Key: Excluding primary keys all candidate keys are known as Alternate Keys.
Artificial Key: If no obvious key either stands alone or compound is available, then the last resort is to, simply
create a key, by assigning a number to each record or occurrence. This is known as artificial key.
Compound Key: When there is no single data element that uniquely defines the occurrence within a construct,
then integrating multiple elements to create a unique identifier for the construct is known as Compound Key.
Natural Key: Natural key is one of the data element that is stored within a construct, and which is utilized as
the primary key.
9) What does a production rule consist of?
The production rule comprises of a set of rule and a sequence of steps.
10) Which search method takes less memory?
The “depth first search” method takes less memory.
11) Which is the best way to go for Game playing problem?
Heuristic approach is the best way to go for game playing problem, as it will use the technique based on
intelligent guesswork. For example, Chess between humans and computers as it will use brute force
computation, looking at hundreds of thousands of positions.
12) A* algorithm is based on which search method?
A* algorithm is based on best first search method, as it gives an idea of optimization and quick choose of path,
and all characteristics lie in A* algorithm.
14) What is agent in artificial intelligence?
Anything perceives its environment by sensors and acts upon an environment by effectors are known as Agent.
Agent includes Robots, Programs, and Humans etc.
17) Which property is considered as not a desirable property of a logical rule-based system?
“Attachment” is considered as not a desirable property of a logical rule based system.
19) When an algorithm is considered completed?
An algorithm is said completed when it terminates with a solution when one exists.
20) What is a heuristic function?
A heuristic function ranks alternatives, in search algorithms, at each branching step based on the available
information to decide which branch to follow.

21) What is the function of the third component of the planning system?
In a planning system, the function of the third component is to detect when a solution to problem has been
found.
22) What is “Generality” in AI?
Generality is the measure of ease with which the method can be adapted to different domains of application.
23) What is a top-down parser?
A top-down parser begins by hypothesizing a sentence and successively predicting lower level constituents until
individual pre-terminal symbols are written.
24) Mention the difference between breadth first search and best first search in artificial intelligence?
These are the two strategies which are quite similar. In best first search, we expand the nodes in accordance
with the evaluation function. While, in breadth first search a node is expanded in accordance to the cost function
of the parent node.
25) What are frames and scripts in “Artificial Intelligence”?
Frames are a variant of semantic networks which is one of the popular ways of presenting non-procedural
knowledge in an expert system. A frame which is an artificial data structure is used to divide knowledge into
substructure by representing “stereotyped situations’. Scripts are similar to frames, except the values that fill the
slots must be ordered. Scripts are used in natural language understanding systems to organize a knowledge base
in terms of the situation that the system should understand.
26) What is FOPL stands for and explain its role in Artificial Intelligence?
FOPL stands for First Order Predicate Logic, Predicate Logic provides
a) A language to express assertions about certain “World”
b) An inference system to deductive apparatus whereby we may draw conclusions from such assertion
c) A semantic based on set theory
27) What does the language of FOPL consists of
a) A set of constant symbols
b) A set of variables
c) A set of predicate symbols
d) A set of function symbols
e) The logical connective
f) The Universal Quantifier and Existential Qualifier
g) A special binary relation of equality
28) For online search in ‘Artificial Intelligence’ which search agent operates by interleaving computation and
action?
In online search, it will first take action and then observes the environment.
29) Which search algorithm will use a limited amount of memory in online search?
RBFE and SMA* will solve any kind of problem that A* can’t by using a limited amount of memory.
30) In ‘Artificial Intelligence’ where you can use the Bayes rule?
In Artificial Intelligence to answer the probabilistic queries conditioned on one piece of evidence, Bayes rule
can be used.
31) For building a Bayes model how many terms are required?
For building a Bayes model in AI, three terms are required; they are one conditional probability and two
unconditional probability.
32) What is the consequence between a node and its predecessors while creating bayesian network?
The correct answer is (C) Conditionally independent
33) To answer any query how the Bayesian network can be used?
If a Bayesian Network is a representative of the joint distribution, then by summing all the relevant joint entries,
it can solve any query.
34) What combines inductive methods with the power of first order representations?
Inductive logic programming combines inductive methods with the power of first order representations.
35) In Inductive Logic Programming what needed to be satisfied?
The objective of an Inductive Logic Programming is to come up with a set of sentences for the hypothesis such
that the entailment constraint is satisfied.

36) In top-down inductive learning methods how many literals are available? What are they?
There are three literals available in top-down inductive learning methods they are
a) Predicates
b) Equality and Inequality
c) Arithmetic Literals
37) Which algorithm inverts a complete resolution strategy?
‘Inverse Resolution’ inverts a complete resolution, as it is a complete algorithm for learning first order theories.
38) In speech recognition what kind of signal is used?
In speech recognition, Acoustic signal is used to identify a sequence of words.
39) In speech recognition which model gives the probability of each word following each word?
Biagram model gives the probability of each word following each other word in speech recognition.
40) Which algorithm is used for solving temporal probabilistic reasoning?
To solve temporal probabilistic reasoning, HMM (Hidden Markov Model) is used, independent of transition and
sensor model.
45) In Artificial Intelligence, what do semantic analyses used for?
In Artificial Intelligence, to extract the meaning from the group of sentences semantic analysis is used.
46) What is meant by compositional semantics?
The process of determining the meaning of P*Q from P,Q and* is known as Compositional Semantics.
47) How logical inference can be solved in Propositional Logic?
In Propositional Logic, Logical Inference algorithm can be solved by using
a) Logical Equivalence
b) Validity
c) Satisfying ability
48) Which process makes different logical expression looks identical?
‘Unification’ process makes different logical expressions identical. Lifted inferences require finding substitute
which can make a different expression looks identical. This process is called unification.
49) Which algorithm in ‘Unification and Lifting’ takes two sentences and returns a unifier?
In ‘Unification and Lifting’ the algorithm that takes two sentences and returns a unifier is ‘Unify’ algorithm.
50) Which is the most straight forward approach for planning algorithm?
State space search is the most straight forward approach for planning algorithm because it takes account of
everything for finding a solution.
1) What do you understand by Artificial Intelligence?
Artificial intelligence is computer science technology that emphasizes creating intelligent machine that can
mimic human behavior. Here Intelligent machines can be defined as the machine that can behave like a human,
think like a human, and also capable of decision making. It is made up of two words, "Artificial" and
"Intelligence," which means the "man-made thinking ability."
With artificial intelligence, we do not need to pre-program the machine to perform a task; instead, we can create
a machine with the programmed algorithms, and it can work on its own.
2) Why do we need Artificial Intelligence?
The goal of Artificial intelligence is to create intelligent machines that can mimic human behavior. We need AI
for today's world to solve complex problems, make our lives more smoothly by automating the routine work,
saving the manpower, and to perform many more other tasks.
3) Give some real-world applications of AI.
There are various real-world applications of AI, and some of them are given below:
o Google Search Engine:
o Ridesharing Applications:
o Spam Filters in Email:
o Social Networking:
o Product recommendations:
4) How Artificial intelligence, Machine Learning, and Deep Learning differ from each other?
The difference between AI, ML, and Deep Learning is given in the below table:
Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning Deep Learning

The term Artificial intelligence The term ML was first The term DL was first coined in the
was first coined in the coined in the year 1959 by year 2000 Igor Aizenberg.
year 1956 by John McCarthy. Arthur Samuel.

It is a technology that is used to It is a subset of AI that It is the subset of machine learning and AI
create intelligent machines that learns from past data and that is inspired by the human brain cells,
can mimic human behavior. experiences. called neurons, and imitates the working of
the human brain.

AI completely deals with ML deals with structured Deep learning deals with structured and
structured, semi-structured data. and semi-structured data. unstructured data.

It requires a huge amount of It can work with less It requires a huge amount of the data
data to work. amount of data compared compared to the ML.
to deep learning and AI.

The goal of AI is to enable the The goal of ML is to The goal of deep learning is to solve the
machine to think without any enable the machine to complex problems as the human brain does,
human intervention. learn from past using various algorithms.
experiences.

5) What are the types of AI?

Artificial intelligence can be divided into different types on the basis of capabilities and functionalities.
Based on Capabilities:
o Weak AI or Narrow AI:
o General AI:
 o Strong AI
Based on Functionalities:
o Reactive Machines: Purely reactive machines are the basic types of AI. These focus on the present
actions and cannot store the previous actions. Example: Deep Blue.
o Limited Memory: As its name suggests, it can store the past data or experience for the limited duration.
The self-driving car is an example of such AI types.
o Theory of Mind: It is the advanced AI that is capable of understanding human emotions, people, etc., in
the real world.
o Self-Awareness: Self Awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence that will have their own
consciousness, emotions, similar to humans. Read More.
6) What are the different domains/Subsets of AI?
AI covers lots of domains or subsets, and some main domains are given below:
o Machine Learning
o Deep Learning
o Neural Network
o Expert System
o Fuzzy Logic
o Natural Language Processing
o Robotics
o Speech Recognition. Read More
7) What are the types of Machine Learning?
Machine Learning can be mainly divided into three types:
a. Supervised Learning: Supervised learning is a type of Machine learning in which the machine needs
external supervision to learn from data. The supervised learning models are trained using the labeled
dataset. Regression and Classification are the two main problems that can be solved with Supervised
Machine Learning.
b. Unsupervised Learning: It is a type of machine learning in which the machine does not need any
external supervision to learn from the data, hence called unsupervised learning. The unsupervised
models can be trained using the unlabelled dataset. These are used to solve the Association and
Clustering problems.
9) What is Deep Learning, and how is it used in real-world?
Deep learning is a subset of Machine learning that mimics the working of the human brain. It is inspired by the
human brain cells, called neurons, and works on the concept of neural networks to solve complex real-world
problems. It is also known as the deep neural network or deep neural learning.
Some real-world applications of deep learning are:
o Adding different colors to the black&white images
o Computer vision
o Text generation
o Deep-Learning Robots, etc.

11) What is the intelligent agent in AI, and where are they used?
The intelligent agent can be any autonomous entity that perceives its environment through the sensors and act
on it using the actuators for achieving its goal.
These Intelligent agents in AI are used in the following applications:
o Information Access and Navigations such as Search Engine
o Repetitive Activities
o Domain Experts
o Chatbots, etc.
12) How is machine learning related to AI?
Machine learning is a subset or subfield of Artificial intelligence. It is a way of achieving AI. As both are the
two different concepts and the relation between both can be understood as "AI uses different Machine learning
algorithms and concepts to solve the complex problems."
19) Give a brief introduction to the Turing test in AI?
Turing test is one of the popular intelligence tests in Artificial intelligence. The Turing test was introduced by
Alan Turing in the year 1950. It is a test to determine that if a machine can think like a human or not. According
to this test, a computer can only be said to be intelligent if it can mimic human responses under some particular
conditions.
20) Which assessment is used to test the intelligence of the machine?
Turing Test.
21) What is overfitting? How can it be overcome in Machine Learning?
When the machine learning algorithm tries to capture all the data points, and hence, as a result, captures noise
also, then overfitting occurs in the model. Due to this overfitting issue, the algorithm shows the low bias, but the
high variance in the output. Overfitting is one of the main issues in machine learning.
Methods to avoid Overfitting in ML:
o Cross-Validation
o Training With more data
o Regularization
o Ensembling
o Removing Unnecessary Features
o Early Stopping the training.
22) Tell one technique to avoid overfitting in neural networks?
Dropout Technique: The dropout technique is one of the popular techniques to avoid overfitting in the neural
network models. It is the regularization technique, in which the randomly selected neurons are dropped during
training.

23) What is NLP? What are the various components of NLP?

NLP stands for Natural Language Processing, which is a branch of artificial intelligence. It enables machines to
understand, interpret, and manipulate the human language.
Components of NLP:
There are mainly two components of Natural Language processing, which are given below:
a. Natural Language Understanding (NLU):
It involves the below tasks:
a. To map the input to useful representations.
b. To analyze the different aspects of the language.
b. Natural Language Generation (NLG)
a. Text Planning
b. Sentence Planning
c. Text Realization
24) What are the different components of the Expert System?
An expert system mainly contains three components:
a. User Interface: It enables a user to interact or communicate with the expert system to find the solution
for a problem.
b. Inference Engine: It is called the main processing unit or brain of the expert system. It applies different
inference rules to the knowledge base to draw a conclusion from it. The system extracts the information
from the KB with the help of an inference engine.
c. Knowledge Base: The knowledge base is a type of storage area that stores the domain-specific and
high-quality knowledge.
25) What is the use of computer vision in AI?
Computer vision is a field of Artificial Intelligence that is used to train the computers so that they can interpret
and obtain information from the visual world such as images. Hence, computer vision uses AI technology to
solve complex problems such as image processing, object detections, etc.
26) Explain the minimax algorithm along with the different terms.
Minimax algorithm is a backtracking algorithm used for decision making in game theory. This algorithm
provides the optimal moves for a player by assuming that another player is also playing optimally.
This algorithm is based on two players, one is called MAX, and the other is called the MIN.
Following terminologies that are used in the Minimax Algorithm:
o Game tree: A tree structure with all possible moves.
o Initial State: The initial state of the board.
o Terminal State: Position of the board where the game finishes.
o Utility Function: The function that assigns a numeric value for the outcome of the game.
33) What is knowledge representation in AI?
Knowledge representation is the part of AI, which is concerned with the thinking of AI agents. It is used to
represent the knowledge about the real world to the AI agents so that they can understand and utilize this
information for solving the complex problems in AI.
Following elements of Knowledge that are represented to the agent in the AI system:
o Objects
o Events
o Performance
o Meta-Knowledge
o Facts
o Knowledge-base
34) What are the various techniques of knowledge representation in AI?
Knowledge representation techniques are given below:
o Logical Representation
o Semantic Network Representation
o Frame Representation
o Production Rules
35) Which programming language is not generally used in AI, and why?
Perl Programming language is not commonly used language for AI, as it is the scripting language.
38) What are the different areas where AI has a great impact?
Following are some areas where AI has a great impact:
o Autonomous Transportation
o Education-system powered by AI.
o Healthcare
o Predictive Policing
o Space Exploration
o Entertainment, etc.
39) What are the different software platforms for AI development?
a. Google Cloud AI platform
b. Microsoft Azure AI platform
c. IBM Watson
d. TensorFlow
e. Infosys Nia
f. Rainbird
g. Dialogflow
40) Kindly explain different ways to evaluate the performance of the ML model.
Some popular ways to evaluate the performance of the ML model are:
o Confusion Matrix:
o F1 score:
o Gain and lift charts:
o AUC-ROC curve:
o Gini Coefficient:
 o Root mean squared error:
o Cross-Validation:
41) Explain rational agents and rationality?
A rational agent is an agent that has clear preferences, model uncertainty, and that performs the right actions
always. A rational agent is able to take the best possible action in any situation.
Rationality is a status of being reasonable and sensible with a good sense of judgment.
43) Which algorithm is used by Facebook for face recognition? Explain its working.
Facebook uses the DeepFace tool that uses the deep learning algorithms for the face verification that allows the
photo tag suggestions to you when you upload a photo on Facebook. The deep face identifies the faces in the
digital images using neural network models. The working of DeepFace is given in below steps:
48) What do you understand by the fuzzy logic?
Fuzzy logic is a method of reasoning applied to the AI, which resembles human reasoning. Here the word
"fuzzy" defines things that are not clear, it means the situations where it is difficult to decide if the state is True
or False. It involves all the possibilities that occur between Yes and NO.
The below diagram shows the difference between fuzzy logic and Boolean logic
Since it resembles human reasoning, hence it can be used in neural networks.
50) What is a heuristic function, and where is it used?
The heuristic function is used in Informed Search, and it finds the most promising path. It takes the current state
of the agent as its input and produces the estimation of how close the agent is from the goal.

Class
1. Basic idea
2. Genetic operstion(selection, crossover, mutation)
A genetic algorithm is a search heuristic that is inspired by Charles Darwin’s theory of natural evolution. This
algorithm reflects the process of natural selection where the fittest individuals are selected for reproduction in
order to produce offspring of the next generation.
Crossover is the most significant phase in a genetic algorithm. For each pair of parents to be mated,
a crossover point is chosen at random from within the genes. Offspring are created by exchanging the genes of
parents among themselves until the crossover point is reached. Mutation occurs to maintain diversity within the
population and prevent premature convergence.
3. Motivations of GA
 Mimicking natural evolution:
 Handling complex and large solution spaces
 Exploration and exploitation trade-off
 Ability to handle non-linear and non-differentiable problems:
4. Applications
 Optimization problems:
 Machine learning and data mining
 Image and signal processing
 Robotics and control systems
 Game playing and strategy optimization
5. Learning/what you have learnt
 Convergence and termination criteria
 Solution representation
 Fitness function
 Evolutionary operators
 Exploration and exploitation
6. Various features of GA
  Population-based approach
 Encoding and representation
 Fitness evaluation
 Genetic operators
7. How to solve knapsack problem using GA
1. Representation: Encode each individual in the population as a binary string of fixed length.
2. Initialization: Generate an initial population of individuals randomly or using a heuristic method.
3. Fitness evaluation: Evaluate the fitness of each individual by calculating its total value while considering
the weight constraint. Individuals with higher total value and satisfying the weight constraint should
have higher fitness scores.
4. Selection: Select individuals from the population for reproduction based on their fitness scores.
5. Crossover: Perform crossover between selected parents to create offspring.
6. Mutation: Introduce random changes (mutations) to the offspring's binary strings.
7. Repeat steps 3 to 6 for a certain number
8. Termination: Once the algorithm reaches the termination condition, select the best individual (highest
fitness) from the final population as the solution to the knapsack problem.
8. Maxone problem using GA
The Max-One problem is a simple binary optimization problem where the goal is to find a binary string of
maximum length, consisting of all ones. The objective is to maximize the number of ones in the string. Genetic
algorithms can be applied to solve the Max-One problem. Here's a step-by-step approach:
1. Representation: Each individual in the population is represented as a binary string of fixed length.
2. Initialization: Generate an initial population of individuals randomly. Each individual's binary string
represents a potential solution.
3. Fitness evaluation: Evaluate the fitness of each individual by counting the number of ones in their binary
string
4. Selection: Select individuals from the population for reproduction based on their fitness scores.
5. Crossover: Perform crossover between selected parents to create offspring
6. Mutation: Introduce random changes (mutations) to the offspring's binary strings.
7. Repeat steps 3 to 6 for a certain number of generations or until a termination condition is met (e.g.,
reaching a maximum number of generations or finding a satisfactory solution).
8. Termination: Once the algorithm reaches the termination condition, select the best individual (highest
fitness) from the final population as the solution to the Max-One problem.
9. The way of changing programming languages
1. Identify the target language: Determine the programming language you want to switch to.
2. Learn the basics: Familiarize yourself with the syntax, semantics, and core concepts of the new
language.
3. Explore the ecosystem: Get to know the tools, frameworks, libraries, and development environment
associated with the new language.
4. Practice and build small projects: Apply your knowledge by working on small projects or exercises in
the new language.
5. Leverage existing knowledge: Identify similarities and differences between the new language and the
one you are familiar with.
6. Learn from examples and projects: Study sample code, open-source projects, or tutorials in the new
language to understand how real-world applications are built
7. Seek community support: Engage with the developer community of the new language.
8. Port existing code or projects: If you have existing code or projects in the old language, consider porting
them to the new language.
9. Collaborate and seek feedback: Collaborate with others who are experienced in the new language.
 10. Keep learning and practicing: Programming languages evolve over time, and there is always something
new to learn.

15.Cryptography and Network Security

1. What is a network?
A network is a set of interconnected computers and other devices that allows information to flow between
them.
2. What is a protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that govern how two or more parties interact with each other
3. What is pipelining?
Pipelining is a method of software development that involves writing and testing multiple versions of a software
program at the same time.
4. What is the hub in networking?
Hubs are nodes in a network that is responsible for connecting other nodes.
5. What is a switch in networking?
Network devices (especially switches) that connect devices in a local area network (LAN) and pass data
between them. A switch forwards data packets between devices connected to the same port, but not between
ports on different devices or to other networks.
7. What are the factors that affect the performance of the network?
The performance of a network is dependent on a number of factors, including the quality of the hardware, the
speed of the internet connection, and the amount of traffic that is being transferred. The speed of the internet
connection is important because it affects how quickly data can be transferred. A high-speed connection can
transfer data at a much higher rate than a low-speed connection.
12. What is an intranet?
An intranet is a sort of closed network. It is used by a variety of firms and is accessible only by its employees.
Intranets are networks that allow PCs from several corporations to communicate with each other. An intranet is
a private network that allows access only by its members and employees.
13. What is Access control in networking?
Access control is the process of restricting access to systems, resources, or information. A set of rules determine
who may access what aspects of a system, what materials may be used, and who may enter a computing
environment.
14. What is Application security in networking?
An application security program identifies, repairs, and eliminates vulnerabilities in applications within an
organisation.
15. What is Firewalls in networking?
A firewall monitors all incoming and outgoing traffic and matches a set of security rules to determine whether
to accept, reject, or drop a packet.
18. What is Web Security?
The security of a network or computer system is concerned with protecting it from damage or theft of software,
hardware, or data. Computer systems are protected from misdirection or disruption of their services.
Website protection is known as web security and also includes cloud protection and web application security.
19. What is Wireless security?
Wireless networks provide several advantages to users, but they are really complicated to operate. Data packets
travelling through wires provide users with the assurance that data sent through wire will unlikely be overheard
by eavesdroppers.
20. What is Mobile device security?
Mobile security protects the infrastructure, software, and strategy behind mobile devices that travel with users.
Mobile devices, including smartphones, tablets, and laptops, must be protected from cyberattacks. Mobile
devices are becoming more popular than their stationary counterparts, so they are becoming bigger targets for
hackers.
25. What is a Proxy firewall?
A proxy firewall protects network resources by filtering packets at the application layer, rather than the network
or transport layers.
26. What is a UTM firewall?
A single device within your network provides multiple security functions and services. With UTM, your
network users are protected with a variety of security functions, including antivirus, content filtering, email and
web blocking, and anti-spam, to name a few.
27. Explain Stateful Inspection?
Stateful inspection also known as dynamic packet filtering is a firewall technology that monitors the state of
active connections and allows network packets through the firewall based on this information.
28. Why does an Active FTP not work with network firewalls?
A firewall is established by typing a port number (or a range of port numbers) and an incoming or outgoing
direction of traffic (active or passive FTP) into the rules. These two types of traffic require two different rules
37. What is Port Scanning?
A port scan is a method for discovering which ports are open on a machine or network.
38. What is port blocking within LAN?
An Internet Service Provider (ISP) blocks Internet traffic by using the port number and transfer protocol.
Blocking certain types of ports within a local area network is known as port blocking.
39. What is a Botnet?
A botnet is a group of computers that has been taken over by a bot, or a robot-controlled computer network.
1. What is cryptography?
Cryptography is the study of secure communications techniques that allow only the sender and intended
recipient of a message to view its contents.
2. What exactly are encryption and decryption?
Encryption can also be described as conversion of information from a readable state to apparent nonsense.
When the receiving party receives this encrypted written message, it must be unscrambled into an
understandable and comprehensible state of context. This process of unscrambling is also known as decryption
3. What is plaintext or cleartext?
The decrypted message, when it is returned back into its plain or original state of context which is
comprehensible and decipherable, is also known as cleartext or plaintext.
4. What is ciphertext?
When the message is encrypted into a state which is totally incomprehensible and undecipherable, this is known
as the ciphertext.
5. How does the encryption process actually take place?
This is a question in which we will have more specific answers for later on. But generally speaking, in its
simplest form, the text or the written message is encrypted via a special mathematical formula. This formula is
specifically known as the “encryption algorithm.” Because the ciphertext is now encrypted by this special
mathematical algorithm, it would be rendered useless to a third party with malicious intent, because of its totally
garbled nature.
6. What are the origins of cryptography?
For almost as long as people have been writing, people have wanted to protect what was written. According to
some scholars, cryptography can be traced all the way back to 1900 BC, when the tomb of Khnumhotep II used
unknown hieroglyphs to apparently mask the intent of a carved message. Other early messages include simple
ciphers on Mesopotamian clay tablets and the Greek use of a “scytale,” a decoding stick, which would reveal a
message when a strip of cloth with a cipher on it was wrapped around it.
7. What is the Caesar cipher?
In the Caesar methodology, each letter of the text or the written message is substituted with another letter of the
alphabet which is so many spaces or letters later in the alphabet.
8. What is the goal of cryptography?
Although the main purpose of cryptography appears to be making content and images undecipherable, the true
goal of cryptography in an information technology context is to ensure the confidentiality and integrity of any
information technology system. In other words, the content and images must remain private between the
sending and the receiving parties; while they are in transit across the Internet, assurances must be provided that
they will remain intact and not altered in any way.
9. Are there any other ciphers that are available, other than the Caesar cipher?
Yes, there are. As cryptography has evolved over time, so has the degree of sophistication of these other ciphers.
10. Just how important is the field of cryptography?
Cryptography is going to play a very large role in cybersecurity today and in the future. For example, it will be
vital to encrypt all kinds and types data, especially as it relates to a business or corporation and their customers.
1. What is the difference between a private key and a public key?
As it was alluded to earlier, one of the main purposes of cryptography is to scramble forms of content and
images into an undecipherable state. You may be wondering how this is all exactly done. The answer is that it
primarily involves the use of a key. Traditionally, this is a private key. With this particular key, the sending party
can encrypt the plaintext, and from there the content or image will be sent in its garbled state across the network
medium to the receiving party. A private key is private to the sender or the receiver, while a public key may be
available to a group.
2. What are symmetric and asymmetric key systems?
A symmetric key system uses only the private key, and the asymmetric key system makes use of both the public
key and the private key. The latter used primarily in what is known as a Public Key Infrastructure, or PKI for
short. It will be discussed in more detail later on.
3. What kinds of threats exist for a cryptographic system?
There are three traditional types of attacks, and they are as follows:
 Ciphertext-only attack: With this type of attack, only the ciphertext is known to the attacker. But if this
particular individual is well-trained in statistics, then he or she can use various statistical techniques to
break the ciphertext back into the plaintext
 Known-plaintext attack: This occurs when the hacker knows some aspect of either the letter pairings;
thus, they can consequently crack the ciphertext back into the plaintext
 Chosen-plaintext attack: With this type of attack, the hacker can choose the plaintext and view the
encrypted output which is being transmitted across the network medium. From this, they can reverse-
engineer it back into its ciphertext form in an attempt to figure out the specific encryption scheme
4. What is polyalphabetic encryption?
This was listed as a specific type of cipher earlier. A polyalphabetic cipher is simply a substitution cipher that
uses multiple alphabets for substitution.
5. What is a block cipher?
With this method of transposition, the plaintext message is encrypted into its scrambled format by being broken
up into blocks and encrypted block-by-block.
6. What is cipher block chaining?
The initialization vectors are part of a larger process known as cipher block chaining, or CBC. Within this
methodology, multiple loops of encryption are created in order to further totally scramble the ciphertext.
7. What are the disadvantages of symmetric key cryptography?
Symmetric key cryptography suffers from three major vulnerabilities:
1. Key storage and recovery
2. Key distribution
3. Open systems
8. How is a Key Distribution Center (KDC) used?
The Key Distribution Center consists of a database of all of the end users at the place of business or corporation
and their respective passwords, as well other trusted servers and computers along the network.
9. What are the mathematical algorithms used in symmetric cryptography?
They are as follows:
1. The Needham-Schroder algorithm
 2. The Digital Encryption Standard algorithm (DES)
3. The Triple Digit Encryption Standard algorithm (3DES)
4. The International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA)
5. The Advanced Encryption Standard algorithm (AES)
10. What is the hashing function?
The hashing function is a one-way mathematical function. This means that it can be used to encode data, but it
cannot decode data. Its primary purpose is not to encrypt the ciphertext; rather, its primary purpose is to prove
that the message in the ciphertext has not changed in any way, shape or form. This is also referred to as
“message integrity.” If the mathematical function has changed in any way, the message has then changed.
1. What is asymmetric key cryptography?
In the most simplistic terms, asymmetric cryptography can be likened to that of a safety deposit box at a local
bank.
2. What are the key differences between asymmetric and symmetric cryptography?
With symmetric cryptography, the complete secrecy of the key must be assured. Whereas asymmetric
cryptography requires only half of the secrecy, namely that of the private key (sk).
Secondly, symmetric cryptography utilizes the same secret key for the encryption and decryption of the
ciphertext, but in asymmetric cryptography two different keys (namely the public and the private keys) are used
for the encryption and the decryption of the ciphertext.
3. What are the disadvantages of asymmetric cryptography?
Despite the advantages that asymmetric cryptography has, it does possess one very serious disadvantage: When
compared to symmetric cryptography, it is two to three times slower than symmetric cryptography. This is
primarily because of the multiple parties and multiple keys which are involved.
4. What are the mathematical algorithms used in asymmetric cryptography?
There are three of them that are primarily used:
1. The RSA algorithm
2. The Diffie-Hellman algorithm
3. The Elliptical Wave Theory algorithm
6. What are the specific components of the Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)?
The PKI consists of the following components:
1. The Certificate Authority (CA): This is the party who issues the digital certificates
2. The Digital Certificate:
3. The LDAP or X.500 Directories:
4. The Registration Authority (RA):
5.
7. What are the technical specifications of the Certificate Authority?
The Certificate Authority consists of the following technical specifications:
1. The digital certificate version number
2. The serial number
3. The signature algorithm identifier
4. The issuer name
5. The validity period
6. The public key
7. The subject distinguished name
8. The subject alternate name email
9. The subject name URL
10. What are the security vulnerabilities of hashing functions?
One major security vulnerability of using hashes is that they can be altered while it is en route. In other words, a
cyber-attacker can intercept the ciphertext and its associated hash, alter both and create a brand-new ciphertext
and hash.
1. What is Cryptography?
Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for securing information and communication mainly to
protect the data from third parties that the data is not intended for.
2. What is the difference between Symmetric and Asymmetric encryption?
Basis of Comparison Symmetric Encryption Asymmetric Encryption
Encryption key Same key for encryption & decryption Different keys for encryption & decryption
Performance Encryption is fast but more vulnerable Encryption is slow due to high computation
Algorithms DES, 3DES, AES and RC4 Diffie-Hellman, RSA
Purpose Used for bulk data transmission Often used for securely exchanging secret keys
3. What is the difference between IDS and IPS?
IDS is Intrusion Detection System and it only detects intrusions and the administrator has to take care of
preventing the intrusion. Whereas, in IPS i.e., Intrusion Prevention System, the system detects the intrusion
and also takes actions to prevent the intrusion.
4. Explain CIA triad.
CIA stands for Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. CIA is a model that is designed to guide policies
for Information Security. It is one of the most popular models used by organizations.
Confidentiality
The information should be accessible and readable only to authorized personnel.
Integrity
Making sure the data has not been modified by an unauthorized entity. Integrity ensures that data is not
corrupted or modified by unauthorized personnel.
Availability
The data should be available to the user whenever the user requires it. Maintaining of Hardware, upgrading
regularly, Data Backups and Recovery, Network Bottlenecks should be taken care of.
5. How is Encryption different from Hashing?
Both Encryption and Hashing are used to convert readable data into an unreadable format. The difference is that
the encrypted data can be converted back to original data by the process of decryption but the hashed data
cannot be converted back to original data.
6. What is a Firewall and why is it used?
A Firewall is a network security system set on the boundaries of the system/network that monitors and controls
network traffic. Firewalls are mainly used to protect the system/network from viruses, worms, malware, etc.
Firewalls can also be to prevent remote access and content filtering.
7. What is the difference between VA(Vulnerability Assessment) and PT(Penetration Testing)?
Vulnerability Assessment is the process of finding flaws on the target. Here, the organization knows that their
system/network has flaws or weaknesses and want to find these flaws and prioritize the flaws for fixing.
Penetration Testing is the process of finding vulnerabilities on the target. In this case, the organization would
have set up all the security measures they could think of and would want to test if there is any other way that
their system/network can be hacked.
8. What is a three-way handshake?
A three-way handshake is a method used in a TCP/IP network to create a connection between a host and a
client. It’s called a three-way handshake because it is a three-step method in which the client and server
exchanges packets. The three steps are as follows:
1. The client sends a SYN(Synchronize) packet to the server check if the server is up or has open ports
2. The server sends SYN-ACK packet to the client if it has open ports
3. The client acknowledges this and sends an ACK(Acknowledgment) packet back to the server
9. What are the response codes that can be received from a Web Application?
1xx – Informational responses
2xx – Success
3xx – Redirection
4xx – Client-side error
5xx – Server-side error
Let us now go ahead and take a look at some of the other Cybersecurity Interview Questions
10. What is traceroute? Why is it used?
Traceroute is a tool that shows the path of a packet. It lists all the points (mainly routers) that the packet passes
through. This is used mostly when the packet is not reaching its destination. Traceroute is used to check where
the connection stops or breaks to identify the point of failure.
11. What is the difference between HIDS and NIDS?
HIDS(Host IDS) and NIDS(Network IDS) are both Intrusion Detection System and work for the same purpose
i.e., to detect the intrusions. The only difference is that the HIDS is set up on a particular host/device. It
monitors the traffic of a particular device and suspicious system activities. On the other hand, NIDS is set up on
a network. It monitors traffic of all device of the network.
13. Explain SSL Encryption
SSL(Secure Sockets Layer) is the industry-standard security technology creating encrypted connections
between Web Server and a Browser. This is used to maintain data privacy and to protect the information in
online transactions. The steps for establishing an SSL connection is as follows:
1. A browser tries to connect to the webserver secured with SSL
2. The browser sends a copy of its SSL certificate to the browser
3. The browser checks if the SSL certificate is trustworthy or not. If it is trustworthy, then the browser
sends a message to the web server requesting to establish an encrypted connection
4. The web server sends an acknowledgment to start an SSL encrypted connection
5. SSL encrypted communication takes place between the browser and the web server
15. Explain Data Leakage
Data Leakage is an intentional or unintentional transmission of data from within the organization to an external
unauthorized destination. It is the disclosure of confidential information to an unauthorized entity. Data Leakage
can be divided into 3 categories based on how it happens:
1. Accidental Breach: An entity unintentionally send data to an unauthorized person due to a fault or a
blunder
2. Intentional Breach: The authorized entity sends data to an unauthorized entity on purpose
3. System Hack: Hacking techniques are used to cause data leakage
Data Leakage can be prevented by using tools, software, and strategies known as DLP(Data Leakage
Prevention) Tools.
16. What are some of the common Cyberattacks?
Following are some common cyber attacks that could adversely affect your system.
1. Malware
2. Phishing
3. Password Attacks
4. DDoS
5. Man in the Middle
6. Drive-By Downloads
7. Malvertising
8. Rogue Software
17. What is a Brute Force Attack? How can you prevent it?
Brute Force is a way of finding out the right credentials by repetitively trying all the permutations and
combinations of possible credentials.
Password Length:
Password Complexity:
Limiting Login Attempts:
18. What is Port Scanning?
Port Scanning is the technique used to identify open ports and service available on a host. Hackers use port
scanning to find information that can be helpful to exploit vulnerabilities. Administrators use Port Scanning to
verify the security policies of the network. Some of the common Port Scanning Techniques are:
1. Ping Scan
2. TCP Half-Open
3. TCP Connect
4. UDP
 5. Stealth Scanning
21. What do you understand by Risk, Vulnerability & Threat in a network?
Threat: Someone with the potential to harm a system or an organization
Vulnerability: Weakness in a system that can be exploited by a potential hacker
Risk: Potential for loss or damage when threat exploits a vulnerability
22. How can identity theft be prevented?
Here’s what you can do to prevent identity theft:

o Ensure strong and unique password
o Avoid sharing confidential information online, especially on social media
o Shop from known and trusted websites
o Use the latest version of the browsers
o Install advanced malware and spyware tools
o Use specialized security solutions against financial data
o Always update your system and the software
o Protect your SSN (Social Security Number)
23. What are black hat, white hat and grey hat hackers?
Black hat hackers are known for having vast knowledge about breaking into computer networks.
White hat hackers use their powers for good deeds and so they are also called Ethical Hackers.
Grey hat hackers are an amalgamation of a white hat and black hat hacker. They look for system
vulnerabilities without the owner’s permission.
37. What is Cognitive Cybersecurity?
Cognitive Cybersecurity is an application of AI technologies patterned on human thought processes to detect
threats and protect physical and digital systems.
Self-learning security systems use data mining, pattern recognition, and natural language processing to simulate
the human brain, albeit in a high-powered computer model.
1) Define Cryptography and its benefits?
it is actually a method of securing communications through some protocols in order to make the information
secure or understood able only by the sender as well as the receiver.
2) What are the few major applications of cryptography in the modern world?
There are lots of benefits of cryptography in the modern world and a few of them are:
1. Chip-based payment cards
2. Computer and other passwords
3. E-commerce
4. Defense communications
5. Digital Currencies
6. Designing protocols
7. Data authenticity
3) What is decryption? What is its need?
Cryptography has two important modules and they are encryption and second is decryption. Encryption is
basically an approach that converts information into secret codes. It is also known as encoding. It is done to
make the information secure. On the other side decryption is a process that is opposite to it i.e. converting the
coded information back to its actual form. Only the receiver knows the protocols to decode that information.
4) What are the major threats to any data or information for which it needs cryptography?
There are a lot of threats in fact and you might have no idea that with respect to advancement in technology, the
reverse effect of the same has also enhanced all over the world. Hackers can steal data and any sensitive
information upon leaking can create issues for the business, a government, financial institution as well as for a
person individually. The leak of confidential information can put the entire organization at risk. Therefore data
needs to be secured.
5) What do you mean by Secret Key Cryptography and Public Key Cryptography? How they are
different from one another
Both these are the algorithms of encryption and contribute to data security. Secret Key Cryptography can be
used for both encryptions as well as decryption. It is also considered an asymmetric approach and contains only
one key. On the other hand, Public Key cryptography is basically an asymmetric approach. There are two keys
in this approach and one is basically the public key and any user can access the information. The other key is
private and can only be accessed by the administrator.
6) How Hash Functions are different from Public Key Cryptography and Secret Key Cryptography?
They are basically considered single-way encryption. Unlike Public Key Cryptography and Secret Key
Cryptography, they don’t have any key in them and their prime function is to make sure that a file has reached
its destination without any modification.
7) What type of information can be secured with Cryptography?
Well, there is no strict upper limit on that. Any information that needs some privacy can be encrypted with this
approach. However, in the present scenario, most of the information belongs to secret operations, business data,
defense applications, and lots more. Cryptography is an approach that can encode both digital, as well as analog
information and data without facing any issue.
8) In case a Cryptography tool is not available and you need to send secret information, would you
proceed or wait till the presence of the tool?
It all depends on the security of the network itself in such a case. If the network is secure, the information can
be shared. In case not, I will probably wait for the Cryptography tool to be active. This is because any
information without proper encryption can easily be leaked.
9) What exactly do you know about RSA?
It is basically a public key cryptography approach that is based on encryption, as well as authentication. It was
first used in the year 1977 and is based on prime number logic. It is basically a fast approach that can handle
multiple operations at a time. However, if the key size is small, it generally performs its operation slower.
10) Name the elements of a cryptography tool?
There are basically three important elements. The first is the sender which in fact also encrypts the information
in a secured form. The other is the receiver where information is received and decoded. The third is the channel
in fact which connects both sender and receiver. Most of the attacks for data-stealing are made on a channel
only. This is the reason that why data or information on it always remains in a coded form.
Basic interview questions on cryptography
11) what are the prime objectives of modern cryptography?
There are four prime objectives and they are:
1. Confidentiality
2. Non-repudiation
3. Authenticity
4. Integrity
12) What do you know about cryptosystems? What is its significance?
These are basically some of the important protocols that assure all the objectives of data encryption have been
met. Regulation of human behavior is also an important module in cryptosystems in which it assures that
accounts have been logged off from systems, not in use, passwords that are difficult to guess, maintain the
privacy of any information or data that is highly sensitive.
13) What is the role of Shift Register Cascades in Cryptography?
There are stages when binary bits are needed and this can be done with the help of Linear Feedback Shift
Registers. Registers are required to be connected in such a manner that one register controls the clock for the
previous. This type of interconnection is generally regarded as Shift Register Cascades. It shows how the
behavior of one register depends on the other.
14) What is the Digital Signature Algorithm?
The digital signature algorithm was implemented for the authentication of data in the year 1994. It offers quick
signature generation and in addition to this, it ensures better verification of information it is dealing with. It is
actually based on computing discrete algorithms and its security actually depends on the size of the key. It can
handle key size up to 1024 bits presently.
15) Name the two Signature schemes that are used in Cryptography?
Special Signature scheme and blind Signature Scheme
16) What is the One-Way function?
It is basically an approach that is used to assure faster information processing for cryptography when data needs
to be sent in one way only and no reverse action is possible. Functions can be computed in one direction within
a very short span of time but performing the opposite task can be extremely daunting.
17) What exactly is the other name of Checksum in Cryptography?
It is called a Message Authentication Code or MAC. It can be categorized as block chipper based,
unconditionally secure, stream cipher based, as well as hash function based.
18) What is Quantum Cryptography?
When it comes to exchanging secure information over an insecure channel, this approach is considered. It all
depends on the nature of photons in which the third polarization is focused. It can easily be trusted when it
comes to exchanging the Secret keys without facing any issue. Quantum Cryptography is useful when an
organization has to send information outside its network without compromising its security and authenticity. It
is having a lot of applications in secret and defense operations.
19) Is Cryptography a legal approach or not?
Cryptography is basically an approach that is used for data security. However, it has been seen that it can also
have a lot of cons associated with it. Only governmental agencies and authorized organizations are allowed to
use it in some parts of the world and thus it is not accepted as a legal approach everywhere.
20) What is the basic principle of Cryptography?
The basic principle of this approach is nothing but to write and solve codes so that information security can be
enhanced and that automatically leads to privacy.
21) What exactly do you know about SAFER? What is its abbreviation?
SAFER stands for Secure and Fast Encryption Routine and is basically a block chipper. It has a 64-bit block
size and is a byte-oriented algorithm that is widely used. Its encryption and decryption procedures are highly
secure and have 10 rounds out of which 6 can be used freely. This technology has wide application in digital
payment cards
22) What is the Fast Data Encipherment Algorithm?
It is basically a cryptosystem that has a 64-bit block size. Its prime aim is to assure the performance of the
software in which it is used. However, due to its insecure approach, it is not so common in the present scenario.
23) What is the difference between Block chippers and Stream Chippers?
Both have a similar objective but both operations in a different manner. Stream Chippers are faster when
compared to block. Block chippers generally operate on the data which is large in size while on the other side,
Stream chippers are considered when small units of text are to be considered. Stream Chipper seems complex in
handling the assigned tasks while the Blok chipper is best in performing the same. In addition to this, block
chipper results always error-free and can be trusted for the long run.
24) Name the properties of Interactive proof that are useful in Cryptography according to you?
1. Zero Knowledge
2. Soundness
3. Completeness
They can simply contribute to enhancing the security of information up to an excellent extent
25) How you will generate a sequence of binary bits in cryptography?
This can be done with the help of the Linear Feedback Shift Register. It can perform this task reliably. The
register is loaded with some cells that can easily be initialized through a vector which in most cases is nothing
but a secret key. At every clocking instant, it is possible to regulate the behavior of the register and thus best
outcomes can be assured. It shifts its content to right one by one till every bit is placed on the left side.
26) What do you mean by DNA computing?
It is nothing but a collection of random strands of DNA that can be combined to find the solution to a specific
problem. It works perfectly on both basic and as well as large-scale strands. The other name of DNA computing
is Molecular computing. By parallel search, it aims to solve some of the very complex problems that can declare
their presence in the cryptography approach.
27) When will you use a shrinking generator in Cryptography?
When a direct interaction is required in the outputs of Linear Feedback Shift Registers, this can be used. It is
actually scalable up to a great extent and has excellent securing properties that make it a good approach to trust.
The shrinking generator can also be used to analyze how to secure information is. It can also be used to
imposing a limit on the size of data that needs to be controlled.
28) What do you know about the Vernam Chipper?
In case the bits are generated randomly, this is the chipper that is used for controlling their actions. It combines
them with plain text reliably and the output is regarded as hypertext. Thus a very secure environment can be
assured and the best part is it’s not very difficult to use this approach.
29) What do you know about a Compression Function in Cryptography?
It is basically an approach that is used for securing the information reliably. A Compression function takes input
in the form of a fixed length of bits and the outcome is shorter. A method is generally divided into smaller
blocks for its easy authentication and implementation in the cycle. Each small block is then processed and the
output is the combination of bits and hash value.
30) Is it possible to combine cryptography with any other data security approach?
Yes, it’s possible to do so.

Class
Feature of digital signature:
Digital signatures can provide evidence of origin, identity and status of electronic documents, transactions or
digital messages.
2.Message authentication
a message authentication code (MAC), sometimes known as an authentication tag, is a short piece of
information used for authenticating a message.
3. Integrity
When sensitive information is exchanged, the receiver must have the assurance that the message has come
intact from the intended sender and is not modified inadvertently or otherwise.
4. Non-repudiation
Nonrepudiation is the property of agreeing to adhere to an obligation. More specifically, it is the inability to
refute responsibility. For example, if you take a pen and sign a (legal) contract your signature is a
nonrepudiation device.

5. Algithm -> (Block size, key size, Transfer from one key to another key, algorithm to algorithm)
6. Attacks -> (Denial service, passive attack vs active attack)
A denial-of-service (DoS) is a form of cyberattack that prevents legitimate users from accessing a computer or
network.
Active Attacks Passive Attacks

Modification of information occurs during an Modifying the information does not happen during a
active attack. passive attack.

Active attack poses a threat to integrity and Confidentiality is at risk from passive attacks.
availability.

During an active attack, the focus is on During a passive attack, the focus is on avoiding harm.
detection.

The system is permanently harmed due to an There is no harm to the system due to the passive
active attack. attack.

In an active attack, the victim is notified of the The victim is unaware of the attack while under passive
attack. attack.

System resources can be modified during an System resources do not alter when in the passive
 Active Attacks Passive Attacks

active attack. attack.

Active attacks have an impact on the system's Information and communications in the system or
services. network are collected during a passive attack.

During the execution of active attacks, Passive attacks are carried out by gathering information
information gathered from passive attacks is such as passwords and messages on their own.
utilised.

An active attack is brutal to restrict from In comparison to an active attack, the passive attack is
entering systems or networks. much easier to prevent.

7. Symmetric vs asymmetric encryption

Symmetric Encryption Asymmetric Encryption
Uses a single key to encrypt and decrypt data Uses a public key to encrypt data and a private
Faster encryption process Slower encryption process
Example key sizes are 128 or 256-bit long Example key sizes are 2048-bit or longer
Doesn’t use a lot of resources Uses more resources

8. Digital signature
Digital signatures work through public key cryptography's two mutually authenticating cryptographic keys. For
encryption and decryption, the person who creates the digital signature uses a private key to encrypt signature-
related data. The only way to decrypt that data is with the signer's public key.

16.Cloud Computing.
1) What is cloud computing?
Cloud computing is an internet based new age computer technology. It is the next stage technology that uses the
clouds to provide the services whenever and wherever the user need it.It provides a method to access several
servers world wide.
2) What are the benefits of cloud computing?
The main benefits of cloud computing are:
Data backup and storage of data.
Powerful server capabilities.
Incremented productivity.
Very cost effective and time saving.
Software as Service known as SaaS.
3) What is a cloud?
A cloud is a combination of networks ,hardware, services, storage, and interfaces that helps in delivering
computing as a service. It has three users :
End users
Business management users
cloud service provider
4) What are the different data types used in cloud computing?
There are different data types in cloud computing like emails, contracts, images , blogs etc. As we know that
data is increasing day by day so it is needed to new data types to store these new data. For an example, if you
want to store video then you need a new data type.
5) Which are the different layers that define cloud architecture?
Following are the different layers that are used by cloud architecture:
CLC or Cloud Controller
Walrus
Cluster Controller
SC or Storage Controller
NC or Node Controller
AD
6) Which platforms are used for large scale cloud computing?
The following platforms are used for large scale cloud computing:
Apache Hadoop
MapReduce
7) What are the different layers in cloud computing? Explain working of them.
There are 3 layers in the hierarchy of cloud computing.
Infrastructure as a service (IaaS):It provides cloud infrastructure in terms of hardware as like memory,
processor, speed etc.
Platform as a service (PaaS):It provides cloud application platform for the developer.
Software as a service (SaaS)::It provides the cloud applications to users directly without installing anything on
the system. These applications remains on cloud.
8) What do you mean by software as a service?
Software As a Service (SaaS) is an important layer of cloud computing. It provides cloud applications like
Google is doing. It facilitate users to save their document on the cloud and create as well.

9) What is the platform as a service?

It is also a layer in cloud architecture. This model is built on the infrastructure model and provide resources like
computers, storage and network. It is responsible to provide complete virtualization of the infrastructure layer,
make it look like a single server and invisible for outside world.
10) What is on-demand functionality? How is it provided in cloud computing?
Cloud computing provides a on-demand access to the virtualized IT resources. It can be used by the subscriber.
It uses shared pool to provide configurable resources. Shared pool contains networks, servers, storage,
applications and services.
11) What are the platforms used for large scale cloud computing?
Apache Hadoop and MapReduce are the platforms use for large scale cloud computing.
12) What are the different models for deployment in cloud computing?
These are the different deployment model in cloud computing:
Private cloud
Public cloud
Hybrid cloud
Community cloud
13) What is private cloud?
Private clouds are used to keep the strategic operations and other reasons secure.
14) What is public cloud?
The public clouds are open to the people for use and deployment.
15) What are Hybrid clouds?
Hybrid clouds are the combination of public clouds and private clouds. 16) What is the difference between
cloud computing and mobile computing?
Mobile computing and cloud computing are slightly same in concept. Mobile computing uses the concept of
cloud computing . Cloud computing provides users the data which they required while in mobile computing,
applications run on the remote server and gives user the access for storage and manage.
17) What is the difference between scalability and elasticity?
Scalability is a characteristic of cloud computing which is used to handle the increasing workload by increasing
in proportion amount of resource capacity. By the use of scalability, the architecture provides on demand
resources if the requirement is being raised by the traffic. Whereas, Elasticity is a characteristic which provides
the concept of commissioning and decommissioning of large amount of resource capacity dynamically. It is
measured by the speed by which the resources are coming on demand and the usage of the resources.
18) What are the security benefits of cloud computing?
Cloud computing authorizes the application service, so it is used in identity management.
19) What is the usage of utility computing?
Utility computing is a plug-in managed by an organization which decides what type of services has to be
deployed from the cloud.
20) What is "EUCALYPTUS" in cloud computing? Why is it used?
It is an acronym stands for Elastic Utility Computing Architecture For Linking Your Program To Useful
Systems. It is an open source software infrastructure in cloud computing and used to implement clusters in
cloud computing platform. It creates public, private and hybrid cloud. It facilitate a user to create his own data
center into a private cloud and use its functionalities to many other organizations.
21) Explain System integrators in cloud computing.
System integrator provides a strategy of a complicated process used to design a cloud platform. It creates more
accurate hybrid and private cloud network because integrator have all the knowledge about the data center
creation.
22) What are the open source cloud computing platform databases?
MongoDB, CouchDB, LucidDB are the example of open source cloud computing platform database.
23) Give some example of large cloud provider and databases?
Google bigtable
Amazon simpleDB

Cloud based SQL

24) What is the difference between cloud and traditional datacenters?
The cost of the traditional datacenter is higher than cloud because in traditional databases, there is overheating
problems and some software and hardware issue.
25) What are the different in Software as a Service (SaaS)?
Simple Multi-tenancy:In this mode, Every user has independent resources and are uniquely different from other
users. This is an efficient mode.
Fine grain multi-tenancy:: In this mode, the resources can be shared by many users but the functionality remains
the same.
26) Why API's is used in cloud services?
API's (Application Programming Interfaces) is used in cloud platform because:
It provide an alternative way that you don't need to write the fully fledged program.
It makes communication between one or more applications.
It creates applications and link the cloud services with other systems.
27) What are the advantages of cloud services?
Following are the main advantages of cloud services:
Cost saving: It helps in the utilization of investment in the corporate sector. So, it is cost saving.
Scalable and Robust: It helps in the developing scalable and robust applications. Previously, the scaling took
months, but now, scaling takes less time.
Time saving: It helps in saving time in terms of deployment and maintenance.
28) What are the different datacenters in cloud computing?
Containerized datacenter
Low density datacenter
29) What do you mean by CaaS?
CaaS is a terminology used in telecom industry as Communication As a Service. CaaS offers the enterprise user
features such as desktop call control, unified messaging and desktop faxing.
30) What do you mean by VPN? What does it contain?
VPN stands for Virtual Private Network. VPN is a private cloud that manage the security of the data during the
communication in the cloud environment. With VPN, you can make a public network as private network.
31) What are the basic clouds in cloud computing?
There are three basic clouds in cloud computing:
Professional cloud
Personal cloud
Performance cloud
32) What are the most essential things that must be followed before going for cloud computing platform?
Compliance
Loss of data
Data storage
Business continuity
Uptime
Data integrity in cloud computing
33) Which services are provided by Window azure operating system?
There are three core services provided by Window azure operating system:
Compute
Storage
Management
34) What is the usage of virtualization platform in implementing cloud?
The main usage of virtualization platform in implementing cloud is:
It is used to manage the service level policies.
Cloud Operating System.
Virtualization platforms help to keep the backend level and user level concepts different from each other.
35) We source cloud computing platform databases?
Following are the open source cloud computing platform databases:
MongoDB
CouchDB
LucidDB
36) What are some large cloud providers and databases?
Following are the mostly used large cloud providers and databases:
Google bigtable
Amazon simpleDB
Cloud based SQL
37) How would you secure data for transport in cloud?
This is the most obvious question accurued in mind that if the cloud data is secure; To ensure that, check that
there is no data leak with the encryption key implemented with the data you sending while the data moves from
point A to point B in cloud.
1) What are the advantages of using cloud computing?
The advantages of using cloud computing are
 Data backup and storage of data
 Powerful server capabilities
 SaaS ( Software as a service)
 Information technology sandboxing capabilities
 Increase in productivity
 Cost effective & Time saving
2) Mention platforms which are used for large scale cloud computing?
The platforms that are used for large scale cloud computing are
 Apache Hadoop
 MapReduce
3) Explain different models for deployment in cloud computing?
The different deployment models in cloud computing are
 Private Cloud
 Public Cloud
 Community Cloud
 Hybrid Cloud
4) What is the difference in cloud computing and computing for mobiles?
Mobile computing uses the same concept as cloud computing. Cloud computing becomes active with the data
with the help of internet rather than individual device. It provides users with the data which they have to retrieve
on demand. In mobile, the applications runs on the remote server and gives user the access for storage and
manage.
5) How user can gain from utility computing?
Utility computing allows the user to pay only for what they are using. It is a plug-in managed by an organization
which decides what type of services has to be deployed from the cloud.
Most organizations prefer hybrid strategy.
6) For a transport in cloud how you can secure your data?
To secure your data while transporting them from one place to another, check that there is no leak with the
encryption key implemented with the data you are sending.
7) What are the security aspects provided with cloud?
 Identity management: It authorizes the application services
 Access control: permission has to be provided to the users so that they can control the access of another
user who is entering into the cloud environment.
 Authentication and Authorization: Allows only the authorized and authenticated user only to access
the data and applications
8) List out different layers which define cloud architecture?
The different layers used by cloud architecture are
 CLC or Cloud Controller
 Walrus
 Cluster Controller
 SC or Storage Controller
 NC or Node Controller
9) What are system integrators in Cloud Computing?
In Cloud Computing, systems integrator provides the strategy of the complicated process used to design a cloud
platform. Integrator allows to create more accurate hybrid and private cloud network, as integrators have all the
knowledge about the data center creation.
10) What is “ EUCALYPTUS” stands for?
“ EUCALYPTUS” stands for Elastic Utility Computing Architecture For Linking Your Programs To Useful
Systems”
11) Explain what is the use of “EUCALYPTUS” in cloud computing?
“Eucalyptus” is an open source software infrastructure in cloud computing, which is used to implement clusters
in cloud computing platform. It is used to build public, hybrid and private clouds. It has the ability to produce
your own data center into a private cloud and allows you to use its functionality to many other organizations.
12) What is the requirement of virtualization platform in implementing cloud?
The requirement of virtualization platform in implementing cloud is to
 Manage the service level policies
 Cloud Operating System
 virtualization platforms helps to keep the backend level and user level concepts different from each other
13) Before going for cloud computing platform what are the essential things to be taken in concern by
users?
 Compliance
 Loss of data
 Data storage
 Business continuity
  Uptime
 Data integrity in cloud computing
14) Mention some open source cloud computing platform databases?
The open source cloud computing platform databases are
 MongoDB
 CouchDB
 LucidDB
15) What are the security laws which are implemented to secure data in a cloud?
The security laws which are implemented to secure data in cloud are
 Processing: Control the data that is being processed correctly and completely in an application
 File: It manages and control the data being manipulated in any of the file
 Output reconciliation: It controls the data which has to be reconciled from input to output
 Input Validation: Control the input data
 Security and Backup: It provides security and backup it also controls the security breaches logs
16) Mention the name of some large cloud providers and databases?
 Google bigtable
 Amazon simpleDB
 Cloud based SQL
17) Explain the difference between cloud and traditional datacenters?
 The cost of the traditional data center is higher due to heating and hardware/software issues
 Cloud gets scaled when the demand increases. Majority of the expenses are spent on the maintenance of
the data centers, while that is not the case with cloud computing
18) Explain what are the different modes of software as a service (SaaS)?
 Simple multi-tenancy: In this each user has independent resources and are different from other users, it
is an efficient mode.
 Fine grain multi-tenancy: In this type, the resources can be shared by many but the functionality
remains the same.
19) What is the use of API’s in cloud services?
API’s (Application Programming Interface) is very useful in cloud platforms
 It eliminates the need to write the fully fledged programs
 It provides the instructions to make communication between one or more applications
 It allows easy creation of applications and link the cloud services with other systems
20) What are the different data centers deployed for cloud computing?
Cloud computing consists of different datacenters like
 Containerized Datacenters
 Low Density Datacenters
21) In cloud computing what are the different layers?
The different layers of cloud computing are
 SaaS: Software as a Service (SaaS), it provides users access directly to the cloud application without
installing anything on the system.
 IaaS: Infrastructure as a service, it provides the infrastructure in terms of hardware like memory,
processor speed etc.
 PaaS: Platform as a service, it provides cloud application platform for the developers
22) How important is the platform as a service?
Platform as a service or PAAS is an important layer in cloud computing. It provides application platform for
providers. It is responsible for providing complete virtualization of the infrastructure layer and makes it work
like a single server.
23) What is a cloud service?
Cloud service is used to build cloud applications using the server in a network through internet. It provides the
facility of using the cloud application without installing it on the computer. It also reduces the maintenance and
support of the application which are developed using cloud service.
24) List down the three basic clouds in cloud computing?
  Professional cloud
 Personal cloud
 Performance cloud
25) As a infrastructure as a service what are the resources that are provided by it?
IAAS ( Infrastructure As A Service) provides virtual and physical resources that are used to build a cloud. It
deals with the complexities of deploying and maintaining of the services provided by this layer. Here the
infrastructure is the servers, storage and other hardware systems.
26) What are the business benefits involved in cloud architecture?
The benefits involved in cloud architecture is
 Zero infrastructure investment
 Just in time infrastructure
 More efficient resource utilization
27) What are the characteristics of cloud architecture that separates it from traditional one?
The characteristics that makes cloud architecture above traditional architecture is
 According to the demand cloud architecture provides the hardware requirement
 Cloud architecture is capable of scaling the resource on demand
 Cloud architecture is capable of managing and handling dynamic workloads without failure
28) Mention what is the difference between elasticity and scalability in cloud computing?
Scalability is a characteristics of cloud computing through which increasing workload can be handled by
increasing in proportion the amount of resource capacity. Whereas, elasticity, is being one of the characteristics
that highlights the concept of commissioning and decommissioning of a large amount of resource capacity.
29) Mention the services that are provided by Window Azure Operating System?
Window Azure provides three core services which are given as
 Compute
 Storage
 Management
30) In cloud architecture what are the different components that are required?
 Cloud Ingress
 Processor Speed
 Cloud storage services
 Cloud provided services
 Intra-cloud communications
31) In cloud architecture what are the different phases involved?
 Launch Phase
 Monitor Phase
 Shutdown Phase
 Cleanup Phase
32) List down the basic characteristics of cloud computing?
 Elasticity and Scalability
 Self-service provisioning and automatic de-provisioning
 Standardized interfaces
 Billing self service based usage model
33) In cloud architecture what are the building blocks?
 Reference architecture
 Technical architecture
 Deployment operation architecture
34) Mention in what ways cloud architecture provide automation and performance transparency?
To provide the performance transparency and automation there are many tools used by cloud architecture. It
allows to manage the cloud architecture and monitor reports. It also allows them to share the application using
the cloud architecture. Automation is the key component of cloud architecture which helps to improve the
degree of quality.
35) In cloud computing explain the role of performance cloud?
Performance cloud is useful in transferring maximum amount of data instantly. It is used by the professionals
who work on high performance computing research.
36) Explain hybrid and community cloud?
Hybrid cloud: It consists of multiple service providers. It is a combination of public and private cloud features.
It is used by the company when they require both private and public clouds both.
Community Cloud: This model is quite expensive and is used when the organizations having common goals
and requirements, and are ready to share the benefits of the cloud service.
37) In cloud what are the optimizing strategies?
To overcome the maintenance cost and to optimize the resources ,there is a concept of three data center in cloud
which provides recovery and back-up in case of disaster or system failure and keeps all the data safe and intact.
38) What is Amazon SQS?
To communicate between different connectors Amazon SQS message is used, between various components of
AMAZON, it acts as a communicator.
39) How buffer is used to Amazon web services?
In order to make system more efficient against the burst of traffic or load, buffer is used. It synchronizes
different component . The component always receives and processes the request in an unbalanced way. The
balance between different components are managed by buffer, and makes them work at the same speed to
provide faster services.
40) Mention what is Hypervisor in cloud computing and their types?
Hypervisor is a Virtual Machine Monitor which manages resources for virtual machines. There are mainly two
types of hypervisors
Type 1: The guest Vm runs directly over the host hardware, eg Xen, VmWare ESXI
Type 2: The guest Vm runs over hardware through a host OS, eg Kvm, oracle virtualbox

1. Compare between Cloud and On-premise Computing.

Criteria Cloud On-premise
Initial cost Low High
Maintenance and Hassle-free Needs attention
support
Upgrade Automatic Manual
Scalability Excellent Good
Pay as you go Yes No
2. What is a Cloud?
A cloud is a collaboration of networks, hardware, services, storage, and interfaces that help in delivering
computing as a service. It has three users:
a. End users
b. Business management users
c. Cloud service providers
3. What is Cloud Computing?
It is an advanced-stage technology implemented so that the cloud provides its services globally as per the user
requirements. It provides a method to access several servers worldwide.
4. What are some of the key features of Cloud Computing?
d. Reliable
e. Scalable
f. Agile
g. Location Independent
h. Multi-tenant
5. What are the benefits of Cloud Computing?
The main benefits of Cloud Computing are:
i. Data backup and storage of data
j. Powerful server capabilities
 k. Incremented productivity
l. Cost-effective and time-saving
6. Mention the layers of PaaS architecture.
Cloud Controller
m. Automatically creates virtual machines and controllers
n. Deploys applications
o. Connects to services
p. Automatically scales up and down
Storage Services
a. Object
b. NoSQL
c. Relational
d. Block storage
Applications Stored in Storage Services
e. Simple-to-scale applications
f. Easier recovery from failure
7. What are the cloud service models?
10. Which are the main constituents of the cloud ecosystem?
g. Cloud service providers
h. Cloud consumers
i. Direct consumers
11. Who are the cloud consumers in a cloud ecosystem?
People and teams who use different types of cloud services, within your organization.
12. Who are the direct consumers in a cloud ecosystem?
The individuals who utilize the service provided by your company, build within a cloud environment.
13. Who are the Cloud service providers in a cloud ecosystem?
Cloud service providers are the companies that sell their cloud services to others. Sometimes these companies
also provide cloud services internally to their partners, employees, etc.
14. What are the differences occurred in distributed operations?
FC: Master–Slave operations
Nova: Parallel process and its shared database
15. Which agent is equivalent of Nova Compute?
Azure Agent
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16. Mention the reliability and availability of Cloud Computing.
Use of Fault Domains:
a. Two virtual machines are in a single fault domain if a single hardware can bring down both the
virtual machines.
b. Azure automatically distributes instances of a role across fault domains.

Use of Upgrade Domains:

c. When a new version of the software is rolled out, then only one up-gradation of the domain is done
at a time.
d. It ensures that any instance of the service is always available.
e. There is an availability of the applications in multiple instances.
Storage and Network Availability:
f. Copies of data are stored in different domains.
g. it is a mechanism to guard against DoS and DDoS attacks.
17. Explain the Cloud Computing Architecture.
Cloud Computing Architecture brings together two components of cloud computing – the front end and the
back-end. It is important to bring the correct services together for the benefit of both internal and external
people. If need be, cloud management should be able to quickly make the required changes
18. What are the Cloud Storage Levels?
a. Files
b. Blocks
c. Datasets
d. Objects

Intermediate Interview Questions

19. What are the serverless components in cloud computing with their advantages and disadvantages?
These components allow you to create apps without the stress of managing the infrastructure.
Advantages Disadvantages
Cost-effective Can cause late responses
Increases productivity Not ideal for high-computing operations
Scalable More vulnerable when it comes to security
No server Debugging is challenging
management
20. Give the best example for the open-source Cloud Computing.
OpenStack
21. What are microservices and their importance in the cloud?
Microservices help create apps that consist of codes that are independent of one another and the platform they
were developed on. Microservices are important in the cloud because of the following reasons:
e. Each of them is built for a particular purpose. This makes app development simpler.
f. They make changes easier and quicker.
g. Their scalability makes it easier to adapt the service as needed.
22. What is an AMI? How do we implement it?
AMI is Amazon Machine Image, which basically is a copy of your root file system. It feeds the information
required to launch an instance.
23. Why Hybrid Clouds are so important?
Cloud Bursting:
Access capacity and specialized software are available in the public cloud and not in the private cloud.
Examples: Virtual Amazon and Dynamo
Leveraging the best of both worlds, there are hybrid clouds.
vCloud:
h. It is a VMware cloud.
i. It is expensive.
j. It gives enterprise quality.
OpenStack:
k. It has commodity servers and storage.
l. It is less reliable.
m. We can run web servers on OpenStack.
n. the database is built on vCloud.
24. List the platforms that are used for large-scale Cloud Computing.
The platforms that are used for large-scale Cloud Computing are:
a. Apache Hadoop
b. MapReduce
25. Mention the different types of models used for the deployment in Cloud Computing.
The different deployment models in Cloud Computing are:
c. Private Cloud
d. Public Cloud
e. Community Cloud
f. Hybrid Cloud
26. Explain security management in terms of Cloud Computing.
 g. Identity management access provides the authorization of application services.
h. Access control permission is given to users to have complete controlling access of another user who
is entering into the cloud environment.
i. Authentication and authorization provide permission to only the authorized and authenticated users
to access the data and applications.
27. Which are the layers of Cloud Computing?
The different layers used by cloud architecture are as follows:
j. CLC or Cloud Controller
k. Walrus
l. Cluster Controller
m. Storage Controller (SC)
n. Node Controller (NC)
28. Explain the full form and the usage of 'Eucalyptus' in Cloud Computing.
The full form of ‘Eucalyptus’ is ‘Elastic Utility Computing Architecture for Linking Your Programs to Useful
Systems
Eucalyptus is an open-source software infrastructure in Cloud Computing, which enables us to implement
clusters in the Cloud Computing platform. It is mainly used to build public, hybrid, and private clouds. It has
capabilities to convert our own data center into a private cloud and provides its functionalities for various other
organizations.
29. Mention the names of some large cloud providers and databases.
a. Google Bigtable
b. Amazon Simple Database
c. Cloud-based SQL (Sequential Query Language)

30. Explain the difference between cloud and traditional data centers.
d. The traditional data center is expensive due to heating and hardware/software issues. Mostly, the
expenditure is on the maintenance of the data centers.
e. Cloud is scaled up when there is an increase in demand, hence such expenditure issues are not faced
in Cloud Computing.
31. What is meant by Edge Computing?
Edge computing is a part of the distributed computing structure. It brings companies closer to the sources of
data. This benefits businesses by giving them better insights, good response time and better bandwidth.
32. What are the uses of APIs in cloud services?
f. APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) are used to eliminate the necessity to write complete
programs.
g. Here, instructions are provided to make communication between one or more applications.
h. Creation of applications is made easy and accessible for the link of cloud services with other
systems.
33. Mention different data center deployments of Cloud Computing.
Cloud Computing consists of different data centers as follows:
i. Containerized data centers: Containerized data centers are the packages that contain a consistent set
of servers, network components, and storage delivered to large warehouse kind of facilities. Here,
each deployment is relatively unique.
j. Low-density data centers: Containerized data centers promote heavy density which in turn causes
much heat and significant engineering troubles. Low-density data centers are the solution to this
problem. Here, the equipment is established far apart so that it cools down the generated heat.
34. List down the three basic functioning clouds in Cloud Computing.
a. Professional cloud
b. Personal cloud
c. Performance cloud
35. What are the characteristics of cloud architecture that differ from traditional cloud architecture?
The characteristics are:
 d. In cloud, the hardware requirement is fulfilled as per the demand created for cloud architecture.
e. Cloud architecture is capable of scaling up resources when there is a demand.
f. Cloud architecture is capable of managing and handling dynamic workloads without any point of
failure.
36. What are the building blocks of cloud architecture?
g. Reference architecture
h. Technical architecture
i. Deployment operation architecture
37. Explain AWS.
AWS stands for Amazon Web Services which is a collection of remote computing services also known as
Cloud Computing. This technology is also known as IaaS or Infrastructure as a Service.
38. Mention the key components of AWS.
The key components of AWS are as follows:
j. AWS Route 53: AWS Route 53 is a DNS (Domain Name Server) web-based service platform.
k. Simple E-mail Service: Sending of e-mail is done by using a RESTFUL API call or via regular
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol).
l. Identity and Access Management: Improvised security and identity management are provided for an
AWS account.
m. Simple Storage Device (S3): It is a huge storage medium, widely used for AWS services.
n. Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2): It allows on-demand computing resources for hosting applications
and is essentially useful for unpredictable workloads.
o. Elastic Block Stores (EBS): They are storage volumes attached to EC2 and allow the data lifespan
of a single EC2.
p. CloudWatch: Amazon CloudWatch is used to monitor AWS resources, and it allows administrators
to view and collect the keys required. Access is provided so that one can set a notification alarm in
the case of trouble.
39. Explain how you can vertically scale an Amazon instance.
This is one of the essential features of AWS and cloud virtualization. We spinup a newly developed large
instance where we pause that instance and detach the root EBS volume from the server and discard. Later, we
stop our live instance and detach its root volume connected. here, we note down the unique device ID and attach
the same root volume to the new server, and we restart it again. This results in a vertically scaled Amazon
instance.
40. Explain the security usage in the Amazon Web Services model.
a. AWS supports security groups.
b. Access is provided to create a security group for a jump box with SSH access only for port 22 open.
Later, a webserver group and a database group are created. The webserver group provides 80 and 443
from around the world, but only port 22 will be vital among the jump box group. The database group
allows port 3306 from the webserver group and port 22 from the jump box group. The addition of any
machines to the webserver group can store in the database. No one can directly SSH to any of our boxes.
41. What are reasons that make Amazon so big?
c. In Amazon, the backup storage of EBS volumes is maintained by inserting the snapshot facility via
an API call or via a GUI interface like Elasticfox.
d. Performance is improved by using Linux software RAID and striping across four volumes.
42. How does Resource Replication take place in Cloud Computing?
Resource Replication creates duplicates of the same resource. Replication is employed when a resource is needed
more and more.
1. Compare between Cloud and On-premise Computing.
Criteria Cloud On-premise
Initial cost Low High
Maintenance and Hassle-free Needs attention
support
Upgrade Automatic Manual
Scalability Excellent Good
Pay as you go Yes No
2. What is a Cloud?
A cloud is a collaboration of networks, hardware, services, storage, and interfaces that help in delivering
computing as a service. It has three users:
1. End users
2. Business management users
3. Cloud service providers
3. What is Cloud Computing?
It is an advanced-stage technology implemented so that the cloud provides its services globally as per the user
requirements. It provides a method to access several servers worldwide.
4. What are some of the key features of Cloud Computing?
 Reliable
 Scalable
 Agile
 Location Independent
 Multi-tenant
5. What are the benefits of Cloud Computing?
The main benefits of Cloud Computing are:
 Data backup and storage of data
 Powerful server capabilities
 Incremented productivity
 Cost-effective and time-saving
6. Mention the layers of PaaS architecture.
Cloud Controller
 Automatically creates virtual machines and controllers
 Deploys applications
 Connects to services
 Automatically scales up and down
Storage Services
 Object
 NoSQL
 Relational
 Block storage
Applications Stored in Storage Services
 Simple-to-scale applications
 Easier recovery from failure
7. What are the cloud service models?
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
Platform as a Service (PaaS)
Software as a Service (SaaS)
9. What are the components of Windows Azure?
Windows Azure Platform Services
 Cloud
 SQL Azure
 App Fabric: Allows fabric cloud
10. Which are the main constituents of the cloud ecosystem?
 Cloud service providers
 Cloud consumers
 Direct consumers
11. Who are the cloud consumers in a cloud ecosystem?
People and teams who use different types of cloud services, within your organization.
12. Who are the direct consumers in a cloud ecosystem?
The individuals who utilize the service provided by your company, build within a cloud environment.
13. Who are the Cloud service providers in a cloud ecosystem?
Cloud service providers are the companies that sell their cloud services to others. Sometimes these companies
also provide cloud services internally to their partners, employees, etc.
14. What are the differences occurred in distributed operations?
FC: Master–Slave operations
Nova: Parallel process and its shared database
15. Which agent is equivalent of Nova Compute?
Azure Agent
16. Mention the reliability and availability of Cloud Computing.
Use of Fault Domains:
 Two virtual machines are in a single fault domain if a single hardware can bring down both the virtual
machines.
 Azure automatically distributes instances of a role across fault domains.
Use of Upgrade Domains:
 When a new version of the software is rolled out, then only one up-gradation of the domain is done at a
time.
 It ensures that any instance of the service is always available.
 There is an availability of the applications in multiple instances.
Storage and Network Availability:
 Copies of data are stored in different domains.
 it is a mechanism to guard against DoS and DDoS attacks.
17. Explain the Cloud Computing Architecture.
Cloud Computing Architecture brings together two components of cloud computing – the front end and the
back-end. It is important to bring the correct services together for the benefit of both internal and external
people. If need be, cloud management should be able to quickly make the required changes.
18. What are the Cloud Storage Levels?
 Files
 Blocks
 Datasets
 Objects
19. What are the serverless components in cloud computing with their advantages and disadvantages?
These components allow you to create apps without the stress of managing the infrastructure.
Advantages Disadvantages
Cost-effective Can cause late responses
Increases productivity Not ideal for high-computing operations
Scalable More vulnerable when it comes to security
No server Debugging is challenging
management
20. Give the best example for the open-source Cloud Computing.
OpenStack
21. What are microservices and their importance in the cloud?
Microservices help create apps that consist of codes that are independent of one another and the platform they
were developed on. Microservices are important in the cloud because of the following reasons:
 Each of them is built for a particular purpose. This makes app development simpler.
 They make changes easier and quicker.
 Their scalability makes it easier to adapt the service as needed.
23. Why Hybrid Clouds are so important?
Cloud Bursting:
Access capacity and specialized software are available in the public cloud and not in the private cloud.
Examples: Virtual Amazon and Dynamo
Leveraging the best of both worlds, there are hybrid clouds.
vCloud:
 It is a VMware cloud.
 It is expensive.
 It gives enterprise quality.
OpenStack:
 It has commodity servers and storage.
 It is less reliable.
 We can run web servers on OpenStack.
 the database is built on vCloud.
24. List the platforms that are used for large-scale Cloud Computing.
The platforms that are used for large-scale Cloud Computing are:
 Apache Hadoop
 MapReduce
25. Mention the different types of models used for the deployment in Cloud Computing.
The different deployment models in Cloud Computing are:
 Private Cloud
 Public Cloud
 Community Cloud
 Hybrid Cloud
26. Explain security management in terms of Cloud Computing.
 Identity management access provides the authorization of application services.
 Access control permission is given to users to have complete controlling access of another user who is
entering into the cloud environment.
 Authentication and authorization provide permission to only the authorized and authenticated users to
access the data and applications.
27. Which are the layers of Cloud Computing?
The different layers used by cloud architecture are as follows:
 CLC or Cloud Controller
 Walrus
 Cluster Controller
 Storage Controller (SC)
 Node Controller (NC)
28. Explain the full form and the usage of 'Eucalyptus' in Cloud Computing.
The full form of ‘Eucalyptus’ is ‘Elastic Utility Computing Architecture for Linking Your Programs to Useful
Systems.
Eucalyptus is an open-source software infrastructure in Cloud Computing, which enables us to implement
clusters in the Cloud Computing platform. It is mainly used to build public, hybrid, and private clouds. It has
capabilities to convert our own data center into a private cloud and provides its functionalities for various other
organizations.
29. Mention the names of some large cloud providers and databases.
 Google Bigtable
 Amazon Simple Database
 Cloud-based SQL (Sequential Query Language)
30. Explain the difference between cloud and traditional data centers.
 The traditional data center is expensive due to heating and hardware/software issues. Mostly, the
expenditure is on the maintenance of the data centers.
 Cloud is scaled up when there is an increase in demand, hence such expenditure issues are not faced in
Cloud Computing.
31. What is meant by Edge Computing?
Edge computing is a part of the distributed computing structure. It brings companies closer to the sources of
data. This benefits businesses by giving them better insights, good response time and better bandwidth.
32. What are the uses of APIs in cloud services?
 APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) are used to eliminate the necessity to write complete
programs.
 Here, instructions are provided to make communication between one or more applications.
 Creation of applications is made easy and accessible for the link of cloud services with other systems.
33. Mention different data center deployments of Cloud Computing.
Cloud Computing consists of different data centers as follows:
 Containerized data centers: Containerized data centers are the packages that contain a consistent set of
servers, network components, and storage delivered to large warehouse kind of facilities. Here, each
deployment is relatively unique.
 Low-density data centers: Containerized data centers promote heavy density which in turn causes
much heat and significant engineering troubles. Low-density data centers are the solution to this
problem. Here, the equipment is established far apart so that it cools down the generated heat.
34. List down the three basic functioning clouds in Cloud Computing.
 Professional cloud
 Personal cloud
 Performance cloud
35. What are the characteristics of cloud architecture that differ from traditional cloud architecture?
The characteristics are:
 In cloud, the hardware requirement is fulfilled as per the demand created for cloud architecture.
 Cloud architecture is capable of scaling up resources when there is a demand.
 Cloud architecture is capable of managing and handling dynamic workloads without any point of failure.
36. What are the building blocks of cloud architecture?
 Reference architecture
 Technical architecture
 Deployment operation architecture
37. Explain AWS.
AWS stands for Amazon Web Services which is a collection of remote computing services also known as Cloud
Computing. This technology is also known as IaaS or Infrastructure as a Service.
38. Mention the key components of AWS.
The key components of AWS are as follows:
 AWS Route 53:
 Simple E-mail Service:
 Identity and Access Management:
 Simple Storage Device (S3):
 Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2
 Elastic Block Stores (EBS):
 CloudWatch:
39. Explain how you can vertically scale an Amazon instance.
This is one of the essential features of AWS and cloud virtualization. We spinup a newly developed large
instance where we pause that instance and detach the root EBS volume from the server and discard. Later, we
stop our live instance and detach its root volume connected. here, we note down the unique device ID and attach
the same root volume to the new server, and we restart it again. This results in a vertically scaled Amazon
instance.
40. Explain the security usage in the Amazon Web Services model.
 AWS supports security groups.
 Access is provided to create a security group for a jump box with SSH access only for port 22 open.
Later, a webserver group and a database group are created. The webserver group provides 80 and 443
from around the world, but only port 22 will be vital among the jump box group. The database group
 allows port 3306 from the webserver group and port 22 from the jump box group. The addition of any
machines to the webserver group can store in the database. No one can directly SSH to any of our boxes.
41. What are reasons that make Amazon so big?
 In Amazon, the backup storage of EBS volumes is maintained by inserting the snapshot facility via an
API call or via a GUI interface like Elasticfox.
 Performance is improved by using Linux software RAID and striping across four volumes.
Hope that you will find these interviews questions for the role of Cloud Engineer useful. Do let us know in the
comments section below!
42. How does Resource Replication take place in Cloud Computing?
Resource Replication creates duplicates of the same resource. Replication is employed when a resource is
needed more and more. The resource is virtualized to replicate cloud-based resources.
43. What is Containers as a Service (CaaS)?
CaaS is a system that allows developers to run, scale, manage, upload, and organize containers by using
virtualization.
A container is a software pack. It allows teams to scale their apps to highly available cloud infrastructures.
Hope that you will find these interview questions for the role of Cloud Engineer useful. Do let us know in the
comments section below!
1. What are the various available cloud service models?
IAAS - IaaS rents hardware/infrastructure as a service to enterprises - for example, memory, computing,
servers. Organisations deploy their applications on Cloud Providers infrastructure.
SAAS - SaaS offers users software as a service that resides on the cloud. Software and applications are used on
a subscription basis. Cloud providers are responsible for the maintenance and upgrade of the software.
Communication with Applications happens over API calls advised by the Cloud provider—for example, Google
Drive.
PAAS - PaaS provides enterprises with a platform where they could deploy their code and applications. PaaS
packages the platform for development and testing along with data, storage, and computing capability.
2. What are the component layers found in Cloud architecture?
Cloud Controller (CLC) - CLC sits at the topmost layer and controls virtual resources like servers, networks,
and storage.
Walrus - It acts as a storage controller for users and deals with virtual machine images and user data.
Cluster Controller - It controls the execution of all the virtual machines stored on the nodes.
Storage Controller - Storage controller handles storage in block form that is dynamically attached to virtual
machines
The Node Controller - It controls the functionality of the hypervisor that controls VM activities. The
hypervisor is a hardware-supported emulation technique that allows multiple OS to run on the same host OS.
also called virtual machine manager.
3. What are some popular use cases for cloud computing?
 Cloud storage - Storage over the internet through a web interface turned out to be a boon. With the
advent of cloud storage, customers could only pay for the storage they used. From Google Drive to more
privately operated proprietary applications, cloud storage is everywhere.
 Big data analytics - Big data and Cloud technologies go hand in hand and essentially make systems
faster, scalable, failsafe, high-performance, and cheaper.
 Test and Development - Cloud provides ready-to-use, customised, and fully set up resources. It offers
the infrastructure for the testing and development of applications and services without the downside of
installing and maintaining the on-premise resources, servers, and environment.
 Disaster Recovery - Data recovery is cheaper and faster in Cloud Computing technology. Since a cloud
ideally stores the data on many different servers in different locations, the probability of complete data
loss reduces.
 Data Backup - Data backup is more effortless and comes with security and availability of resources.
Older backup strategies had loopholes with the physical disc getting corrupted or running out of stock.
4. What is On-Demand functionality?
Cloud consists of a shared pool of resources and systems. The resources lent to the customer can be changed on
customers’ demand. On-Demand design saves customer’s overhead and provides easy scalability.

5. What are the platforms that use Cloud Computing?

 Map-reduce - Map-reduce enables users to use resizable Hadoop clusters within Amazon infrastructure.
Amazon’s counterpart of this is called Amazon EMR ( Elastic Map-Reduce)
 Hadoop - Hadoop allows clustering of hardware to analyse large sets of data in parallel.
 Apache Spark - Apache Spark is an open-source analytics engine that computes and processes large
datasets. The processing happens in memory for the sake of high performance. It provides parallel
processing and fault tolerance by cluster management. Apache Spark forms the complete big data
solution along with HDFS, Yarn, Map-Reduce.
6. What are the different modes of deployment available on the Cloud?
There are four modes, namely private cloud, public cloud, and hybrid cloud, community cloud.
Public - A public cloud is free to use for anyone. E.g. AWS Cloud Connect.
Private - Private cloud is the collection of resources that private organisations use for their own needs.
Community cloud - It allows multiple organisations in a group to access services and systems to share
information and computing.
Hybrid cloud - Hybrid cloud is a mix of private and public clouds that can switch from one to another,
depending on the conditions and requirements.
7. What is the difference between scalability and elasticity?
Scalability is the characteristic that allows resources to be increased/decreased, corresponding to the customer’s
workload. Say, for example, the traffic starts to increase on the customer side, and the current resource
allocation is falling short. We would need to scale up our product and get more resources from the cloud
provider on-demand in such a case.
Elasticity refers to commissioning and decommissioning large amounts of resources dynamically depending on
where the traffic is high or low. Elasticity comes in handy when in a shared cloud, two customers are competing
for resources. One customer can forfeit some unused resources to the other customer who is falling short and
requires resources.
8. How is Cloud computing different from mobile computing?
Mobile Computing, as the name suggests, is related to Mobile devices and tablets. It is responsible for accessing
the internet and performing searches and application tasks for mobile systems. Compared to Cloud computing,
Mobile computing is more customer-centric. In contrast, customer-oriented cloud computing aims at the
enterprise level and deals with organisations and their services.
9. Why use Cloud Computing?
Cloud computing is the process/idea of renting/delegating computing resources from dedicated servers and
cloud providers over the internet. Services can be storage, web servers, infrastructure, etc. With the use of cloud
computing technologies, organisations can ensure quality control and make their products scalable, modular,
and collaborative. The term Cloud-native defines a product that leverages cloud technology.
10. What is cloud-native?
Cloud-Native are technologies and services built to leverage cloud architecture.
11. What are some examples of popularly used Cloud Computing services?
Windows Azure, Amazon Web services, and iCloud are the very popular ones. Oracle Cloud and IBM cloud are
present as market competitors as well.
12. What is Edge computing?
Edge Computing is done at a centralised place with resources present locally. A direct benefit is low latency and
less dependency on outside resources.
13. What do you know about the Multi-cloud strategy?
The strategy dictates to not rely completely on a single cloud service provider and distribute the traffic among
multiple cloud service providers. Different functionalities can be leveraged from different cloud providers, thus
reducing work from one particular provider. This helps in increasing independence and lowers the risk of failure
in the case the provider faults or there occurs a traffic overload. Multi-cloud comes in use as a design to govern
from a singular access point ( portal )over the multiple cloud architecture. It can be as simple as a portal to
overlook all the clouds and their functionality.
14. What are the basic types of Data Centers?
 Containerized or High-Density data Centers - These are faster but take more power and generate
heating issues. Also, it is cheaper for the customer.
 Low-Density Data Centre - Servers are placed some distance apart in a low-density data centre. That is
why the name low-density. Due to the more spaces between two servers, heating is never an issue.
15. How is security ensured in Clouds?
 Identity management
 access control
 authentication
 Authorisation
16. What is Elastic Utility Computing Architecture - EUCALYPTUS?
It is an open-source software infrastructure in cloud computing to create private, public, and hybrid clouds. And
link programs to the systems and build data centres.
17. What is a cloud VPN?
Cloud VPN helps companies transition their VPN services to the cloud. There are two types of VPN services
that are available - Remote Access and Site to Site connection.
A VPN appliance is installed on-site in the company network in a Site-to-Site connection. This appliance
connects to a virtual VPN endpoint in the cloud. The VPN results in a tunnel between the cloud and the
enterprise. This connection doesn’t need the public IP address and acts similar to a physical connection.
Remote Access enables users to connect to machines located elsewhere globally. For example - VPNaaS.
In the connection logic, users install VPN software on their machines and connect to cloud VPN. The cloud
VPN forwards the connection to the concerned SaaS application.
18. What are the prerequisites for moving to a cloud platform?
 Compliance issues
 Data storage types
 Reduction of downtime
 Business continuity
 Ensure availability and access
 Maintaining data integrity
 Fail-safe for loss of data
19. What is the difference between RTO and RPO in Cloud Computing services?
The Recovery Time Objective is the maximum time a company has accepted to wait for recovery when a
system fails in the cloud. This contract is between the cloud provider and the client.
A Recovery Point Object is the maximum amount of data loss that the organisation can accept in its contract.
The data loss is measured in time.
20. Give architectural details for VPC - Virtual Private Cloud?
VPC manages storage and compute resources for organisations by providing a layer of isolation and
abstraction.
The architecture for VPC with public and private subnets is as follows : -
Creating a new VPC instance
A VPC comes by default with these components :
 Route table
 Network ACL
 Security Groups

An empty VPC with IPv4 CIDR address block.

Credits - Amazon Offical Doc on VPC.
The next step is to create two subsets, one public and the other private. We create an Internet Gateway and
connect it to our VPC next. So the traffic that flows to the VPC has to pass through the internet gateway. Now
we create a new EC2 instance and place it inside the subnet. Here is the final architecture diagram.
A VPC with public and private subnets. Credits- Amazon official Documentation
Cloud Computing Interview Questions for Experienced
1. What is Virtualization in Cloud Computing?
Virtualisation provides an abstraction between the back end and user programs. It enables creating an
environment where multiple software can use the same hardware. Virtualisation also manages the service level
policies. Following are a few types of virtualisation seen in Cloud Computing.
 Server Virtualization partitions a server into multiple serves so it can distribute incoming traffic among
them. The use case is load balancing.
 Hardware Virtualization is where Virtual Machine Manage installs on the hardware. It provides easy
access and monitors of resources like memory, processors, etc.
 Storage Virtualisation takes multiple Network storage devices and clubs them into one single group,
providing abstraction. The group is easier to maintain when compared to numerous devices inside it.
 Operating System Virtualisation is when multiple OSs run on the same hardware. It is possible by
installing the VMM onto the host OS instead of the hardware.
 Desktop Virtualisation allows remote access to workstations across global data centres, managed over
the internet.
 Application Virtualisation ensures applications that run on one operating system can run on other
operating systems as well. It creates an abstraction between the OS and the application.
2. How is Data protection in S3 achieved?
Data can be encrypted in S3 using SSE-S3, SSE-C, SSE-KMS.
 SSE-S3 provides the solution S3 oversees Key management and protection using multiple layers of
security.
 SSE-C lets S3 perform encryption and decryption of data and control the key used for encryption. Key
management and storage are implementation-dependent and not provided by AWS.
 SSE-KMS uses the Amazon Key Management service to store the keys used in encryption. KMS also
provides an additional layer of security by keeping master keys. Special permission is needed to be able
to use the master key.
3. What are the differences between ELB, NLB, and ALB?
Application Load Balancer (ALB) - ALB allows routing based on port numbers. It can also route requests to
Lambda, and it can direct requests to many ports on the target. Application Load Balancer supports only layer 7
- HTTP/2 and Web Sockets. It can return primary responses on its own so the server can be set free of replying
to redundant requests. ALB find use in Microservices and application
Network Load Balancer (NLB) - Network Load Balancer supports Layer 4 that is TCP and UDP. It is faster
and high-performance since it is lower in the OSI model. It uses static IPs and can also be assigned elastic IPs.
An example would be real-time data streaming or video streaming.
Classic Load Balancer (CLB) or Elastic Load Balancer (ELB version1) - ELB is the oldest Load balancer
and the only one which offers application-specific sticky session cookies. It works both on Layer 7 and Layer 4.
ELB also supports EC2-Classic.
4. Explain the types of EC2 instances?
Memory-Optimized Instances - They provide fast performance for applications that process Bigdata in
memory. Memory Optimised instance includes support for enhanced networking, up to 25gbps of Network
Bandwidth. They come packaged with EBS installed and optimised.
Use cases are in-memory caches and open-source databases.
Compute Optimised Instances - Compute Optimised instances provide high-performance computing resources
and fast batch-processing. They are used ideally for media transcoding, gaming servers, ad-server engines.
Compute Optimised Instances use the AWS Nitro system, which combines dedicated hardware and lightweight
hypervisors. Just like Memory-optimized, Compute Optimised Instances come with optimised EBS as well.
Accelerated Computing Instances - These Instances use co-processors and hardware accelerators to improve
upon the performance. They get used in graphics processing, floating-point calculations, data pattern matching.
Accelerated Computing Instances use extra hardware power to combat software limitations and latency. These
also support the Elastic Fabric Adapter (EFA)
Storage Optimised Instances - Storage Optimised instances are ideal for workloads that need high sequential
read and write. These instances use their local storage to store data.
Storage optimised instances provide low latency and high-speed random I/O operations. They get used in
NoSQL databases like Redis, MongoDB, data warehousing.
General Purpose instances provide a mixture of computing, memory, and networking resources. General
Purpose Instance find their use in applications that consume multiple resources in equal proportions, for
example, web servers, code repositories.
5. What is Cloudformation’s function?
CloudFormation helps in creating and maintaining an AWS infrastructure and stacks. Stacks are a collection of
AWS services. And CloudFormation enables users in creating stacks quickly with minor overhead. One could
ideally configure the AWS infrastructure through a text or JSON file in Cloud Formation.
7.Enumerate the difference between AWS Aurora vs AWS RDS?
Aurora is the database engine that gives reliability and speed at par with industry-standard databases. It backs
up data in AWS S3 in real-time without any performance impact. It backs up storage in a routine fashion
without the hassle of Database administrators interfering.
RDS (Amazon Relational Database System) is the traditional relational database that provides scalability and
cost-effective solutions for storing data. It supports six database engines, i.e. MySQL, Postgres, Amazon
Aurora, MariaDB, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle.
8. How can DDos attack be prevented and minimised?
 Shield ( Standard and Advanced )
 WAF ( web application firewall )
 Route 53 ( DNS )
 ELB ( Elastic Load Balancing)
 VPC ( Virtual Private Cloud)
 CloudFront
9. What are the limitations of ELB?
 ELB isn’t compatible with EKS containers running on Fargate.
 It can route traffic on more than one port in an instance
 ELB doesn’t support forwarding data to IP addresses. It can only forward it to the EKS/ECS container or
EC2 instance.
 It also doesn’t support web sockets.
 In ELB, there is no concept of target groups in routing.
10. How are target groups used to provide an additional level of redirection in Load Balancing?
Target groups are another layer of abstraction and redirection created in load balancers. They are tagged into
three types while creating target groups - instances (marked by instance ID), IP address, and Lambda functions.
Dedicated listeners listen to the traffic coming in the load balancer and route traffic to the appropriate target
group. The target group then routes the data to specific IPs, instances, and containers. The Target group checks
the health of its targets and figures how to split the oncoming traffic.
Amazon Web Services(AWS) Interview Questions and Answers
1. What are the key components of an AWS architecture?
Route 53, email service, identity management, and access management, simple storage device, elastic block
stores, cloud watch
2. How does AWS provide security for its customers?
Infrastructure security
The Network firewall built into Amazon VPC lets you create a private network and control access to
applications and services.
Data encryption
AWS CloudSHM provides hardware-based cryptographic key storage, helping users in enforcing their
compliance requirements. AWS services like AmazonEBS, AmazonS3, Amazon Lambda have built-in
encryption features in them. These encryptions provide another layer of security.
Identity and access control
Amazon Identity and Access Management let you enable permissions for each user account and offers various
multi factors authentication that is hardware-based and software-based.
Monitoring and logging
With AWS CloudTail, one can AWS deployments in the cloud by getting the history of API calls and
commands executed.
Amazon CloudWatch provides scalable and flexible monitoring solutions for the cloud.
Amazon Guarduty is a solution that checks and scans for malicious activities in the system.
3. What is Amazon Machine Image - AMI?
AMI is an image of the operating system, application server, and applications that will run on the cloud server.
Running an image will create an instance on the cloud. AMI includes metadata of the root volume. It also has
permission to decide on AWS instances that will be allowed to run it.
4. What is AWS lambda?
Lambda is a computing service that runs your code without requiring and managing servers. Each client request
will instantiate a new lambda function. Lambda charges you for only the time when the code was running.
5. How can AWS vertically scale in AWS?
Vertical scaling is adding more RAM and processor power to the existing machine. AWS provides instances up
to 488 GB ram or 128 virtual cores. To initiate vertical scaling, one first needs to decouple the tiers in our
application. These tiers will be distributed and handled by web servers. Finally, we can run the newer instance
and make appropriate changes reflecting the vertical scaling.
AWS Ops Automator automatically adjusts capacity to maintain steady, predictable performance at the lowest
possible cost. The solution can resize the instances by restarting your existing instance with a new size. Or, the
solution can resize your instances by replacing the current instance with a new, resize instance.
6. What are important features of Amazon S3
 S3 Storage class provides enterprise-wide insights and best practices for running storage buckets more
efficiently and safely.
 S3 batch operations make jobs run in parallel by running them in batches. Batching together jobs helps
to increase efficiency.
 S3 Intelligence tier is the feature where highly accessed data objects move to low-cost buckets.
 Identity and access management (IVM) manages access to different parts of Amazon S3.
 Access Control List allows access to certain traffic to every bucket or object.
 Versioning is to store multiple versions of the same file on the storage.
 S3 offers Multi-Factor Authentication Delete so that the data doesn’t get deleted by human error or
accidents.
7. DB used in AWS
MariaDB, Postgres, MongoDB, Oracle, MySQL are some common databases used in AWS.
8. Different types of load balancers in AWS
 Classic Load Balancer - Classic load Balancer is the only one among the three that supports EC2 classic
instances.
 Network Load Balancer - used when needing high performance and static IPS
 Application load balancer - used when you need flexible application management and TLS termination.
9. What is elastic IP
EC2 instances use Elastic IP for communication over the internet or in a private network. You first allocate to
your AWS account and then can map it to instances. It can avoid system failure when a resource fails. Fail-safe
is ensured by remapping the faulted instance’s IP to a new instance.
10.How is elastic IP allocated?
Elastic IPs are allocated by going to the EC2 console
11. What is Elastic Load Balancing ( ELB )?
ELB distributes oncoming traffic among multiple EC2 instances and helps in fault tolerance.
a. Load balancer – involves distributing incoming requests among EC2 instances registered with it.
b. SSL termination – ELB offers SSL encryption and decryption build into the EC2 instances attached to
ELB
c. Control service – This automatically scales the system by adding more load balancers to the EC2
instances.
12. What is Amazon Route53?
Route53 is a highly scalable and available domain name system (DNS) provided under Amazon AWS. These
are the three prime functions
a. Register domain names
b. Route internet traffic to resources
c. Send health checks to resources and devices.
13. What is the EC2 (Elastic Compute Cloud) instance?
Elastic Cloud Compute instance developers manage to compute on-demand in the AWS cloud. It gives control
over web scaling and computing resources.
EC2 instances are resizable upon requirement. Depending on the data traffic the organisation faces, EC2
instances shrink or expand in size. One can access EC2 instances over many geographical locations called
availability zones.
14. What are some benefits of CloudFront?
Cloud front is a Content delivery network developed by amazon that delivers data with high speed and low
latency globally through its worldwide web of data centres.
 It caches content in edge locations and local regions, resulting in quicker data availability. If the data
isn’t present at the edge location, it retrieves it from the specified path, like an S3 bucket.
 Data transfer happens over HTTP and HTTPS
 Copies of the files are ideally held across multiple edge locations globally. The redundancy increases
reliability and availability.
 By default, copies of objects ( or files )remain cached at the edge locations 24 hours before expiring.
17. How is AWS IVM helpful in threat detection?
Firewall with policies.
18. How are S3 and EBS different from each other?
Simple Storage Service and Elastic Block storage are the two kinds of storage options provided by AWS for
data storage. The differences arise mainly from their compatibility with other AWS services.
 EBS is used only with EC2 instances. S3 comes with no such limitation, popularising its use outside
EC2.
 EBS comes as a mountable volume while S3 provides read/write through software.
 S3 suffers from write delays while EBS soars.
 EBS can bind with only one EC2 instance. On the other hand, multiple instances of EC2 can bind with
S3.
 S3 used versioning and cross-region replication for data backup. At the same time, EBS relies on
snapshots and automated backups.
 S3 resources can be provisioned or decommissioned in runtime, supporting scalability. EBS needs
manual intervention to increase or decrease resources.
 Generally, S3 can store larger amounts of data when compared to EBS.
 S3 replicates data across multiple availability zones while EBS stores replicas in only one availability
zone.
 Amazon S3 stores large data sets, but EBS is the block storage unit for the EC2 instances, like hard
drives for PCs.
1. What is a Cloud Technology?
 A cloud is a combination of services, networks, hardware, storage, and interfaces that helps in delivering
computing as a service.
2. What are some of the key features of Cloud Computing?
The following are some of the key features of cloud computing:
Agility: Helps in quick and inexpensive re-provisioning of resources.
Location Independence: This means that the resources can be accessed from everywhere.
Multi-Tenancy: The resources are shared amongst a large group of users.
Reliability: Resources and computation can be dependable for accessibility.
 Scalability: Dynamic provisioning of data helps in scaling.
3. What do you mean by cloud delivery models?
Cloud delivery models are models that represent the computing environments. These are as follows:
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) is the delivery of services,
including an operating system, storage, networking, and various utility software elements, on a request
basis.
 Platform as a Service (PaaS): Platform as a Service (PaaS) is a mechanism for combining
Infrastructure as a Service with an abstracted set of middleware services, software development, and
deployment tools. These allow the organization to have a consistent way to create and deploy
applications on a cloud or on-premises environment.
 Software as a Service (SaaS): Software as a Service (SaaS) is a business application created and hosted
by a provider in a multi-tenant model.
 Function as a Service (FaaS): Function as a Service (FaaS) gives a platform for customers to build,
manage and run app functionalities without the difficulty of maintaining infrastructure. One can thus
achieve a "serverless" architecture.

4. What are the different versions of the cloud?

There are two primary deployment models of the cloud: Public and Private.
 Public Cloud: The set of hardware, networking, storage, services, applications, and interfaces owned
and operated by a third party for use by other companies or individuals is the public cloud. These
commercial providers create a highly scalable data center that hides the details of the underlying
infrastructure from the consumer. Public clouds are viable because they offer many options for
computing, storage, and a rich set of other services.
 Private Cloud: The set of hardware, networking, storage, services, applications, and interfaces owned
and operated by an organization for the use of its employees, partners, or customers is the private cloud.
This can be created and managed by a third party for the exclusive use of one enterprise. The private
cloud is a highly controlled environment not open for public consumption. Thus, it sits behind a firewall.
 Hybrid Cloud: Most companies use a combination of private computing resources and public services,
called the hybrid cloud environment.
 Multi-Cloud: Some companies, in addition, also use a variety of public cloud services to support the
different developer and business units – called a multi-cloud environment.
5. What are the main constituents that are part of the cloud ecosystem?
The parts of the cloud ecosystem that determine how you view the cloud architecture are:
 Cloud consumers
 Direct customers
 Cloud service providers
6. Who are the Cloud Consumers in a cloud ecosystem?
The individuals and groups within your business unit that use different types of cloud services to get a task
accomplished. A cloud consumer could be a developer using compute services from a public cloud.
7. Who are the Direct customers in a cloud ecosystem?
Users who often take advantage of services that your business has created within a cloud environment. The end-
users of your service have no idea that you’re using a public or private cloud. As long as the users are
concerned, they’re interacting directly with the services and value.
8. Who are the Cloud service providers in a cloud ecosystem?
Cloud service providers are the commercial vendors or companies that create their own capabilities. The
commercial vendors sell their services to cloud consumers. In contrast to this, a company might decide to
become an internal cloud service provider to its own partners, employees, and customers, either as an internal
service or as a profit center. Cloud service providers also create applications or services for such environments.
10. What are the Cloud Storage Levels?
Cloud storage device mechanisms provide common levels of data storage, such as:
Files – These are collections of data that are grouped into files that are located in folders.
Blocks – A block is the smallest unit of data that is individually accessible. It is the lowest level of storage
and the closest to the hardware.
Datasets – Data sets organized into a table-based, delimited, or record format.
Objects – Data and the associated metadata with it are organized as web-based resources.
Each of the above data storage levels is associated with a certain type of technical interface. This interface
corresponds to a particular type of cloud storage device and the cloud storage service used to expose its API.

Cloud Computing Interview Questions for Experienced

11. What are serverless components in cloud computing?
Serverless components in cloud computing allow the building of applications to take place without the
complexity of managing the infrastructure. One can write code without having provision to a server.
Serverless machines take care of virtual machines and container management. Multithreading, hardware
allocating are also taken care of by the serverless components.
12. What are the advantages and disadvantages of serverless computing?
Serverless computing has the following advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
It is cost-effective.
The operations on serverless computing are simplified.
Serverless computing helps boost productivity.
It offers scaling options.
It involves zero server management.
Disadvantages:
Serverless code can cause response latency.
It is not ideal for high-computing operations because of resource limitations.
For serverless computing, the responsibility of security comes under the service company and not the
consumer, which might be more vulnerable.
Debugging serverless code is a bit more challenging.
13. What are cloud-enabling technologies?
There are several areas of technology that contribute to modern-day cloud-based platforms. These are
known as cloud-enabling technologies. Some of the cloud-enabling technologies are:
Broadband Networks and Internet Architecture
Data Center Technology
(Modern) Virtualization Technology
Web Technology
Multitenant Technology
Service Technology
14. What are Microservices?
Microservices is a process of developing applications that consist of code that is independent of each other
and of the underlying developing platform. Each microservice runs a unique process and communicates
through well-defined and standardized APIs, once created. These services are defined in the form of a
catalog so that developers can easily locate the right service and also understand the governance rules for
usage.
15. Why are microservices important for a true cloud environment?
The reason why microservices are so important for a true cloud environment is because of these four key
benefits:
Each microservice is built to serve a specific and limited purpose, and hence application development is
simplified. Small development teams can then focus on writing code for some of the narrowly defined and
easily understood functions.
Code changes will be smaller and less complex than with a complex integrated application, making it easier
and faster to make changes, whether to fix a problem or to upgrade service with new requirements.
Scalability — Scalability makes it easier to deploy an additional instance of a service or change that service
as needs evolve.
Microservices are fully tested and validated. When new applications leverage existing microservices,
developers can assume the integrity of the new application without the need for continual testing.
16. What is the cloud usage monitor?
The cloud usage monitor mechanism is an autonomous and lightweight software program that is responsible
for collecting and processing the IT resource usage data.
Cloud usage monitors can exist in different formats depending on what type of usage metrics these are
designed to collect and how the usage data needs to be collected. The following points describe 3 common
agent-based implementation formats.
Monitoring Agent
Resource Agent
Polling Agent
17. How does the Monitoring Agent monitor the cloud usage?
An intermediary and an event-driven program that exists as a service agent and resides along the existing
communication paths is a monitoring agent. It transparently monitors and analyzes dataflows. Commonly,
the monitoring agent is used to measure the network traffic and also message metrics.
18. How does the Resource Agent monitor the cloud usage?
A processing module that is used to collect usage data by having event-driven interactions with the
specialized resource software, is a resource agent. This agent is applied to check the usage metrics based on
pre-defined, observable events at the resource software level, like initiating, suspending, resuming, and
vertical scaling.
19. How does the Polling Agent monitor cloud usage?
A processing module that gathers cloud service usage data by polling IT resources is called a polling agent.
The polling agent has also been used to timely monitor the IT resource status, like uptime and downtime.
Each of these can be designed to forward collected usage data to a log database for post-processing and for
reporting purposes.
20. What are Cloud-Native Applications?
‘Cloud native’ is a software framework designed with containers, microservices, dynamic orchestration, and
also continuous delivery of software. Every part of the cloud-native application has within it its own
container and is dynamically orchestrated with other containers to optimize the way the resources are
utilized.
21. How does the Cloud Native Computing Foundation define cloud-native applications?
The Cloud Native Computing Foundation gives a clear definition of cloud-native:
Container packaged: This means a standard way to package applications that is resource-efficient. By
using a standard container format, more applications can be densely packed.
Dynamically managed: This means a standard way to discover, deploy, and scale up and down
containerized applications.
Microservices oriented: This means a method to decompose the application into modular, independent
services that interact through well-defined service contracts.
22. What is meant by Edge Computing?
Edge and cloud are complementary. These are both parts of a broader concept called the distributed cloud. A
majority of those pursuing edge computing strategies are now viewing edge as part of their overall cloud
strategy.
Edge computing, unlike cloud computing, is all about the physical location and issues related to latency.
Cloud and edge combine the strengths of a centralized system, along with the advantages of distributed
operations at the physical location where things and people connect. In IoT scenarios, the edge is very
common. Cloud is different from the edge, in that it has never been about location. As opposed, it has
always been about the independence of location.
The popular scenarios are where you have cloud and edge together, and the cloud provider controls to run
and defines the architecture for what is out at the edge.
23. What is an API Gateway?
An API gateway allows multiple APIs to act together as a single gateway to provide a uniform experience to
the user. In this, each API call is processed reliably. The API gateway manages the APIs centrally and
provides enterprise-grade security. Common tasks of the API services can be handled by the API gateway.
These tasks include services like statistics, rate limiting, and user authentication.
24. What do you mean by Rate Limiting?
Rate Limiting is a way to limit the network traffic. Rate limiting runs within the app rather than the server. It
typically tracks the IP addresses and the time between each request.
It can eliminate certain suspicious and malicious activities. Bots that impact a website can also be stopped
by Rate Limiting. This protects against API overuse which is important to prevent.
25. What do you mean by encapsulation in cloud computing?
A container is a packaged software code along with all of its dependencies so that it can run consistently
across clouds and on-premises. This packaging up of code is often called encapsulation. Encapsulating code
is important for developers as they don’t have to develop code based on each individual environment.
26. What are the different Datacenters deployed for Cloud Computing?
Cloud computing is made up of various data centers put together in a grid form. It consists of the data
centers like:
Containerized Data Centers
Low-Density Data Centers
27. What are Containerized Data Centers?
Containerized Data Centers are the traditional data centers that allow a high level of customization with
servers, mainframes, and other resources. These require planning, cooling, networking, and power to access
and work.
28. What are Low-Density Data Centers?
Low-Density Data Centers are optimized to give high performance. The space constraint is being removed
and there is an increased density in these data centers. One drawback it has is that with high density the heat
issue also creeps in. These data centers are quite suitable to develop the cloud infrastructure.
29. What are some issues with Cloud Computing?
Following are some of the issues of cloud computing:
Security Issues: As it would be in any other computing paradigms, security is as much of a concern as
Cloud computing. Cloud Computing is vaguely defined as the outsourcing of services, which in turn causes
users to lose significant control over their data. With the public Cloud, there is also a risk of seizure
associated.
Legal and Compliance Issues: Sometimes, clouds are bounded by geographical boundaries. The provision
of different services is not location-dependent. Because of this flexibility Clouds face Legal & Compliance
issues. Though these issues affect the end-users, they are related mainly to the vendors.
Performance and Quality of Service (QoS) Related Issues: Paradigm performance is of utmost
importance for any computing. The Quality of Service (QoS) varies as the user requirements may vary. One
of the critical Quality of Service-related issues is the optimized way in which commercial success can be
achieved using Cloud computing. If a provider is unable to deliver the promised QoS it may tarnish its
reputation. One faces the issue of Memory and Licensing constraints which directly hamper the
performance of a system, as Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) deals with the provision of software on
virtualized resources,
Data Management Issues: An important use case of Cloud Computing is to put almost the entire data on
the Cloud with minimum infrastructure requirements for the end-users. The main problems related to data
management are scalability of data, storage of data, data migration from one cloud to another, and also
different architectures for resource access. It is of utmost importance to manage these data effectively, as
data in Cloud computing also includes highly confidential information.
30. How does Resource Replication take place in Cloud Computing?
Resource Replication is the creation of multiple instances of the same IT resource. It is typically performed
when an IT resource’s availability and performance are needed to be enhanced. The virtualization
technology is adopted to implement the resource replication mechanism in order to replicate the cloud-based
IT resources.
Computer Graphics Interview Questions
1) What is Computer Graphics?
Computer graphics involves display, manipulation, storage of images, and experimental information for proper
visualization.
A computer graphics system consisting of
o Host computer
o Processor
o Memory
o Frame Buffer
o Display Device
o A set of an input device
2) Write the properties of video display devices?
Properties of video display methods are Persistence, resolution, and aspect ratio.
3) Write the essential application of computer-graphic?
Following is the application of computer graphic
1. Computer graphics is used in the range of computer-aided design.
2. It is used to produce illustrations for documents or to generate slides for with projections.
3. The expert uses a combination of 3D modeling methods, texture mapping, drawing programs, and CAD software.
4. In the field of entertainment, CG techniques are now commonly used in making motion pictures. Music videos
and television shows.
5. Computer-generated models of physical, financial, and economical methods are used as educational aids.
4) Write the difference between vector and raster graphics?
Following are the difference between vector and raster graphics:
1. Raster or Bitmap images are resolution-dependent because of this, it's not possible to increase or reduce their
size without sacrificing on image quality.
While the vector-based display is not dependent on resolution, the range of vector image can be increased or
reduced without affecting image quality.
2. Unlike a raster image, a vector picture can't be used for realistic pictures. This is because vector images are
made up of solid-color areas and scientific gradients, so they can't be used to demonstrate the continuous tone of
colors in a natural photograph.
5) What are the advantages and disadvantages of direct view storage tubes?
Advantages:
o Refreshing is not necessarily.
o Without flicker, very complex images can be exhibit at very high resolution.
o Refreshing of the screen is not needed.
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Disadvantages:
o They normally never display color.
o Selected part of the picture never deleted.
o It can take quite a few second for composite images while redrawing and eliminating the process.
6) Define Aspect Ratio?
Aspect ratio is the ratio of the vertical points to horizontal points essential to produce equivalent length line in
both direction on the screen.
7) Differentiate between Raster and Vector Graphics?
Raster Graphics Vector Graphics

Raster graphics are consist of pixels Vector graphics are consist of paths

Raster image pixels do not include their appearance as to size Vector image do retain appearance regardless of
 increases estimate.

Raster graphics are not scalable Vector images are scalable

8) What are the advantage and disadvantages of DDA Algorithm?

Advantage:
o It is the most straightforward algorithm.
o It is a faster process for calculating pixel positions.
Disadvantage:
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o Floating-point arithmetic in DDA technique is time-consuming.
o Endpoint accuracy is poor.
9) Difference between DDA and Bresenham's line drawing algorithm.
Basics DDA Algorithm Bresenham's line Algorithms

Arithmetic DDA algorithm uses floating point, i.e., Bresenhams algorithm uses fixed point, i.e., Integer
Real Arithmetic's. Arithmetic's.

Operations DDA algorithms uses multiplication and Bresenhams algorithm use only subtraction and addition in
division in its operation. its operations.

Speed DDA algorithm is slowly than Bresenhams algorithm is faster than the DDA algorithm
Bresenham's algorithm inline drawing inline drawing because it performs only addition and
because it uses real arithmetic (floating- subtractions in its calculation and uses only integer
point methods). arithmetic, so it runs significantly fast.

Accuracy & DDA algorithms is not as accurate and Bresenham's algorithm is much accurate than the DDA
Efficiency efficient as Bresenham's algorithm. algorithms.

Drawing DDA algorithm can draw circle and Bresenhams algorithm can draw circle and curves with
curves, but which is not as accurate as much more accuracy than DDA Algorithm.
Bresenhams

Expensive DDA algorithm uses an excessive Bresenhams algorithm is less costly than the DDA
number of floating-point multiplications, algorithm as it uses only addition and subtraction.
so it is costly.

10) What is Translation?

A translation is used to an object by repositioning it along a straight line path from one co-ordinate point to
another.
11) What is Reflection?
A Reflection is a transformation which produces a mirror display of an object. The mirror image for a 2D
reflection is created relative to an axis of reflection by rotating the objects 180 degrees about the reflection axis.
12) What is Shearing?
A transformation which distorts the shape of an object such that the transformed way develop as if the object
were consist of internal layers that had been caused to slide over each other is known as shearing
13) What is viewing transformation?
The mapping of a component of a world-coordinate scene to device coordinates is called a viewing
transformation.
14) Define Clipping and Clip window.
Any method that identifies those portions of a display that are either inside or outside of a particular region of
space is referred to as a clipping algorithm or simply clipping. The region against which an object is clipped is
known a clip window.
16) What is the need for space partitioning representation?
Space partitioning representations are used to define interior methods, by partitioning the spatial domain
including an object into a set of small non-overlapping, and contiguous solids. A common space partitioning
description for a three object is an octree representation.
17) What is the quadric surfaces?
Quadric surfaces are described with second-degree equations (quadrics). They include sphere, ellipsoids, tori,
paraboloids, and hyperboloids. Spheres and ellipsoids are necessary components of graphic scenes; they are
often feasible in graphics packages from which more complex object can be constructed.
18) What is critical fusion frequency?
Frequency of light simulation at which it becomes perceived as a stable, continuous sensation. The frequency
depends upon various factors like luminance, color, contrast, etc.
19) Difference between CMY and HSV color models.
CMY Model HSV Model

A color model described with the primary colors cyan, The HSV model uses color descriptors that have a more
magenta, and yellow (CMY) is useful for defining natural appeal to the user. Color function in this model is hue
color output to hard-copy devices. (H), saturation (S) and value(V).

Hard-copy devices such as plotters produce a Color To give color specification, a user selects a spectral color and
image by coating a paper with color pigments. the amounts of black and white that are to be added to obtain
different shades, tints, and tones.

25) What is a Turtle Graphics Program?

Turtle Graphics is a procedure in computer graphics for programming vector graphics utilizing a relative cursor
upon a Cartesian plane.
26) List the attributes of turtle in graphics.
Turtle graphics has three attributes
Current Position location
Current direction Orientation
Pen
31) What is a Scripting system?
Scripting systems allow object specifications and animation sequences to be defined with a user input string.
From the script, a library of different objects and motions can be constructed.
32) Define refresh/frame buffer.
Picture definition is saved in a memory area known as the refresh buffer or frame buffer.
33) What is the resolutions?
The maximum number of point that can be presented without overlap on a Cathode Ray Tube is indicated to as
the resolutions.
34) Define Window and viewport.
A world-coordinate area selected for display is known as a window.
An area on the display device to which a windows is mapped is known as a viewport.
35) Distinguish between window port and viewport?
A portion of a picture that is to be presented by a window is known as Window port.
The display method of the part selected or the design in which the selected element is viewed is called a
viewport.
39) What is a Rasterizations?
The phase of determining the appropriate pixels for representing images or graphics object is called a
rasterization.
43) What does it mean by RGB?
RGB is a color model; it is an additive color image in which red, green, and blue lights are added composed in
various methods to reproduce a broad display of colors.
44) What is VDU?
A monitor or display known as a visual display unit is a portion of electrical machinery which displays images
created by an appliance such as computers,
47) What are the advantages of laser printers?
1. Large speed, precision, and economy.
2. Low-cost to maintain.
3. Quality printers.
4. Lasts for high time.
5. Toner power is very in-expensive.
48) List some 3D viewing devices.
1. Stereoscopic systems
2. Virtual reality systems
1. Which of the following statements define Computer Graphics?
c) It refers to designing images
2. Among the given scientists/inventor who is known as the father of Computer Graphics?
b) Ivan Sutherland
3. Which of the following are the features of Computer Graphics?
c) Creation and manipulation of graphics by computer
4. Which of the following is a Computer Graphics type?
a) Raster and Vector
5. Which of the following plane is used for 2D transformations?
b) Two-dimensional plane
6. Which of the following is a Computer Graphics Curve?
d) All of the above
7. Who is the first user of computer graphics?
a) William Fetter
8. Which of the following is the purpose for using clipping in computer graphics?
d) removing objects and lines
9. In a graphical system, an array of pixels in the picture are stored in which of the following locations?
c) Memory
10. Curves in computer graphics is primarily used for which of the following function?
a) To draw different types of objects onto the screen
11. __________ types of translation are present in computer graphics.
b) 3
12. Bitmap is a collection of ____________ that describes an image.
a) pixels
13. Which of the following devices provides positional information to the graphics system?
b) Both Input devices and Pointing devices
14. Which of the following is defined as the number of pixels stored in the frame buffer of a graphics system?
Explanation: The Resolution is defined as the number of pixels.
15. Which of the following is a primary output device of a graphics system?
c) Video monitor
16. Which of the following is used in graphics workstations as input devices to accept voice commands?
a) Speech recognizers
17. What is the use of voice system input?
b) To initiate graphics operation and also to enter data
18. Which of the following is defined as the process of elimination of parts of a scene outside a window or a
viewport?
d) clipping
19. Which of the following is known as the window opened on the raster graphics screen in which the image will be
displayed?
a) Interface window
20. Which of the following operations can be used to zoom in or out around any axis on a three-dimensional object
from its original position?
c) Scaling
21. Among the following process, which process is known as the elimination of parts of a scene outside a window or
a viewport?
d) clipping
22. Viewing transformation is the process of mapping a world window in World Coordinates to the Viewport.
b) True
23. Which of the following is defined as the drawing of number of copies of the same image in rows and columns
across the interface window so that they cover the entire window?
c) Tiling
24. How many axes do 3D graphics consist of?
b) Three axes
25. Which of the following is the most commonly used boundary representation for a 3-dimensional graphics object?
d) Surface polygon
26. Which of the following is the process of digitizing a given picture definition into a set of pixel-intensity for
storage in the frame buffer?
a) Scan conversion
27. Which of the following is commonly known as frame buffer on a black and white system with one bit per pixel?
a) Bitmap
28. Which of the following algorithm is a faster method for calculating pixel positions?
c) DDA line algorithm
29. If the boundary is specified in a single color, and if the algorithm proceeds pixel by pixel until the boundary
color is encountered is known as ____
d) Boundary-fill algorithm
30. Which of the following defines a pixel mask?
a) A string containing 1 and 0
31. What does an aspect ratio mean?
b) Ratio of vertical points to horizontal points and horizontal points to vertical points
32. Which of the following is a correct abbreviation of DDA algorith
d) Digital differential analyzer
33. The Cohen-Sutherland algorithm divides the region into how many spaces?
a) 9
34. The Cohen Sutherland algorithm is more efficient than the Liang-Barsky algorithm.
a) False
35. Which of the following is used for 3D positioning and modeling, animation, and other application?
c) Space ball
36. Which of the following can be used to determine the position on the data tablet?
a) Either Signal strength or coded pulse
37. Which of the following type of perspective projection is also called “Angular Perspective”?
d) Two-point
38. Which of the following type of perspective projection is used in drawings of railway lines?
c) One-point
39. Which of the following representation represents a three-dimensional object?
d) Equation
40. Which part of a picture is considered and saved in exterior clipping?
b) Picture which is outside the view window
41. Which of the following clipping process handles the clipping of strings?
a) Text Clipping
42. Which of the following algorithm can be used to clip a polygon in 3D space?
c) Weiler Atherton Algorithm
43. How is the line path on the polygon area for a 45% line?
a) Vertical
44. Which of the following is defined as the sampling of object characteristics at a high resolution and displaying the
result at a lower resolution?
b) Super-sampling or Post-filtering
45. Which of the following is the correct full form of the NLN line clipping algorithm?
c) Nicholl-Lee-Nicholl algorithm
46. ‘Skala’ is an example of which of the following type of clipping?
b) line clipping
47. Which of the following is not a type of area sampling?
a) Point sampling
48. In which of the following method, fixed pattern of a line is used to generate characters?
d) Starbust method
49. Which of the following stores the picture information as a charge distribution behind the phosphor-coated
screen?
a) Direct-view storage tube
50. Which of the following device is designed to minimize the background sound?
c) Microphone

#Wireless
1. wireless
refers to a computer network that makes use of Radio Frequency (RF) connections between nodes in the
network
2. Wifi
Wi-Fi, often referred to as WiFi, wifi, wi-fi or wi fi, is often thought to be short for Wireless Fidelity and the
organization that paid for the marketing firm is sometimes referred to as the Wireless Fidelity Alliance Inc.
3. Bluttoth
Bluetooth, technology standard used to enable short-range wireless communication between electronic devices.
4. Zigbee technology
Zigbee is a standards-based wireless technology developed to enable low-cost, low-power wireless machine-to-
machine (M2M) and internet of things (IoT) networks.Zigbee is for low-data rate, low-power applications and
is an open standard
5. Multiplexer

Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single medium. The
process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is known
as a multiplexer.

6. Multiplexing access techniques

There are five basic access or multiplexing methods: frequency division multiple access (FDMA): FDMA is the
process of dividing one channel or bandwidth into multiple individual bands, each for use by a single user,
time division multiple access (TDMA): TDMA is a digital technique that divides a single channel or band into
time slots,
 code division multiple access (CDMA): CDMA is another pure digital technique. It is also known as spread
spectrum because it takes the digitized version of an analog signal and spreads it out over a wider bandwidth at
a lower power level.,
orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA): OFDMA is the access technique used in Long-Term
Evolution (LTE) cellular systems to accommodate multiple users in a given bandwidth.,
and spatial division multiple access (SDMA): SDMA uses physical separation methods that permit the sharing
of wireless channels.
7. Basic from wireless networking topic