Introduction

Living things are believed to have evolved from simple one-celled organisms (unicellular) to two
or more celled organisms (multicellular).

Based on certain characteristics such as mode of nutrition, thallus organization, cell structure,
phylogenetic relationships, and reproduction; all living organisms are grouped into five
kingdoms (Whittaker, 1969). These are:

• Monera: This kingdom includes all prokaryotic unicellular organisms with

• Protista: This kingdom consists of all eukaryotic unicellular organisms
• Fungi: This kingdom comprises all fungal organisms, including mushrooms, molds, and
yeasts
• Plantae: This kingdom includes all plant-like organisms, such as trees, flowers, and
grasses
• Animalia: This kingdom consists of all animal-like organisms, including humans and other
vertebrates

This evolutionary pattern or trend is illustrated using a tree called the phylogenetic tree
of life.

Figure 1: Phylogenetic tree of life

Plantae kingdom

The Plantae kingdom includes all land plants, ranging from tiny mosses to giant trees, and is
composed of eukaryotic, multicellular organisms that possess pigments, such as chlorophylls a
and b and carotenoids, which play a central role in converting the energy of sunlight into
chemical energy by means of photosynthesis.

All plants have a membrane-bound nucleus that contains the chromosomes, and they share the
following features common to all living things. The plant kingdom is further classified into
subgroups based on the presence or absence of a well-differentiated plant body, the presence
or absence of a vascular system for the transportation of water and other substances, and the
presence or absence of flowers and seeds and if the seeds are naked or enclosed in a fruit.
Figure 2: Phylogenetic tree of the plantae kingdom

Figure 3: Examples of members in the plantae kingdom

Plant taxonomy
Plant taxonomy is the science of finding, identifying, describing, classifying (grouping), and
naming (nomenclature) plants. It is a branch of systematics, which determines how different
biological organisms are related to each other. Taxonomy classifies plants into different
taxonomic levels, including kingdom, division (or phylum), class, order, family, genus, and
species.
The classification of plants is based on their characteristics and evolutionary relationships, and it
is essential for understanding plant diversity and making informed decisions for propagating,
controlling, or managing landscape plants.

Purpose of plant taxonomy

The purpose of taxonomy is to classify species based on their shared traits and lineage, which
serves several essential functions:
• Organization of biological diversity: Taxonomy provides a systematic framework for
understanding and organizing the vast array of living organisms, making it easier to
study and manage biodiversity
• Naming and standardization: Taxonomy allows for the naming and standardization
of organisms, enabling clear communication and collaboration among scientists and
researchers
• Understanding evolutionary relationships: By grouping organisms based on shared
characteristics and lineage, taxonomy helps scientists understand the evolutionary
relationships between species and the development of complex ecosystems
• Conservation and management: Taxonomy is crucial for the conservation and
management of endangered species, as it helps identify and classify organisms that
require protection
• Facilitating research: The hierarchical structure of taxonomy allows researchers to
easily locate and compare information about organisms, making it a vital tool for
scientific inquiry and discovery.

Hierarchical structure of taxonomy

The hierarchical structure of taxonomy in biology is a system for classifying organisms based on
their shared characteristics and lineage. This hierarchical structure allows for a clear
organization of biological diversity, facilitating research and conservation efforts. It is organized
into eight main levels, from the most general to the most specific.
• Domain: This is the highest level of classification, which includes all living organisms.
Eg. Eukarya
• Kingdom: Within a domain, organisms are grouped into kingdoms, such as Animalia
and Plantae. Eg Plantae
• Phylum (or Division for plants): Kingdoms are further divided into phyla, which are
groups of closely related organisms. Various divisions exist, and they are not consistently
denoted by a specific prefix or suffix.
• Class: Phyla are then classified into classes, which contain organisms with similar
characteristics. -opsida for seed plants and -phyceae for algae.
• Order: Classes are divided into orders, which include organisms with specific
characteristics and behaviors. -ales
 • Family: Orders are further divided into families, which contain closely related organisms
that share specific characteristics. -aceae
• Genus: Families are then classified into genera, which include organisms that share
similar characteristics and are closely related. The genus name stands on its own
without a prefix or suffix.
• Species: Finally, genera are divided into species, which are groups of closely related
organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring. The species name stands on its
own without a prefix or suffix

Plants classification
Plant classification is the process of grouping plants into categories based on their
characteristics, evolutionary relationships, and genetic makeup. It is essential for understanding
plant diversity and making informed decisions for propagating, controlling, or managing
landscape plants.
The most widely used plant classification system is based on the Linnean system, which has
eight levels from the most general to the most specific: domain, kingdom, phylum (or division
for plants), class, order, family, genus, and species. This system is used to arrange organisms
into groups based on similar characteristics and is essential for understanding plant diversity
and making informed decisions for managing plants.
The importance of plant classification includes:

1. To understand the diversity of life: Classification allows scientists to organize and

understand the vast array of living organisms on Earth. By grouping organisms based on
their similarities and differences, scientists can better understand the relationships
between different species and how they evolved over time
2. To identify and name organisms: Classification provides a standardized system for
identifying and naming organisms. By assigning each organism a unique scientific name,
scientists can communicate more effectively about different species and avoid confusion.
3. To study evolutionary relationships: Classification helps scientists study the
evolutionary relationships between different organisms. By grouping organisms based on
their evolutionary history, scientists can better understand how different species are
related to each other and how they evolved over time.
4. To make predictions: Classification allows scientists to make predictions about the
characteristics and behavior of different organisms based on their classification. For
example, if two species are closely related, they may share similar traits or behaviors.

History of plant classification

Plant classification evolved through Four (4) periods:

1st period: Ancients (1730 BC- 17th century, spanning 2000 years). Classification was based on
growth habit of plant. Emphasis on genus. Proponent Theophrastus

2nd period: from 17302 end of the 18th century. Sex organs stamen and carpel of plants used
in classification. Remarkable works include Linneaus system of classification.
3rd period: from beginning to 80’s of the 19th century. classification system was based on
natural relationships or forms. Bentham and Hookers natural system of classification.

4th period: 1883- present. Phylogenetic relationship of plants.

Classification Systems
Artificial, natural, and phylogenetic classification systems are used to classify plants based on
their characteristics. Here are the differences between these three systems:

1. Artificial classification:
• The earliest systems of classification which remained dominant from 300 B.C. up to
about 1830
• Only a few characters are considered.
• It is based on few easily observable morphological characters such as habit, habitat,
color, number, and shape of leaves.
• It is mainly based on vegetative characters or on the androecium structure.
• It is stable and easy to develop but does not show any evolutionary relationships.
• Carolus Linnaeus proposed the artificial system of classification.
• It involves the selection of organisms arbitrarily and grouping accordingly.
i. The Proponents include Theophrastus (370-287 BC) and Carl Linnaeus

2. Natural classification:
• It is based upon overall resemblances, mostly in gross morphology, thus, utilizing as
many taxonomic characters as possible, to group taxa
• It avoids the grouping of heterogeneous and unrelated groups of organisms.
• It groups organisms based on similarities and identifying shared characteristics.
• It is based on evolutionary relationships.
• It is based on the assumption that “the larger the number of characters shared by
different taxa, the more closely related they are to each other”.
• The Proponents include Bentham, Hooker, and Bernard de Jussieu.

3. Phylogenetic classification:
• They use as many taxonomic characters as possible in addition to the phylogenetic
(evolutionary) interpretations.
• They are expressed in the form of phylogenetic trees or shrubs showing presumed
evolution of the groups.
• It groups organisms based on genetics.
• It is based on the evolutionary history and genetic relationships of organisms.
• It is the most recent and modern classification system.
• It is more accurate than the other two systems.
• It is based on the principle of cladistics.
• it can either be:
i. phenetic (based on overall similarity, usually in morphology or other observable
traits without regard to phylogenetic relationships) or
ii. cladistics/phylogenetic (based on phylogenetic relationships)
• the Proponents are Engler, Prantl, Hutchinson, and Tippo
Nomenclature

Nomenclature refers to the formal, scientific naming of plants. It is the basis for uniform
worldwide identification and communication about plant materials. In plant classification, the
scientific names of plants are called binomials, as they consist of two names: a genus name and
a species name. The genus name is always capitalized, while the species name is usually
underlined or italicized.
The International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) governs botanical
nomenclature. It provides the rules for naming plants and ensures that the names are
consistent and easily understood by scientists worldwide. The ICN is periodically updated to
reflect new discoveries and changes in the understanding of plant relationships.

Binomial nomenclature
Binomial nomenclature was introduced by Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus, who developed a
ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms.
The Linnaean system is still in use today and is the basis for most plant classification systems.

Purpose of binomial nomenclature

• Universality: The use of Latin or Greek ensures that the scientific names are universal
and not tied to any specific language. This allows scientists from different linguistic
backgrounds to communicate effectively and avoid misunderstandings when referring to
the same species
• Stability and Tradition: Latin, being a "dead" language, is stable and not subject to
change over time. This helps in maintaining the stability of scientific names, preventing
confusion due to evolving vernacular languages. Additionally, the tradition of using Latin
and, to a lesser extent, Greek, has been established since the inception of binomial
nomenclature by Carl Linnaeus, and it continues to be upheld for the sake of consistency
and tradition.
• Clarity and Precision: Latin and Greek languages are rich in terms related to the
natural world, and they provide a level of precision and clarity that may not be present
in modern languages. This is particularly important when naming and describing the
diverse forms of life on Earth.

Roles for naming plants

The principles of plant names are governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for
algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). The ICN provides the rules for naming plants and ensures that
the names are consistent and easily understood by scientists worldwide. The principles of plant
names include:
 • Independence: Botanical nomenclature is independent of zoological and
bacteriological nomenclature
• Nomenclatural Types: The application of names of taxonomic groups is determined
by means of nomenclatural types
• Priority: The nomenclature of a taxonomic group is based upon priority of publication
• Uniqueness: Each taxonomic group with a particular circumscription, position, and rank
can bear only one correct name, the earliest that is in accordance with the Rules, except
in specified cases.
• Latin or Greek: Scientific names of plants are expressed in Latin or Greek because it is
an international language and was chosen for its stability and tradition.
• Binomial System: According to the binomial system, the name of any species consists
of two names: a genus name and a specific epithet, which together define the species.
These names are typically of Latin or Greek origin. The genus name is always
capitalized, while the specific epithet is written in lowercase. When printed, both names
are italicized.

These principles ensure that plant names are consistent, stable, and universally understood,
allowing for effective communication and organization within the field of botany.

Origin of Plant Names

The origin of plant names can be traced back to ancient Greek and Roman authors, such as
Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny the Elder, who recorded hundreds of names of plants,
mostly those of medical importance, that were in contemporary use at the time. These Greek or
Latin names were copied over and over by hand through the Middle Ages until the foundations
were laid for the present system of naming plants.

The scientific nomenclature for plant naming was originally developed in the 1700s by Swedish
botanist Carl Linnaeus, who first placed plants into groups based on similar characteristics. The
Latin used in naming plants is not classical (i.e., Roman) Latin, but an “expanded form of Latin
derived from Latin used for many purposes in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.”

The origins of Latin and Greek names may be classical, mythological, or commemorative,
or they may relate to a place, area, or season. Descriptors for plant surface
characteristics or color, habitat, growth habit, and size and shape are other common
sources for specific epithets.

Please refer to the attached document for more information on this!