Final Report KH7

Ume University, Ume School of Business
Business Administration B, module 1

Research Methods in Business Administration
Spring 2010
Supervisor: Kiflemariam Hamde

Group KH 7

To study or not to study
That is the question

Motivational factors of the students at USBE
A comparison between Swedish and international students

Sara Collin, Gustav Hellstrm, Annie Johanson, Samrawit Yohannes

Ume School of Business, Ume University
Business Administration B, module 1, Research Methods in Business Administration
Spring 2010
Sara Collin, Gustav Hellstm, Annie Johanson, Samrawit Yohannes
International Business Program
Supervisor Kiflemariam Hamde

2

Summary
The term paper deals with the motivational factors to study at an institute of higher education
and the focus is on differences between Swedish and international students. In order to
conclude the motivational factors of the students we distributed questionnaires to a sample of
100 students at Ume School of Business. We consider some of the findings in the paper to be
both expected and unexpected and the differences between Swedish and international students
were not as distinct as we thought.

The research is based on three well-known motivational theories that have guided us through
the research process. These three theories represent different kinds of motivation and we think
that the majority of the students can identify themselves with at least one of the theories.

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Table of content

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Choice of subject 4
1.2 Problem background 4
1.3 Problem 6
1.4 Purpose 6
1.5 Description of concepts 6
1.6 Limitations 6

2. SCIENTIFIC METHOD
2.1 Pre-understanding 6
2.2 Vision of the world 7
2.3 Scientific approach 8
2.4 Choice of theories 9
2.5 Choice of secondary sources and Criticism 9

3. THEORIES
3.1 Goal setting theory 14
3.2 Maslow`s hierarchy oI needs 16
3.3 Expectancy theory 18

4. PRACTICAL METHOD
4.1 Sample 20
4.2 Selection 21
4.3 Questionnaire 21
4.4 Access 22
4.5 Processing 22

5. EMPIRICAL FINDINGS 22

6. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION 25

7. TRUTH CRITERIA 29

8. REFERENCES 31

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1.Introduction
-Highlights our purpose and gives a comprehensive view of the choice of topic.
1.1 Choice of subject
As a choice of subject we have chosen motivational factors of the students at Ume School of
Business at Ume University, which we will refer to as USBE. Our focus will be on potential
differences between Swedish and international students. Since we are students of the
International Business Program we have been working with students from all over the world
and find this matter interesting. We have experienced both similarities and differences
between students from all parts of the world, but we do not know which factors motivate
students. Therefore we believe it would be interesting to conduct a research paper concerning
an investigation of this issue.
1.2 Problem background
Today in the aftermaths of the global financial crisis the unemployment rate is sky high
(Ekonomifakta 2010) and companies have been forced to conduct layoffs because of the
decreased demand for their goods and services. Most sectors in Sweden have experienced a
decrease in activity, however there are a few exceptions. One is the education sector, which
has experienced an increase of student enrolment to universities and colleges. Today, more
people than ever are attending some kind of higher education in Sweden (The Local 2010).
Many would argue this to be advantageous for the future prosperity and competitiveness of
Sweden, but we believe there are some negative aspects of this type of mass enrolment to
universities. One example is that the labour supply on the labour market is decreasing because
of the large cut downs and reductions in the working sector, which can be seen as an effect of
the financial crisis. This may lead to difficulties finding a job these days.

We believe that the increased number of applications to universities is partly due to these cut
downs on the labour market. These students attending higher education may be unmotivated
and not as devoted to their studies as they should be. This can have a major impact on the
successfulness of the studies, because in our opinion, motivation is the most important factor
for successful studies. However, far from all students attend universities because of the lack
of work and not all of these students are unmotivated. Consequently, we want to investigate
what factors that actually motivated students at USBE to start studying at university level. We
find this topic relevant today because the number of students in the whole country is higher
than ever and Ume University is not an exception, which has been debated both in media and
among students in many universities these days. Therefore, this is something we want to
develop a deeper understanding of.

Approximately 360 000 prospective students applied to different types of programmes and
courses at institutes of higher education in fall 2009. This is an increase of 22 percent
compared to fall 2008. (National authority of higher education 2010) Consequently, the
number of full-time students in Sweden has increased to almost 300 000, which is the highest
number ever, according to new statistics (The Local 2010). Compared to the previous year the
number of students has increased with 8 percent (National authority of higher education
2010).

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At Ume University the number of students during fall 2009 increased with 9 percent
compared to the previous year (National authority of higher education 2010).
What we want to know is why so many students enrol in higher education in Sweden and
what the motivational factors are. Of course there is not a single answer to this question,
because every student has his or her own reason for attending higher education.

The number of international students in Sweden has increased enormously during the last
couple of years. Approximately 36 600 international students were studying in Sweden during
fall 2008 (Statistics Sweden 2009). The majority of these students came from other European
countries, but during the last couple of years the number of students from other continents,
mainly from Asia, has increased, (National authority of higher education 2010). The students
at Ume University follow the same patterns as the rest of the country and the number of
foreign student has increased during the last couple of years (Vsterbottensnytt 2008). One
major difference between students studying at Ume University today, compared to students
studying there 20 years ago is the spread of nationalities. Nowadays the atmosphere at the
University is more international and students from all over the world can be found on campus,
which has created a multicultural environment with ethnical and cultural diversity.

One factor that may contribute to the high number of international students at Swedish
universities is that education is free of charge, for both Swedish and international students.
We believe this to have a great impact on the motivational factors of the students when they
choose to study in Sweden. However, from 2011 education will no longer be free of charge
for international students and Sweden will introduce a new system of tuition fees for foreign
students (Ministry of Education, Sweden 2009). We believe the new system will have a major
impact on the number of foreign applicants to Swedish universities.

Besides the system of free of charge education, we think that there are other motivational
factors to why people want to attend higher education in Sweden. Research has been
conducted regarding the different motivational factors and why students from different
cultures attend universities. According to the article Cross-Cultural Differences in the
Academic Motivation of University Students in Malaysia and the United States motivational
Iactors are dependent on the student`s nationality. The authors of the article, Komarraju,
Karau and Ramayah (2007), state that culture has a large impact on the motivation. Their
main focus lies in the difference in motivation between Asian students and students from
western countries. They argue that the academic motivation of Asian and western university
students differ for three reasons: the selection processes, family influences, and perceptions of
the relative importance of effort versus ability in determining academic success. Komarraju,
Karau and Ramayah (2007), claim that these three reasons contribute to higher motivational
levels for Asian students. (Komarraju, Karau & Ramayah 2007)

As students of the International Business Program we study and work with foreign students.
Thereby, we interact in a more international environment and experience cultural clashes in
our everyday life. This combined with the increased number of applicants to universities in
recent years makes us interested in different motivational factors and their dependence on
nationality, thus our choice of subject for the term paper.
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1.3 Problem

x What are the motivational factors affecting the decision of whether or not to apply to
an institute higher education?
1.4 Purpose
The purpose of our research paper is to analyse the sources of motivation in the decision to
attend higher education, for both Swedish and international students at USBE.
Also, we are going to compare and describe possible differences between these two groups.

When trying to determine the different motivational factors of students at USBE we
formulated a number of research questions. These questions will work as the foundation for
our research process, which enables us to keep a structured and organised collection of data.
In order to select the research questions we reviewed literature, both academic articles and
books. However, our main inspiration to these questions was our personal interest and
experience.

The research questions we will answer are:

x What are the motivational factors to apply to an institute of higher education for
students at USBE of Ume University?
x Are there any differences in motivational factors between Swedish and
international students?
1.5 Description of concepts
One concept that will be used is international student, which refers to any student at Ume
University that came from another country to Sweden to attend higher education.
1.6 Limitations
As previously mentioned, we will analyse both Swedish and international students. However,
because of the limited time frame at hand, we have decided to narrow the research. First and
foremost, by only using students at Ume University we can improve the number of
respondents to our questionnaire and thereby enhancing the reliability and validity of our data.
Also, since we are students of the International Business Program we think that focusing only
on students at USBE will facilitate our research due to their easy access. So, our main focus
for the term paper will be students of USBE.

2. Scientific method
Shows how the research has been affected and shaped by different factors, in order to give
the reader a comprehensive view of our work
2.1 Pre-understanding
The pre-understanding of a topic is an advantage when conducting a research paper and will
enable a more comprehensive knowledge of the matter (Johansson Lindfors 1993:76). Several
authors argue that a pre-understanding will have an impact on the working process as well
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(Johansson Lindfors 1993:76). Johansson and Lindfors (1993:76) state that previous
knowledge and understanding of a topic will most probably affect the outcome of the
research.

There are two main categories of pre-understanding. The first one, practical pre-
understanding, refers to our own experiences and practical knowledge. The other category is
theoretical pre-understanding, which refers to academic experience, for example previous
studies. (Johansson Lindfors 1993:76) Since we are students we have a practical pre-
understanding of the topic and some general ideas of which factors that may motivate students
to apply to an institute of higher education. We also have some theoretical pre-understandings
that we have gained from our previously taken course in Organization and management of the
firm that dealt with different motivational theories. However, our theoretical pre-
understanding is on a general level. Still, we believe that our theoretical and practical pre-
understanding will have an impact on the working process as well as the outcome of our
research. For example, they will be reflected in our questionnaire where the questions are
partly based on what we believe to be motivational factors. For this reason our research will
be biased since it is not completely based on theories and literature. However, we believe that
our assumptions about motivational factors are reliable and therefore applicable.
2.2 Vision of the world
In order to conduct the research we have chosen both an epistemological and an ontological
point of view. The epistemological consideration concerns what should be regarded as
knowledge and how to study the real world (K Hamde>Ume University@ 2010, Lecture 2, 29
Mars). Within the epistemological field there are two contrasting positions that represent
different views of how the reality should be studied. We have decided to use the positivistic
approach, which favours methods of natural science in order to study the social reality
(Bryman & Bell 2007:16). The term natural science means that individuals should be studied
in a way that is value free with methods that favour facts rather than arguments and opinions
(Bryman & Bell 2007:16). So, because we will conduct a quantitative research, the
positivistic approach is our epistemological position.

The second aspect that needs to be taken into consideration is ontology, which asks the
question: what is the real world? (K Hamde >Ume University@ 2010, Lecture 2, 29 Mars).
Within the ontological field there are two contrasting positions: objectivism and
constructionism (Bryman & Bell 2007:22). Our ontological approach is objectivistic, meaning
we will view the students as tangible goods from an external point of view.

To further specify our vision of the world, we can use the four paradigms of Burrell and
Morgan (1979) which are a number of beliefs that decide how we conduct our research and
the assumptions we will make as researchers about the students at the university (Bryman &
Bell 2007:25-26).
Figure 2.1The Four Paradigms
OBJECTIVIST SUBJECTIVIST
REGULATORY Functionalist Interpretative
RADICAL Radical structuralist Radical humanist
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The concepts objectivist and subjectivist, which can be seen in figure 2.1 (The Four
Paradigms), are two contrasting positions that explain how a researcher views the organisation
being studied (Bryman & Bell 2007:25). Since we will view USBE of Ume University from
an external point of view, we are objectivists (Bryman & Bell 2007:25).

The concepts regulatory and radical refer to the purpose of a research (Bryman & Bell
2007:26). According to Bryman and Bell (2007), the regulatory point of view aim to describe
the organisation rather than to make judgements of it (Bryman & Bell 2007:26). Therefore,
because we are interested in describing the motivational factors for the students we will use
the regulatory approach.

Based on the reasoning above, our view of the reality and research complies with the
functionalist paradigm.
2.3 Scientific approach
We will base our research on existing motivational theories and apply these to the data
received from our questionnaire. This is a so-called deductive approach, where the researcher
starts with a theory to analyse if it complies with empirical evidence of the research (Bryman
& Bell 2007:11). Another approach to the relationship between theory and research is
inductive theory, which aims to generate a theory based on the observations (Bryman & Bell
2007:11). This means that we would try to come up with theories and models of our own,
based on the data collected from the questionnaire and interviews. Due to our relatively short
time at hand it is difficult to develop new theories that are reliable and valid. Thereby we have
decided to use a deductive approach for our research.

Usually, a deductive research is conducted with a quantitative approach that includes
hypothesis testing in order to specify the observations (Bryman & Bell 2007:11). However,
according to Bryman & Bell, hypotheses are not required in a quantitative research. Instead,
theory can work as concerns, which are to be examined, rather than being tested as a
hypothesis. (Bryman & Bell 2007:155). We have decided to not conduct any hypothesis
testing since it will be difficult with our limited period of time together with that the size of
the sample has to be relatively large for a hypothesis to be applicable and trustworthy. Based
on the reasoning above the research process has been based on a number of research questions
and not any hypothesis.

We will use a quantitative research strategy, which focuses on generalisation from the sample
to the whole population. Since we are going to conduct a type of non-probability sample,
which we will discuss further in chapter four, it is not possible to generalise because this type
of sample cannot be representative. Although, we still consider that a quantitative research is
most appropriate for our research. As we explained above in vision of the world, we will focus
on a natural science approach and view the students from an external point of view. Thereby,
we will focus more on hard data and facts rather than in deep knowledge and this point of
view favours a quantitative research strategy (Bryman & Bell 2007:426).

As explained, we will analyze if there are any differences in the motivational factors between
Swedish and international students. Hence, we will use a comparative research design.
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A comparative research is a study 'using more or less identical methods oI two or more
contrasting cases (Bryman & Bell 2007:66).

2.4 Choice of theories
The three motivation theories for our research are:

x Goal-setting theory by Locke and Latham
x Expectancy theory by Porter and Lawler
x The hierarchy of needs by Maslow
Goal-setting theory states, that when an individual has a specific goal the performance is more
target-oriented than without a goal (Miner 2005:161). We think that the goal setting theory is
relevant for our research since students have different goals with their studies. We will test if
this theory holds for our sample. Thus, we will compare the level of motivation between the
students that have specific goals with those who have not.

Maslows hierarchv of needs has a more basic idea of fulfilling the everyday needs of an
individual. The hierarchy consists of five steps: physical, safety, love and belonging, esteem
and self-actualisation. According to this theory, for an individual to reach a higher stage of the
hierarchy the lower-level need must be fulfilled. (Bloisi et al. 2007:199) We believe it will be
interesting to analyse how the need for higher education differs between students.
Consequently, we will analyse where these needs are placed on the hierarchy and if the needs
can be satisfied by studying.

Expectancy theory claims that motivation is driven by the results/price one gets from the
process (Miner 2005:98). An example of this is a person attending higher education to receive
a relatively higher wage in the future. We chose to incorporate this theory into our research
because it includes variables that explain factors related to the personality, such as self-
esteem.

Since people differ from one another, the motivational theories are not to be generalized.
Therefore, we have chosen theories with different approaches that can explain the motivation
to attend an institute of higher education from different angles. As explained, the goal setting
theory describes that motivation depends on goals, while Maslow`s hierarchy oI needs Iocuses
upon individual needs. The third theory, Expectancy theory, aims at describing how
individual characteristics affect motivation. We believe that these different approaches to
motivation provide a comprehensive explanation for why individuals attend higher education.
2.5 Choice of secondary sources and Criticism of sources
In the literature Rapporter och uppsatser (2008:126), the author Jarl Backman describes the
use of secondary sources as when a researcher uses other researchers collected data for their
own studies. Further on, Backman (2008) emphasises the fact that a researcher should as far
as possible try to use original sources when conducting a scientific paper or research. This,
since one problem arising when using secondary sources is the difficulty of knowing how the
researcher has collected the data and if the information is to be seen as valid, reliable and
relevant (Johansson Lindfors 1993:117). When it comes to the use of theories our research
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will partly be based on these types of sources. All the literature and scientific articles that we
are using in our paper are to be denoted as secondary sources. We have considered carefully
how to choose our secondary sources in order to make sure of their relevance for the research.

The foundation and structure of the research is partly based on the course literature Business
research methods (Oxford University Press Inc. 2007). The book is written by Alan Bryman,
who currently is Professor of Organisational and Social Research at the University of
Leicester and Emma Bell who is Senior Lecturer in Organization Studies at Queen Mary,
University of London, UK. The book brings up the core concepts, methods, and values
involved in business research. We believe this book to be interesting and well written that
shows a high quality of the book.

Further on the book has Rapporter och uppsatser (Studentlitteratur 2008) by Jarl Backman,
Professor at Ume University has been applied to create an understanding of why a certain
approach in the research should be used. Also, Forskningsmetodik- om kvalitativa och
kvantitativa metoder (Magne Holme & Krohn Solvang1996), has guided us through our study
and given us directions on how to form the quantitative research. Both of these books have
functioned as a complement to Business Research Methods, in order to provide a wider and
comprehensive understanding of the writing process and the different research approaches
available.

In the book Att utveckla kunskap (Studentlitteratur 1993) the writer Maj-Britt Johansson
Lindfors, Assistant Professor at USBE at Ume Universitet, describes the different phases of
the research process from start till end. The use of this book has given us the tools to form a
thorough planning for our thesis writing, for us to keep a structured working process and be
able to adjust our work to the given time limit.

Management & Organisational Behaviour (McGraw Hill Education 2007) is written by
Wendy Bloisi, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Management and Professional
Development at London Metropolitan University, and has functioned as one of our principal
sources for basic knowledge of motivational factors. The author describes the theories and
concepts in a clear and structured way, which makes it easy to understand. Since this book is
used as course literature it is an indication of validity and high quality. We used this book to
get an overview of different motivational theories, in order to choose the best ones suited for
our thesis. This book also provided good information about two of theories used, Maslows
hierarchy of needs and Goal setting theory.

For additional understanding of motivational theories we used the book Organizational
Behaviour 1: Essential Theories of Motivation and Leadership Book Description (M.E.
Sharpe, Inc. 2006). The writer John B Miner describes in a comprehensive way a detailed
review and analysis of the leading motivational theories. John B Miner is a consultant and
expert witness in the area of psychological testing. He has written over 50 books and over 135
other publications. We believe this to be a sign of both the author and the books reliability.
All information in our thesis about Expectancy theory is based on this book, which we believe
to provide an exhaustive explanation of the theory. This book was also used as an addition to
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Management & Organisational Behaviour to give us knowledge about Locke and Latham`s
Goal setting theory.

For further understanding of how to link motivational theories to education and interrelated
topics we have used the book 'Motivation in education. Theorv, Research and Applications`
(Prentice Hall, 2007). We believe that the book gives a comprehensive and clear view of the
matter. The book is written by Dale H Schunk, Paul R Pintrich and Judith L Meece. Dale H
Schunk is an educational psychologist and Dean of the School of Education at the University
of North Carolina at Greensboro. Schunk received the Albert J. Harris Research Award from
the International Reading Association, which we think contributes to the trustworthiness and
quality of the book. Paul R Pintrich is Professor of Education and Psychology and Chair of
the Combined Program in Education and Psychology at the University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor. Judith L Meece is a member of the School of Education faculty, and serves as Area
Chair of Human Development and Psychological Studies.

The article Cross-Cultural Differences in the Academic Motivation of University Students in
Malaysia and the United States deals with the cultural effect on motivation and it states that
culture has a major impact on the motivation. The authors Meera Komarraju and Steven J.
Karau are professors at Southern Illinois University and T. Ramayah is a professor at
Universiti Sains Malaysia. Since the authors are professors from both United States and
Malaysia we think that the article is trustworthy and a reliable source. There are several
limitations in their study, one of them is that the 'AMI has low to marginal internal
consistency on some subscales. In this article the authors discuss cultural differences in
academic motivation, which gave us inspiration to conduct a comparative research between
Swedish and international students. The article also provided us with ideas of how to interpret
the findings of our questionnaire.

The article Motivation to Study in Higher Education: A Comparison between Germany and
Great Britain is written by Helen E. Higson, Professor at Aston University and Sandra
Loeber. It concerns the difference in motivational factors to attend higher education and
compare students from Germany and Great Britain. Since both the authors are from Great
Britain it can be argued that the authors are biased and favour students from Great Britain. It
should be noted that the findings from this article cannot be generalised. Therefore we will
not apply these findings on our research but rather use them as guidelines. We found this
article to be very similar to the research we wanted to conduct, therefore relevant for our
topic. Also, we are positive to that it was newly produced

The article The Investment Motive For Attending College is written by Michael B. Tannen,
Professor at University of the District of Columbia. The article concerns whether or not it is
profitable to attend higher education. The drawback with the article is that it focuses on
United States and was written in 1974. Therefore, it can be argued that the article may be too
old in order to be applicable today. We chose this article since we wanted to analyse if there
were any differences in the expected outcome of higher education between the students who
have to pay for education and those who do not, which is tested in the article. Therefore this
article felt relevant to our topic

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The article Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goals and Task Motivation is written by
Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham. Edwin A. Locke is Dean`s ProIessor oI Leadership and
Motivation at the R.H Smith School of Business at the University of Maryland. Professor
Gary P. Latham is the Secretary of State Professor of Organizational Behaviour, University of
Toronto, Rotman School oI Management. Locke`s goal setting theory has been ranked as one
of the most important Management theories according to a recent survey. This shows that the
article is reliable and trustworthy. This article was found after we had decided our theories.
We found it relevant and applicable due to the authors and the headline of the article

All of our scientific articles have been collected from databases that we have found via the
database at the library of Ume University. All of the articles have been found via databases
between 6 -10
th
of April, except Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and
Task Motivation, which was found 18
th
of April. Mutual for these articles is that they are to be
viewed as scientific articles. This due to their existence in the database system and that they
are 'pre-reviewed by a competent and reliable source.

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Search
word
Number
of hits
Time cited
in this
database
Cited
referenc
es
Name of article Author Publicised Selection
method
'Student
motivation

'University
51 13 - `The investment
motive for
attending
college`
Tannen,
Michael B
Industrial &
Labor
Relations
Review,
1978
Checked the
headlines and the
summary and
chose this article
since it felt
relevant to our
topic
'Cross-
cultural

'Student
3 40 - `Cross-Cultural
Differences in
the Academic
Motivation of
University
Students in
Malaysia and
the United
States`
Komarraju
,
Karau,
Steven J
Ramayah,
T

North
American
Journal of
Psychology,
2007
Using a
comparative
research design
we found this
article interesting
and relevant for
our term paper
'Higher
education

'Motivation

12 - - `Motivation to
Study in Higher
Education: A
Comparison
between
Germany and
Great Britain`
Loeber,
Sandra
Higson,
Helen E
Higher
Education
in Europe,
2009
This article felt
relevant since is
concerns topics
similar to ours.
Also, we are
positive to that it
was newly
produced
'Goal
setting

'Motivation

'Task

3 - - 'Building a
Practically
Useful Theory
of Goals and
Task
Motivation`
Edwin A.
Locke,
Gary P.
Latham
American
Physiologist
, 2007
This article was
found after we
had decided our
theories. We
found it relevant
and applicable
due to the authors
and the headline
of the article
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3.Theories
- Report of the theories that are being used in the paper

According to Bloisi (2003:196), motivation is 'a conscious decision to perform one or more
activities with greater effort than one performs other activities competing for attention.
Research about motivation has been conducted and there are many motivational theories that
aim to describe individual behaviour. But motivational theories cannot be regarded as
generally applicable because individuals are different and have different goals and needs.
Therefore, we have searched for theories with different perspectives, in order for them to
represent as many students as possible at USBE. To describe different motivational factor we
have applied three theories:

3.1 Goal setting theory
'A goal is the desired outcome of an action, which becomes motivational when a person
wants it and strives to achieve it.` (Bloisi et al. 2007:240)

One of the most common elements when discussing motivational theories is the striving
towards a goal. The powerful effect and value of goal setting is well recognised and often
considered to be one of the superior motivational theories in personal development and
personal growth (Bloisi et al. 2007:240). During the last decades, several models and
assumptions that fall under the name of goal setting theories have been presented. Together,
all these theories, put their focus on what motivates people from within and what individual
needs that are necessary in order to reach an external goal (Miner 2005:161). One example of
these theories is the goal setting theory by Locke and Lathman (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece
2008:143). According to Schunk, Pintrich and Meece (2008) people become motivated by a
goal that they have constructed and put up for themselves (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece
Motivation
Goal setting
theory
Expectancy
theory
Hierarchy
of needs
STUDENT MOTIVATION
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15
2008:143). They also claim that all people involved in a goal are of mutual agreement on how
to fulfil that goal. For construction of a goal to be as effective as possible it is of great
importance that the goal is relatively difficult to achieve. However, it should not be
impossible to fulfil. Locke & Lathman (2002) further explains that the goal should be specific
and clear. Goals that are vague or too easy to achieve do not have strength in motivational
power. (Locke & Lathman, 2002)

The settler and pioneer within this field of study is Dr. Edwin Locke. He was the first to
conduct research on the connection between goal setting and motivation (Miner 2005:160).
Locke`s research came to Iorm the basic goal setting theory, which explains that, a clear goal
combined with a follow-up and feedback of the work can motivate employees of a firm
greatly. He discovered that the studied employees were inspired and stimulated by the idea of
jointly working in a group towards a specific goal. This also contributed to the employees
improving their performance. (Miner 2005:161-165)

Figure 3.1 Model of high performance cycle

Furthermore, Locke found that people were more driven by goals that were challenging and
specific, rather than easy and vague (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece 2008:143). He specifies two
goal characteristics: goal difficulty and goal specificity (Bloisi et al. 2007: 241). Goal
difficulty explains how challenging the goal and the required effort are. Further on, goal
specificity is the clarity and precision of a goal. For example, it is easier to set a goal that is
measurable or quantifiable, but harder to set a goal when it concerns feelings of content or
well being. (Bloisi et al. 2007: 241). A quantifiable goal, compared to a non-measureable
goal, can more easily be made specific, and thereby more easily increase motivation (Bloisi et
al. 2007: 241). According to Bloisi (2007), Locke expands his theory and models by including
two more characteristics. The third one is goal of acceptance, which is the extent to which a
person accepts a goal as his or her own. Furthermore, the fourth characteristic is the goal of
commitment, which relates to how interested or committed a person is in reaching the goal.
(Bloisi et al. 2007: 241)

Later on, Locke further develops his theories together with Dr. Gary Latham. They classify
five moderators that are essential to the success of goal setting. The moderators are in random
order; goal importance, goal commitment, feedback, challenge and task complexity. (Locke &
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Lathman 2002) Figure 3.1 (Model of high performance cycle) shows the cycle of different
factors that affects the satisfaction and performance (Model of high performance cycle, US,
2002)

Since the goal setting theory is, as mentioned above, one of the most recognised motivational
theories and applicable to several different situations, it is important for us to take it into
consideration when conducting our research. The research will be based on the chosen
theories and we believe that the goal setting theory is an important link to understand the
motivational factors of prospective students.

A goal is something individual and personal that most people have and it is also possible to
relate and connect to different situations. When it comes to applying for an institute of higher
education all prospective students have a goal in mind. We believe that, depending on the goal
of the person, he or she will perform on different levels during their education. This can be
connected with Locke`s characteristic oI goal specificity. This means that it is of great
importance that the goal of the prospective student is clear and specific. If a person has a clear
goal when wanting to attend a particular higher education we believe that this type of student
motivates him- or herself more easily during the period of studies, compared to a student with
less clear goals. However, we believe that it is the latter type of applicant, with unclear goals,
that has increased over the last years. As mentioned in the problem background, we believe
that this is an effect of the financial crisis.

Since our purpose with the research is to analyse motivational factors, we believe that it is
also interesting to analyse what motivates those who do not have an obvious goal with their
intention to study. Furthermore, we believe that a student can have a goal that is not
necessarily a goal with an individual intention. This complies with Locke`s characteristic oI
commitment. A prospective student may have a goal to fulfil even though he or she may not
be fully committed to it. The goal can be the wishes of someone else. For example, a
prospective student might apply to a certain education because of pressure from his or her
parents. Consequently, this person does not fully accept the goal and can never be fully
motivated.
Maslows bierarcby of needs
Abraham Maslow`s hierarchy oI needs theory is grounded on five basic needs. The most
crucial needs are those in the bottommost part of the pyramid. According to Maslow, once a
lower category need is completely satisfied an individual can move upward to a higher level
(Bloisi et al. 2003:199). In the bottom of the pyramid we find the, physical needs followed by
safety needs and love and belonging needs. The higher needs at the top are the growth needs
esteem needs and ultimately self-actualization needs which are considered to be of less
importance than the steps below, this is shown in figure 3.2 (Maslow`s hierarchy oI needs)
below. (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece 2008:172-173)
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Figure 3.2 Maslow`s hierarchy of needs

Maslow also states that it is impossible to satisfy the needs in the hierarchy without a suitable
environment and opportunities to growth for further personal development (Schunk, Pintrich
& Meece 2008:173). A suitable environment is a place that is safe enough to secure further
personal development and the satisfaction of the needs. Applying this theory to our research,
we believe that a studying environment, for example a university provides a surrounding with
a broader field of opportunities and potential to reach higher needs, than compared to in a
non-studying environment. The emphasis will be on the four highest levels: safety needs,
belongingness and love needs, esteem needs and self-actualization.

We have chosen Maslow`s theory because we believe it is suitable in our research.
Furthermore, we believe that deciding to study on a higher level will help the individual to
reach the abovementioned levels of needs step by step. Since our purpose with the paper is to
compare if there are any differences in motivational factors between Swedish and
international students, we want to analyze and evaluate iI Maslow`s theory is valid in both
cases. We will apply the safety needs to a question in our questionnaire of whether applying
to the university gives a feeling of security and stability, both today and in the future. The
third step in the hierarchy, belonging and love needs, refers to acceptance and respect in
relationships. We will use this as a measure to illustrate if applying to higher education is
influenced by the desire of fulfilling the third step. This could for example be that higher
education brings approval and acceptance Irom one`s Iamily. Further on, when completed the
third step it is possible to fulfil the fourth one. We believe that esteem needs inter alia
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psychological well-being or feeling of self-worthy and status is a significant factor when
deciding whether or not to apply to a higher education. One example of this could be a belief
that education leads to a higher wage in the future followed by a feeling of higher status in the
society. Higher education can also relate to a higher position in the working life and thereby
give the individual a better self-esteem. The highest stage in Maslow`s hierarchy oI needs is
self-actualization i.e. personal growth and reaching of fullest personal capacity. We believe
that the applying to higher education can also be driven by a goal of getting increased
knowledge and improve specific personal skills.

Although we believe that Maslow`s theory is applicable in our study, there has been a lot oI
criticism of it. The theory states that there is always a direct relationship between needs and
behaviour. According to Schunk, Pintrich and Meece (2008:174) 'behaviour can be
referenced to a need as the cause of the behaviour and, in turn, when someone has these
needs, the needs cause the behaviour (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece 2008:174).

In our research the model may be misleading since the order of the hierarchy is not
necessarily clear-cut and there may be other explanations than the abovementioned.
3.3 Expectancy theory
The expectancy theory is based upon learning theories and motivation. It explains that
motivation for action is based on experience and expectations. (Miner, 2006:94-112) This
complies with our beliefs and pre-understandings of the matter and therefore we have chosen
to use this theory in our research.

The creators of the mostly used concepts of the Expectancy theory are Vroom and Porter and
Lawler (Miner, 2006:94).

Vroom discussed his concept of the Expectancy theory in Work and Motivation (Miner
2006:95). He explained that the theory is based on three variables:

x Valence
x Expectancy
x Instrumentality
(Miner 2006:97-98)

Vroom claimed that some goals and outcomes are more preferable than others. The variable,
valence, stated above, refers to our expected liking of these outcomes, a positive valence
meaning we prefer an outcome to be experienced rather than not to. The variable expectancy
refers to our belief of whether an increased effort will lead to enhanced performance or not.
And finally, instrumentality explains the probability of an effort resulting in an expected
outcome. (Miner 2006: 97-98)

These three variables that make up Vroom`s concept oI the expectancy theory, are related in
such way that all need to exist in order for motivation to occur: Motivation = Valence x
Expectancy x Instrumentality (Miner 2006: 98).
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As explained, Porter and Lawler have also made significant work on this theory. Porter and
Lawler base their concept on Vroom`s but go Iurther and incorporate more variables into it
(Miner 2006: 98), as can be seen in figure 3.3 (Porter Lawler Theory of Motivation, USA
1999). Also, their model explains the effects of the variables in the long run. For example,
they claim that an improved performance will result in higher self-esteem, which in the long
run will result in an increased expectancy and thereby increased motivation to effort. (Miner
2006: 99-100) This is in accordance with our practical pre-understandings of the topic. For
example, we believe that if a person has achieved good results in their studies, this increases
his or her self-esteem, which in turn increase their expectancy (the belief that increased effort
will lead to enhanced performance) and consequently may motivate them to continue studies
at a higher level of education.

Figure 3.3 Porter Lawler Theory of Motivation

Because Porter and Lawler`s model incorporates more variables, which we believe to be
important and because their model is more dynamic over time we have chosen to use this
model, rather than Vroom`s.

As explained in the scientific approach, we will base our research questions on the theories.
We will use the expectancy theory by analyzing how the incorporated variables of the model
appear in real life, and how they have affected the motivation to apply to a university.
However, critique has been aimed at the expectancy theory. For example, the theory assumes
that people aim to maximize outcome, which in reality is not always the case. Some people
may settle for less. Also, people sometimes act spontaneously on impulse without a specific
purpose, and not always in a calculative and well-thought-out manner as the expectancy
theory claims. (Miner 2006: 105)

Furthermore, critique can be aimed at our use of this theory. The expectancy theory says very
little when the rewards of an effort are not so obvious and clear (Miner 2006: 107). So, since
attending a university may not have explicit results, the use of the theory in our research can
be questioned. However, despite these weaknesses, tests have been made to support the theory
and conclude that it is credible (Miner 2006:107).
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4. Practical Method
- Where we have explained the collection of data: sampling, access, questionnaire and
processing
4.1 Sample
There are two main types of sampling methods; probability and non-probability sampling
(Bryman & Bell 2007:182). The choice of method depends on the purpose of the research
(Holm & Krohn 1996:195). The purpose of our research is to describe the motivational factors
of the students at USBE and conclude possible differences between Swedish and international
students. Out of the two previously mentioned sampling methods, only probability sampling
conducts a random selection (Bryman & Bell 2007:182). This means that every person of the
population must have an equal opportunity to be selected to participate in the research,
thereby the sample will match the population accurately.

However, a probability sampling is more time consuming compared to a non-probability
sampling method. Due to our limited timeframe and financial resources, we consider the non-
probability sampling method to be the only possible alternative for our collection of data.
Even though we are aware of the fact that the method contains certain limitations and is not
able to generalise the findings, we are going to conduct the non-probability sampling. But the
intention of the research is not to generalise the findings since it would provide an inaccurate
measurement because the sample is not randomly selected. Instead we want to conclude the
motivational factors for the students in the sample.

The non-probability sampling method is a term used in order to describe all forms of sampling
that are not conducted according to the probability sampling (Bryman and Bell 2007:182).
According to Bryman and Bell (2007) there are three types of non-probability methods;
convenience sampling, snowball sampling and quota sampling. None of these methods will
result in a random sample, however, we believe that the method that will bring the most
reliable data and a sample as close to a random as possible, is a quota sampling method. We
believe this because a quota sample consists of different categories, where the size of the
categories reflects the same proportion as in the population (Bryman & Bell 2007:197-202).

Since we have two different categories to compare, Swedish and international students, we
have decided to use a quota sampling method. The reason for choosing neither snowball nor
convenience sampling is that these two methods do not take proportionality into consideration
and are therefore not as reliable as quota sampling.

100 students have participated in our research by answering our questionnaire. As previously
explained, the proportions of the categories in the sample are the same as the proportions in
the population. The number of students studying at USBE is around 1500. Of these, about 30
percent are international students. Consequently, 30 percent of the respondents in our research
are international (Admission office >Ume University@ 2010, 22
nd
March)
4.2 Selection
As explained, we will compare motivational factors between Swedish and international
students at USBE. Therefore, our questionnaires had to be distributed to both types of
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21
students at that faculty, without any regard to sex or age etc. To make sure we would come in
contact with these students we visited two English-speaking lectures for USBE students,
where we asked the teachers to hand out the questionnaires. As previously mentioned, 30
percent of the questionnaires were given to international students and 70 percent to Swedish.

When we chose the sample size we took both time and cost as well as the degree of precision
into consideration. Because we wanted the sample to be fairly accurate and similar to the
population and since we had limited resources we thought that a sample size of 100
participants was appropriate. Also, this fitted our time frame.
4.3 Questionnaire
We chose to use a questionnaire because we believed it to be convenient when there are many
individuals included in a sample. Also, we found it suitable because of our limited time frame
and resources at hand.

We have used a self-completion questionnaire in order to collect the data for the research. A
self-completion questionnaire is a form of data collection where participants are answering
the questionnaire themselves without any interference of the researchers (Bryman and Bell
2007:198). As mentioned, we asked a teacher to hand out the questionnaires in two USBE
classes. Critique can be aimed at this method. For example we had to limit our amount of
questions so that respondents bothered to answer them. Too, a self-completion questionnaire
may result in lower response rates, which can lead to bias in the findings. (Bryman and Bell
2007:242-243)

Since we are conducting a quantitative research we formed the questionnaire to give us
measurable information. Hence, we had to ask questions that gave us quantifiable answers,
rather than in depth knowledge of why students are motivated.

We based our questions on the previously mentioned theories; goal setting theory, Maslows
hierarchy of needs and expectancy theory. We connected the variables included in the theories
to potential reasons for applying to an institute of higher education. Doing so, we formed an
idea of the potential motivational factors for prospective students. We listed these factors in
the questionnaire for the respondents to value, on a scale from 1-7, how much they were
motivated by them. Thereby, we received quantifiable results. Seven meant that it affected the
students` decision to study at an institute of higher education very much. One meant that it did
not affect the students at all.

We put much effort into this questionnaire. We made sure that all questions were relevant and
easy to understand and that it did not include too many questions. In other words, we wanted
the questionnaire to be user-friendly in order to receive a high response rate. We reached our
aim and all questions were answered.
4.4 Access
Difficulties may appear when using a questionnaire to collect the data. For example people
might not have the time or will to answer. However, in our case, all students participating
were willing to help us by answering our questionnaire. Thus, we had good access to the
information needed.
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4.5 Processing
When evaluating the collected data from the questionnaire we chose to use computer software
to analyse our data. One of the reasons for using computer software when analysing
quantitative data is that this method is more similar to how a real research is conducted
nowadays (Bryman & Bell 2007:376). We used Microsoft Excel software in order to conduct
diagrams of the collected data, this to facilitate the analysis of our findings. Since one of the
aims of our research is to analyse the relationship between two variables and to get a
comprehensive overview of the data, we decided to show our findings in a bar graph.

5. Empirical Findings
When analysing our findings we became surprised of some results, which did not match our
expectations and beliefs. Over all the motivational factors of the students were rather similar.
However, we thought the difference between the two groups would be greater than what our
data showed us. In order to compare these we created a diagram in Microsoft Excel.

Figure 5.1

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
International Students
Swedish students
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23
The diagram above shows the motivational factors suggested in the questionnaire and how the
students have ranked their importance in their decision of whether or not to apply to an
institute of higher education.

As can be observed from the diagram above, students at USBE are a fairly homogenous group
even though students come from different countries. Both similarities and differences between
Swedish and international students can be seen in the diagram. It should be noted that most of
the international respondents were from Asia, which makes the concept international student
misleading.

Even though the diagram above provides a comprehensive overview of the motivational
factors of the students we find it necessary to explain each of the factor and describe in which
categories the Swedish and international students are similar and different. The reasoning
below is entirely based on figure 5.1.

The first factor brought up in our questionnaire concerned the question of whether students
attend an institute of higher education because they want to obtain a certain profession in the
future. As can be observed, both Swedish and international students are motivated to attend
higher education because they wanted to obtain a certain profession in the future. The
difference in this category between Swedish and international students is small, almost
nonexistent. The mean value for the Swedish students is 5,8 and 6,0 for the international
students. These figures did not come as a surprise, since we thought that both Swedish and
international students would be motivated to obtain a certain profession.

The second motivational factor concerns whether the students want to obtain a higher salary
in the future. The diagram reveals that this factor is essential for both groups. This complies
with our pre-understandings. The mean value for the Swedish students is 5,9 and 6,3 for the
international students, which is the highest mean value for both groups.

The third motivational factor in our questionnaire stated the question of whether students
attend higher education because they wanted to increase their knowledge of a certain subject.
Even though increasing knowledge is important for both Swedish and international students,
the results were rather different. The mean value for the Swedish students in this category is
5,4 and 5,8 for the international. This concludes that the international students consider the
gain of knowledge to be of greater importance when applying to a higher education.

The fourth suggested reason gave us the most unexpected result in our research. This question
regards of whether students attend an institute of higher education because they could not find
a job. The mean value for the Swedish students is 1,8 and for the international it is 2,2. To us,
the most surprising result is how low impact the shortage of jobs had for the Swedish
students, since the financial crisis has made it difficult for young people to find a job. To
conclude, the financial crisis and the shortage of jobs was not a major reason for the high
number of applications to institutes of higher education.

Another factor we took into consideration when conducting our questionnaire was pressure
from parents. Since Sweden is a relatively individualistic society compare to, for example
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24
many Asian cultures, we thought that Swedish student would feel less pressure from parents
compared to the international students. This believes was then confirmed by our
questionnaire. However, the difference was not distinct. The mean value for Swedish students
is 2,8 and for international students it is 3,4.

Another question was if friends had an effect on the decision whether or not to apply.
International students were more affected by their friends than Swedish students. The mean
value of the Swedish students is 2,5 and for the international students it is 2,9.

One of the factors that had a large impact on the students` decision to apply to higher
education was that it would easier to find a job with an education. These results were in
accordance with our pre-understandings. This was the second most important factor, after
higher salary. The mean value for the Swedish students is 6,1 and for the international
students the mean value is 5, 9. It shows that higher education is seen to make it easier to find
a job and almost all of the students in our sample thought that this criterion was very
important in the decision to attend higher education.

We also asked the students if they attended an institute of higher education because it
contributes to a higher status. This was one of the factors where the difference between
Swedish and international students was the largest. The factor of higher status had a greater
impact on the decision to attend higher education for the international students. The mean
value is 5,3, which can be compared to the Swedish students mean value of 4,4. Due to the
large difference of this result, we think that it is one of the most interesting results in our
research. The disparity concerning the status aspect of attending higher education has many
causes but we think that the Swedish culture is one of the strongest factors that contribute to
the Swedish non-status philosophy. We think that the 'Jante lag can be used to explain the
non-status philosophy among Swedish students. It basically says that you should not think
that you are more special or better than someone else. Another aspect, which can be seen to
have an impact on the status motive, is the tuition fee. Since it is free of charge to study in
Sweden, everyone is able to attend higher education, which could be seen as a factor that
decreases the status of an education because everyone can afford to study no matter of their
income.

As mentioned above, no tuition fee is required in Sweden but in order to be able to attend
higher education the students have to meet certain standards and have the grades that are
required to attend an education. Because of this we had a question that concerned how the
students had performed in their studies before attending higher education, since we wanted to
investigate if students with 'good grades were more likely to be motivated to apply to a
higher education. The result was clear, almost all of the students in our sample had received
'good grades beIore they attended higher education.

The factor that showed the largest difference between Swedish and international students was
how the cost of studying. We think that the disparity can be connected to the cost of
education. As mentioned above, it is free of charge to study in Sweden and students are
entitled to student grants together with the possibility to receive a student loan. Because of
this the Swedish students do not have to be concerned of their financial situation during the
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25
period of study and thereby it may not have an impact on the decision. Almost all of the
international students in our sample had to pay a tuition fee for attending higher education and
this had a large impact on the decision to study. This can be seen in the diagram where the
Swedish students have a relatively low mean value compared to the international students.

6. Analysis and conclusion
As mentioned in problem background, we believed that one of the reasons the number of
applicants had increased the last years was the financial crisis and the cutbacks on the labour
market. We thought that these cutbacks and consequently unemployment, had led to an
increase in the number of applicants to universities. Because we wanted to analyse if this
actually had an eIIect on the students` motivation, we incorporated the factor into our
questionnaire. The empirical findings proved us wrong. As can be seen in figure 5.1, the mean
value for both Swedish and international students was around two, which indicates that this
hardly affected the decision. However, we are aware that the findings from our sample cannot
be generalised or exclude the idea that the number of applicants increased due to the
recession.

Another assumption we had, which also is stated in problem background, is that the cost for
attending higher education is a highly affecting factor in the decision of whether or not to
apply. The empirical findings support our pre-understandings. All of the Swedish students
placed a number between one and three on this factor, and, of course, they stated that
education in their home country is free of charge. However, all, except one, international
students placed a number between five and seven on this motivational factor. Also, all of
these students stated that there was a cost for education in their home country. In other words,
if there is a tuition fee for higher education, this will have a big impact on the decision of
whether or not to apply to an institute of higher education.

As explained, the participants also had to value the success of their previous studies. 48
percent of the Swedish and international students ranked their previous study results as a six
or seven. The mean value for these students was slightly above five, meaning that they believe
their previous studies have been rather successful. The students also valued their self-esteem
to be fairly high. The mean value for both Swedish and international students was around 5,5.
Though, a substantially higher percent of the international students valued their self-esteem to
be very high. Nearly 60 percent of the international students, compared to 40 percent of the
Swedish students, valued their self-esteem to be a six or seven.

As previously mentioned, in theory, we believe that the expectancy theory can explain how
the self-esteem and the success of previous studies can affect the decision to attend higher
education. As Miner (2006) explains, Porter and Lawler claimed that an improved
performance would result in higher self-esteem, which in the long run would result in an
increased expectancy (the belief that increased effort will lead to enhanced performance) and
thereby increased motivation for effort (Miner 2006 99-100). We believe that this connection
can be observed in our empirical findings. As can be seen in figure 5.1 the mean value for the
international students` success of previous studies is higher than the mean value of Swedish
students. Also, the mean value oI the international students` self-esteem, increased effort will
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26
lead to enhanced performance and willingness to work hard for achieving goals, is higher
than that of Swedish students. These findings are in accordance with the expectancy theory
and comply with the idea that self-esteem and previously good performances will lead to a
higher expectancy and thereby greater motivation for effort (Miner 2006:99-100).

Furthermore, the connection between successful studies, self-esteem and motivation to study,
appeared in a study presented in the article Motivation to Study in Higher Education: A
Comparison between Germany and Great Britain (Loeber & Higson 2009). In this study, the
researchers could prove that above-average students in Britain were more likely than below-
average students to continue studies at a university (Loeber & Higson 2009). However, as
explained in Choice of secondary sources and Criticism of sources, the results in this study
are not to be generalized. Though, we do believe this can apply to other contexts.

We also asked the research participants to value to which degree the wish to work within a
certain profession affected their decision of whether or not to attend an institute of higher
education. As previously mentioned, Locke, and his goal setting theory, claimed that people
were more driven by goals that were challenging and specific, rather than easy and vague
(Schunk, Pintrich & Meece 2008:143). We believe that the wish to obtain a certain profession
is a relatively specific goal. So, we wanted to compare our findings with this theory and test if
it was applicable in our research. In other words, we wanted to see if those students who
wanted to obtain a certain profession were willing to work harder to reach their goals.

We compared the mean value between the students who had ranked obtain a certain
profession as a highly contributing factor with those that placed a lower number on this factor,
and analysed if there were significant differences in their willingness to work hard for goals.
However, our findings did not comply with Locke`s goal setting theory. Our empirical
evidence showed no significant difference in motivation to work hard for goals between the
students that had ranked the factor obtain a certain profession as highly influential, and those
who had ranked it as less influential. However, we understand that this cannot refute Locke`s
theory.

As can be seen in graph 5.1, out of the stated motivational factors in the questionnaire, an
increased salary in the future is the greatest affecting factor. The wish to receive a higher
salary in the Iuture can be connected to Maslow`s hierarchy oI needs. The desire to reach this
goal can be situated on both the second step: safety needs and on the fourth step: esteem
needs. A higher salary can provide a feeling of security and stability and also a feeling of
achievement and success in life.

As mentioned in the Choice of secondary sources and Criticism of sources we used the article
The Investment Motive by Michael B. Tannen to further enhance our understanding of our
research subject. Tannen demonstrated that the financial profitability of attending college
affects the enrolment rates (Michael B Tannen 1978). He claimed he had evidence to support
the investment and consumption motive for attending college (Michael B Tannen 1978). In
other words, he claimed that students who attend college expect financial profitability from
their studies. We wanted to incorporate this theory into our research. We believe that, if this
theory is valid, it is applicable on the international students in our research. We find this
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27
possible because, similarly to the students in Tannen`s research, all international students in
our study have to pay for their education. Hence, we believe that these students consider
financial profitability to be of greater importance than Swedish students. Therefore, we
compared if the students in our research who paid for higher education, like those in Tannen`s
study, had ranked a higher salary in the future as a more important motivational factor,
compared to the Swedish students, who do not need to pay a tuition fee. Our empirical
evidence confirmed that international students, who pay to attend an institute of higher
education, had ranked a higher salary in the future as more influential in the decision than the
Swedish students. However, as previously stated, our sample is not to be generalised, hence
we cannot conclude any general causal connections between the tuition fee and the desire to
obtain a higher salary in the future.

The desire to learn more about a certain subject was also highly ranked by both Swedish and
international students. We can connect this motivational Iactor to Maslow`s theory oI needs.
Self-actualisation is the highest level of the hierarchy and can only be reached after the
previous levels have been fulfilled .We believe that the will to learn about a specific subject is
closely linked to this level of the hierarchy. As previously explained, personal growth and the
striving to reach the maximum personal capacity belong to the self-actualisation level
(Schunk, Pintrich & Meece 2008:173). We consider that the will to acquire knowledge about
a specific subject is personal growth and development.

Our empirical evidence shows that international students are more affected by pressure from
parents compared to the Swedish students. According to the goal-setting theory a person
cannot be fully committed to reach a goal if it is not an individual goal, in other words a goal
that is the wishes of someone else (Bloisi et al. 2007: 241). We wanted to test if this was
visible in our findings. Therefore, we compared the motivation from willingness to work hard
for goals between those students who were affected highly by pressure from parents with
those who were not as affected. The mean value for the willingness to work hard for goals of
the students that were highly affected by the parental pressure was 5,5 while the mean value
of the other students was 4,5. This does not comply with Locke`s goal setting theory.
However, we realise that the empirical evidence from our sample is not strong enough to
refute the theory.

We believe that culture is a possible explanation for the fact that the international students in
our sample consider the pressure from parents as a more affecting factor in the decision of
whether or not to apply to an institute of higher education. We believe that one of the
explanations can be found in the article Cross-Cultural Differences in the Academic
Motivation of University Students in Malaysia and the United States by Komarraju, Karau &
Ramayah (2007). They claim that, parental pressure concerning education is often high in
many Asian cultures. (Komarraju, Karau & Ramayah 2007) Since the majority of our
international applicants were students from Asia, we believe that Kommarraju, Karau and
Ramayah`s Iindings partly can explain why the international students in our sample ranked
the pressure from parents to be of greater impact than for Swedish students. Furthermore, the
article explains that many Asian cultures are more collectivistic, than those of for example
Western European countries (Kommarraju, Karau & Ramayah 2007). The authors explain that
this makes Asian students place a higher value on the reputation of their family than students
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28
from Western Europe may do. Therefore many Asian students attend higher education and
strive to perform well only to enhance the reputation of their family.

The pressure from parents to continue education on a higher level can also be connected to
Maslow`s hierarchy oI needs. This can be connected to the third level oI Maslow`s hierarchy
of needs: belongingness and love needs. This level includes family relationships and
affection. So, an individual may continue to an institute of higher education to get approval
from his or her parents. One other of the motivational factors that can be connected to this
stage oI Maslow`s hierarchy oI needs is the influence from friends. For example, iI one`s
friends have or intend to apply to a higher level of education one can feel the desire to
experience belongingness with this group of people. However, the influence from friends was
not of great importance in our sample and the mean value for both international and Swedish
students was slightly below three.

One of the questions that were asked in the questionnaire was to which extent the respondent
was motivated by the belief of getting a job more easily in the future. We think this factor
provides a feeling of safety, stability and security. This can be connected to the second level
of Maslow`s hierarchy oI needs: Safety needs. Of the stated motivational factors in the
questionnaire, the criteria of getting a job more easily had the second highest mean value,
which was around six. This is a high number, which indicates that the respondents valued this
factor to be highly influential.

Among our respondents, higher social status was also ranked as an important factor. The
mean value for this factor among Swedish students was around 4,5 and 5,5 for international
students. The will to achieve a higher social status can be connected to the fourth level of
Maslow`s hierarchy oI needs; esteem needs, which is concerned with the needs for
achievement, status and reputation (Schunk, Pintrich, Meece 2008:173).

As previously mentioned, the article Cross-Cultural Differences in the Academic Motivation
of University Students in Malaysia and the United States by Komarraju, Karau & Ramayah
(2007) claim that, many Asian cultures are more collectivistic, than those of western
European countries (Kommarraju, Karau & Ramayah 2007). The authors explain that this
makes Asian students more concerned with the social aspects of success in education, like for
instance social status (Kommarraju, Karau & Ramayah 2007). Since the majority of our
international respondents were from Asia this theory may be an explanation for why the
international students ranked social status as more important than Swedish students.

To sum up, the motivational factors that were ranked to be the most influential were increased
salary and easier to find a job, while the least influential were could not find a job and friends
attend university. In general, the findings did not surprise us, except from the results of the
factor could not find a job. As discussed in problem background we believed that the
recession from the financial crisis and the cutbacks on the labour market would have led to an
increased enrolment, which would have been more visible in the empirical findings.

Although the results were not that unexpected we still believed that factors related to the
person itself, like for instance, higher status and increased knowledge would have been
Spring 2010

29
valued higher. This in accordance with the results in the article The investment motive for
attending college by Michael B. Tannen (Tannen 1978). In his research, Tannen explains that
the most influential factors to attend university in Germany and Great Brittan are related to
the person itself. Instead, in our case it was the job related factors, easier to find a job,
increased salary and obtains a certain profession that gave the highest results.

Our empirical findings showed that the largest difference in motivational factors is the
education cost. We expected the outcome to bring out distinct differences between Swedish
and international students` concern Ior education cost, due to the Iact that there are striking
differences in the educational cost systems between Sweden and the countries of the
international students. While Sweden is one of the few countries in the world that offer
education free of charge, most other countries have a mandatory tuition fee.
Moreover, the results from the questionnaire did not show as significant differences as we
expected. We believed that bigger differences would have occurred, for example in the results
of increased salary. Due to the fact that Sweden has a highly developed welfare system
compared to many other countries we think that the international students would value a
higher salary in the future as more important.

Our purpose of the research paper is to analyse the sources to motivation in the decision to
attend higher education, for both Swedish and international students at USBE. Also, to
compare and describe possible differences between these two groups. We believe that we
have accomplished the purpose by distinguishing the essential motivational factors and
comparing them between Swedish and international students in the sample taken from the
students of USBE. Furthermore, if we were to carry out future research within this field, it
would be interesting to conduct an extended research with more variables included. Also, we
would specify the groups to be compared and use a random sampling method in order to find
a representative sample of the population and be able to generalise the findings.

7. Truth criteria
In order to evaluate the results of a business research, three different criteria can be used:
reliability, replication and validity (Bryman & Bell 2007:201). Reliability deals with the
question whether the results of a study are repeatable. The second criterion is Replication,
which states that other researchers should be able to replicate and use our findings in their
research. The last criterion used to evaluate a research is Validity, which deals with whether or
not a measure reflects what it intends to measure (Bryman & Bell 2007:201). But the criteria
should be applied in different ways for different research strategies and since we were
conducting a quantitative research we had to take these rules into consideration when
evaluating the research.

We think that the reliability of our research is fairly strong, especially the internal reliability
which states that a respondents score on one indicator should be related to the scores on the
other indicator (Bryman & Bell 2007:163). Since we collected our data from questionnaires
we were able to analyse iI the respondents` answers were related to each other. For example if
the respondents thought that it was important to obtain a certain profession after graduation
they should also want to increase their knowledge of a certain subject since these two factors
Spring 2010

30
are related. Based on our data we can conclude that most oI the students` answers are related
to other answers and therefore we think that the internal reliability is fairly strong. Since the
purpose of the research is not to generalise, the external validity is not an important criterion.
But we think that the stability of our research contains some weaknesses because our sample
was not chosen randomly and therefore it is possible that we get another result if we would
conduct a second research.

Another criterion which we have to take into consideration when evaluating the research is
validity, especially face validity that questions whether the measure truly reflects the concept
that it intends to measure (Bryman & Bell 2007:165). We think that this criterion is important
and therefore we asked both students and professors what they considered about the content
of the questionnaires before we distributed it to the respondents. This because we wanted to
make sure that the indicators indicated what they were supposed to indicate and that everyone
would understand the questions. Therefore we think that the validity of the research is strong
and our indicators are trustworthy.

The third criterion used to evaluate business research is replication and we think that other
researchers are able to replicate our findings, since we have described our research process
and stated our assumptions.

Spring 2010

31
8. References
Internet sources
Ekonomifakta, 18.02.10, cited 13 April 2010,
http://www.ekonomifakta.se/sv/Fakta/Arbetsmarknad/Arbetsloshet/Arbetsloshet/

Ministry of education, 10.09.09, cited 14 April 2010
http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/11325/a/131230
Ministry of education, 20.03.10 cited 19 April 2010
http://www.hsv.se/densvenskahogskolan/sveengordbok/termer/h/helarsstudent.4.8f0e4c9119e
2b4a60c800027330.html
Model of high performance cycle, USA September 2002, image, American psychologist, cited
on 18 April 2010, http://faculty.washington.edu/janegf/goalsetting.html
Porter Lawler Theory of Motivation, USA 1999, image, North-eastern Illinois University,
cited 16 April, http://www.neiu.edu/~aserafin/421/motivation/aMotivation/sld006.htm

Maslow`s hierarchy oI needs, Canada December 2008, image, Ontario Ministry of agriculture
food and rural affairs, cited 20 April 2010
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/rural/facts/96-001.htm

Swedish Television, 26.02.08, cited 15 April 2010
http://svt.se/svt/jsp/Crosslink.jsp?d=73925&a=1067867&from=tipsa

The Local 01.03.10, cited 19 April 2010 http://www.thelocal.se/25276/20100301/

Journals
Komarraju M, Karau S and Ramayah T, (2007), Cross-Cultural differences in the academic
motivation of university students in Malaysia and the United States, North American Journal
of psychology, Vol. 9, No. 2,
Locke E and Latham G, (2002) Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task
Motivation, American Psychologist, Vol. 57, No. 9

Loeber S and Higson H, (2009), Motivation to Study in Higher Education: A Comparison
between Germany and Great Britain, Higher Education in Europe, Vol. 34, No. 3

Tannen M, (1978), THE INVESTMENT MOTIVE F OR ATTENDING COLLEGE, Industrial
and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 31, No. 4
Literature
Backman J, (2008), Rapporter och uppsatser, Studentlitteratur, Lund
Spring 2010

32
Bloisi W, (2007), Management and organisational behaviour, second European edition,
Mcgraw-Hill Educaton,
Bryman A & Bell E, (2007), Business research methods, second edition, , Oxford University
Press, New York

Holme M. & Krohn S, (1996), Forskningsmetodik- om kvalitativa och kvantitativa
metoder, Studentlitteratur, Lund

Miner J, (2005), Organizational Behavior 1: Essential Theories of Motivation and
Leadership, M.E. Sharpe,

Johansson-Lindfors M, (1993), Att Utveckla Kunskap, Studentlitteratur, Lund

Schunk D, Pintrich P and Meece J, (2008), Motivation in Education, Theory, Research and
Application, third edition, Pearson Education, Berkley

Organisations
Statistics Sweden (2009), Skande och antagna till hgskoleutbildning p grundniv och
avancerad niv hstterminen

Statistics Sweden, (2009) Var fjrde nybrjare i hgskolan r inte frn Sverige, Vlfrd, 2009
No.2

Statistics Sweden, (2009) Statistik fr alla 2009

Swedish national authority for higher education (2010), Statistisk Analys, 2010 No.5

Swedish national authority of higher education (2008), Utlndska studenter i sverige, Report:
2008:7 R

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Business Administration B, module 1

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