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CONTENTS vii
PART III SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
5 Teacher-Centered Instructional Strategies 119
A CONTINUUM OF INSTRUCTIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES FOR DIRECT

APPROACHES 120 INSTRUCTION 130
Teacher-Centered to Student-Centered Presentations 130
Approaches 120 Demonstrations 132
Direct and Indirect Instructional Approaches 121 Questioning 133
The Gradual Release of Responsibility Model 122 Recitations 136
Deductive and Inductive Strategies 124 Practice and Drills 137
Reviews 137
THE DIRECT INSTRUCTION MODEL 125
Guided Practice and Homework 138
Characteristics of Direct Instruction 125
Components of Direct and Explicit Instruction ADDITIONAL APPROACHES 140
Lessons 126 Flipped Classrooms 140
Blended Learning 141
6 Student-Centered Instructional Strategies 143
SELECTING STUDENT-CENTERED STRATEGIES 144 Cooperative Learning 160

Panels and Debates 164
INQUIRY APPROACHES 146 Role Playing, Simulations, and Games 165
Concept Attainment Approaches 146
INDEPENDENT APPROACHES 166
Inquiry and Discovery Learning 151
Problem-Based Strategies 155 Learning Centers or Stations 167
Projects, Reports, and Problems 157 Independent Work and Learning Contracts 167
SOCIAL APPROACHES 157

Discussions 157
7 Strategies That Promote Understanding, Thinking, and Engagement 171
STRATEGIES THAT PROMOTE STUDENT HELPING STUDENTS BECOME BETTER THINKERS 185
UNDERSTANDING 172 Guidance from Teaching Standards 187
Identifying Similarities and Differences 172 Enhancing Critical Thinking 187
Summarizing and Note Taking 173
ENGAGING STUDENTS IN THE LEARNING
Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition 175
PROCESS 189
Homework and Practice 177
Nonlinguistic Representations 179 MOTIVATING STUDENTS TO LEARN 191
Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback 180
Generating and Testing Hypotheses 183 APPLYING THE SIOP MODEL TO STRATEGIES 193
Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers 184 Strategies 193
Practice/Application 194
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viii CONTENTS
PART IV MANAGING INSTRUCTION AND THE CLASSROOM
8 Managing Lesson Delivery 197
ISSUES AFFECTING LESSON DELIVERY 198 MANAGING WHOLE-GROUP INSTRUCTION 216

Degree of Structure in Lessons 198 Guiding Behavior 216
Grouping Students for Instruction 198 Managing Movement Through the Lesson 217
Holding Students Academically Accountable 201 Maintaining a Group Focus 217
Maintaining Student Attention and
MANAGING PARTS OF THE LESSON 203
Involvement 218
Beginning of a Lesson 203
Middle of a Lesson 207 APPLYING THE SIOP MODEL TO LESSON
Ending of a Lesson 211 DELIVERY 220
Comprehensible Input 220
MANAGING STUDENT WORK 212
Interaction 220
Effectively Managing Seatwork 212 Lesson Delivery 222
Collecting Assignments and Monitoring Their Review and Assessment of Lesson Objectives 222
Completion 213
Maintaining Records of Student Work 214
Managing Paperwork 215
Giving Students Feedback 215
9 Classroom Management 225
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 226 SELECTING AND TEACHING RULES AND

Areas of Responsibility 226 PROCEDURES 241
Principles for Working with Students and Preventing Rules 242
Misbehavior 228 Procedures 244
PREPARING FOR THE SCHOOL YEAR 230 MAINTAINING APPROPRIATE STUDENT

Making Management Preparations 230 BEHAVIOR 247
Making Instructional Preparations 233 Having a Mental Set for Management 247
Managing Assessments, Record Keeping, and Building Positive Teacher-Student
Reporting 235 Relationships 248
Establishing a Plan to Deal with Misbehavior 236 Reinforcing Desired Behaviors 252
Planning for the First Day 237 Supporting Self-Regulation 253
Making Adjustments for Student Diversity 254
ORGANIZING YOUR CLASSROOM 238
Floor Space 239
Storage Space 240
Bulletin Boards and Wall Space 241
10 Classroom Discipline 259
MISBEHAVIOR 260 THREE-STEP RESPONSE PLAN 263

Misbehavior in Context 260 Situational Assistance 264
Types of Misbehavior 260 Mild Responses 267
Causes of Misbehavior 261 Moderate Responses 271

CONTENTS ix
CAUTIONS AND GUIDELINES 273 BULLYING 280

Some Practices to Avoid 273 Characteristics of Bullying 280
Guidelines for Punishment 275 Effects of Bullying 281
Types of Bullying 281
DEALING WITH CHRONIC MISBEHAVIORS 276 Confronting Bullying 282
PART V ASSESSING AND REPORTING STUDENT PERFORMANCE
11 Assessing Student Performance 285
CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT 286 PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT 295

What is classroom assessment? 286 Product Assessments 296
Data-Driven Decision Making 287 Performance Assessments 297
Types of Assessments for Decision Making 288 Ways to Rate Student Products or
Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Performances 298
Evaluation 289
TEACHER-MADE TESTS 300
Characteristics of Good Assessment
Instruments 290 Planning the Classroom Test 300
Assessment Technologies 291 Selecting and Preparing Test Questions 302
Adapting Assessments for English Language Assembling the Test 308
Learners 292 Administering the Test 309
Adapting Assessments for Students with Special Scoring the Test 309
Needs 293 ACHIEVEMENT TESTS 310
Differentiating Instruction with Assessments 294
Types of Achievement Test Scores 311
ESTABLISHING A FRAMEWORK FOR The Teacher’s Role in Standardized Testing 312
ASSESSMENT 294
12 Grading Systems, Marking, and Reporting 317
PURPOSES OF GRADING 318 NONACHIEVEMENT OUTCOMES 328

Functions of Grades 318 Rating Scales 329
Confounding the Achievement Grade 320 Checklists 329
Special Reports 330
GRADING SYSTEMS 321
Percentage Grades 321 USING A GRADE BOOK 330
Letter Grades 322 Electronic Grade Books 330
Descriptive Assessments 322 Record Keeping 330
Pass–Fail Grading 322 Sections in a Grade Book 331
Checklists of Objectives 323
REPORTING GRADES 332
ASSIGNING LETTER GRADES 323 Report Cards 332
Determining What to Include in a Grade 323 Cumulative Record Files 333
Creating A Composite Score 323
GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN GRADING AND
Selecting a Frame of Reference for Grading 324
REPORTING 334
Determining the Distribution of Grades 326
Calculating Semester and Annual Grades 328

x CONTENTS
PART VI WORKING WITH OTHERS
13 Collaborating with Colleagues and Families 337
WORKING WITH COLLEAGUES 338 Why Some Families Resist Involvement 346
What is collaboration? 338 Working Through Cultural and Language
Why collaborate? 338 Differences 347
Collaborate with Whom? 339 CONTACTING AND COMMUNICATING WITH
Collaboration Skills and Dispositions 342 FAMILIES 348
WORKING WITH FAMILIES 344 Ways to Communicate with Families 349
Reasons for Working with Families 345 Parent-Teacher Conferences 358
REFERENCES 365
NAME INDEX 379
SUBJECT INDEX 383

PREFACE
The eighth edition of Methods for Effective Teaching provides research-based coverage
of general teaching methods while emphasizing contemporary topics such as culturally
responsive teaching, differentiated instruction, and data-driven decision making. The
numerous features, tables, and lists of recommendations ensure that the text is reader
friendly and practically oriented. Its unique content includes strategies to promote stu-
dent understanding, differentiate instruction, manage lesson delivery, apply motivational
techniques for instruction and assessment, and work with colleagues and parents. In ad-
dition, thorough coverage of classroom management and discipline is provided, along
with ways to create a positive learning environment.
Intended Audience
This book is designed primarily as the core textbook for courses in K–12 general teaching
methods, secondary/middle teaching methods, or elementary school teaching methods.
The content is applicable for teachers at all levels—elementary, middle level, and high
school. Additionally, it may be used as a supplementary book for other teaching methods
courses. This book is also appropriate for courses and staff development programs for in-
service teachers and as a handbook for teacher reference due to its comprehensive cover-
age of current classroom issues and practical teaching applications.
New to this Edition

There are a number of significant changes in this eighth edition:
■■ Major restructuring and updating of Chapter 1 on Teaching Students in Today’s

World
■■ Major restructuring and the addition of significant new content in Chapter 2 on
Knowing and Connecting with Your Students
■■ New sections in several chapters:
• The changing teaching environment (in Chapter 1)
• Opportunity/achievement gaps (Chapter 2)
• Struggling learners (Chapter 2)
• Students in poverty (Chapter 2)
• Seriously disengaged students (Chapter 2)
• Students challenged with other adverse conditions (Chapter 2)
• Planning to integrate technology into instruction (in Chapter 3)
• Planning for assessments (in Chapter 3)
• Planning for motivation (in Chapter 3)
• Additional instructional approaches (in Chapter 5)
• Flipped classrooms (in Chapter 5)
• Blended learning (in Chapter 5)
• Engaging students in the learning process (in Chapter 7)
xi

xii PREFACE
• Motivating students to learn (in Chapter 7)

• Guiding behavior (in Chapter 8)
• Making adjustments for student diversity (in Chapter 9)
• Assessment technologies (in Chapter 11)
• Differentiating instruction with assessments (in Chapter 11)
• Electronic gradebooks (in Chapter 12)
■■ New and expanded content in existing chapter sections:
• Getting to know your students (in Chapter 1)
• Every Student Succeeds Act (in Chapter 1)
• The linear-rational approach to planning (in Chapter 3)
• Planning units (in Chapter 4)
• Demonstrations (in Chapter 5)
■■ Updating of over 60 references to new editions
■■ Addition of over 90 new references to update content
Special Features
To maintain the reader’s interest and to accommodate different learning styles and instruc-
tional settings, Methods for Effective Teaching contains a variety of pedagogical features.
■■ Standards Tables. Two tables of professional standards can be found on pages xvi–xvii.
These tables feature references to the chapters in this book that address each part of the
standards.
■■ Objectives. Each chapter begins with a list of objectives that identify expected reader
outcomes.
■■ Chapter Outline. Each chapter begins with a graphic organizer displaying chapter
headings and subheadings to provide an advance organizer for the reader.
■■ Voices from the Classroom. These features are included in each chapter to provide
descriptions of ways that actual elementary, middle school, and high school teach-
ers deal with particular topics addressed in the chapter. These teachers come from all
parts of the country and different community sizes. There are over 50 Voices from the
Classroom features, evenly balanced among elementary and middle/high school levels,
including many from urban districts.
■■ Sample Standards. Each chapter has a Sample Standards feature that lists representa-
tive performances, essential knowledge, and critical dispositions from InTASC standards
that relate to the chapter in an effort to direct the reader’s attention to important con-
tent and characteristics.
■■ Classroom Case Studies. Each chapter includes a case study describing a situation
that a teacher may need to confront. Two or three questions following each case study
require the reader to reflect on and apply chapter concepts.
■■ What Would You Decide? Several features are placed in each chapter to help readers
consider the application of the content. Each feature includes several sentences describ-
ing a classroom situation related to an issue in the chapter followed by a few questions
asking the reader to make decisions about the application of the concepts.
■■ Key Terms. A list of key terms at the end of each chapter draws the reader’s attention to
significant terms. Each term is also highlighted in the text.
■■ Major Concepts. At the end of each chapter, a list of major concepts serves as a sum-
mary of the significant chapter ideas.

PREFACE xiii
■■ Discussion/Reflective Questions. Questions at the end of each chapter promote

discussion and reflection in a classroom or seminar in which a number of people are
considering the chapter’s content.
■■ Suggested Activities. These activities are listed at the end of each chapter both
for clinical (on-campus) settings and for field (school-based) settings to enable the
reader to investigate and apply issues addressed.
■■ Further Reading. An annotated list of recommended readings at the end of each
chapter suggests readings for further enrichment.
■■ References. The references cited in the chapters to document the research base of
the content are all listed at the end of the book.
Relating This Book to Standards

A variety of professional standards are listed, correlated to the book, and referenced
throughout. Standards are used to guide the development of new teachers, help in-
service teachers improve their performance, and assess both teacher preparation and
teacher performance. Many teacher education programs are designed around the Inter-
state New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) standards. Many states
require a passing score on the Principles of Learning and Teaching test (a Praxis Subjects
Assessment test) before granting a teaching license. The Praxis Classroom Performance
Assessments (which are consistent with Danielson’s Framework for Teaching domains) are
used to assess and improve the teaching of in-service teachers. A brief description of these
standards is provided here, and tables of these standards can be found on pages xvi–xvii.
INTASC STANDARDS
The Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) was formed
as a consortium of state education agencies and national educational organizations dedi-
cated to the reform of the preparation, licensing, and ongoing professional development
of teachers. Created in 1987, INTASC’s primary constituency is state education agencies
responsible for teacher licensing, program approval, and professional development. Its
work is guided by one basic premise: An effective teacher must be able to integrate content
knowledge with the specific strengths and needs of students to ensure that all students learn
and perform at high levels. With the 2011 updating of the standards, it removed the word
new from its title and made a lowercase n in the acronym (now it is InTASC). More infor-
mation can be found on the Council of Chief State School Officers, CCSSO, website.
PRAXIS TESTS
The Praxis tests have been developed and disseminated by the Educational Testing Ser-
vice (ETS) for assessing skills and knowledge at each stage of a beginning teacher’s career,
from entry into teacher education to actual classroom performance. More information
about the Praxis tests can be found at the Educational Testing Service, ETS, website.
There are several types of Praxis tests:
■■ Praxis Core Academic Skills for Educators (CORE). These academic skills tests
are designed to be taken early in a student’s college career to measure reading, writ-
ing, and mathematics skills.
■■ Praxis Subject Assessments. There are several Praxis Subject Assessments, and
they measure a teacher candidate’s knowledge of the subjects he or she will teach, as
well as general and subject-specific pedagogical skills and knowledge. One of these
assessments is the Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT) test, which many states
require teachers to pass for their licensure.

xiv PREFACE
■■ Praxis Classroom Performance Assessments. These assessments are conducted for

beginning teachers in classroom settings. Assessment of teaching practice is through
direct observation of classroom practice, a review of documentation prepared by the
teacher, and semistructured interviews. The framework for knowledge and skills for
these assessments consists of 19 assessment criteria organized within four categories:
planning and preparation, the classroom environment, instruction, and professional
responsibilities. Charlotte Danielson’s (2007) Enhancing Professional Practice: A Frame-
work for Teaching is based on the categories of the Praxis Classroom Performance
Assessments.
Methods for Effective Teaching is not intended to address the preprofessional skills of
reading, writing, and mathematics in Praxis CORE. However, it is designed to address the
Praxis Subject Assessments test on Principles of Learning and Teaching and the Praxis class-
room performance criteria areas, based on Danielson’s Framework for Teaching.
Supplements
INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL WITH TEST BANK AND
POWERPOINT SLIDES
An instructor’s resource manual with test bank to accompany this textbook has been devel-
oped by the authors to guide teacher educators as they use this book for their courses. This
manual includes multiple-choice, true–false, short-answer, and essay/discussion questions for
each chapter. It also includes a sample course syllabus that is aligned to this book and teach-
ing suggestions to introduce content for each major section of each chapter. Additionally,
about 20 PowerPoint slides are provided for each chapter.
The instructor’s resource manual with test bank may be downloaded in PDF from the
Instructor Resource Center at the Pearson Higher Education website (http://www.pearson-
highered.com). Your local Pearson sales representative can help you set up a password for
the Instructor Resource Center.
INVIGORATE LEARNING WITH THE ENHANCED PEARSON ETEXT

The Enhanced Pearson eText provides a rich, interactive learning environment designed to
improve student mastery of content. This enhanced eText includes video clips selected by the
author that illustrate key concepts and help bridge the gap between theory and practice.
Students can experience the advantages of the Enhanced Pearson eText along with all
the benefits of print for 40% to 50% less than a print bound book! Instructors, visit pearson-
highered.com/etextbooks to register for your digital examination copy.
(Please note: enhancements are only available in the Pearson eText, and not third-party
eTexts such as CourseSmart or Kindle).

PREFACE xv
Acknowledgments
Many people provided support and guidance as we prepared this book. A very special
acknowledgment goes to our spouses: Jennie Burden and Mary Byrd. Their support kept
our spirits up when deadlines were pressing, and their understanding during our ab-
sences while preparing the content enabled us to complete the project.
We also appreciate the help from the staff at Pearson who provided editorial guid-
ance, facilitated the preparation of the manuscript, and coordinated the production.
A number of classroom teachers provided descriptions of their professional practice,
which are included in the Voices from the Classroom features. Their experiences help il-
lustrate the issues and bring life to the content.
Finally, we would like to extend our gratitude to the following reviewers who provided
constructive feedback for this edition: Dr. Sonia K. Boone, Prairie View A&M University;
Joseph Cosgriff, Lincoln Memorial University; Bonnie J. Cummings, College of Education,
The University of Memphis; R. Stewart Mayers, Ed.D., Southeastern Oklahoma State
University; Kirk A. Swortzel, Mississippi State University.
Paul R. Burden
David M. Byrd

xvi STANDARDS
InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards
The following table indicates how the 2011 Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) model
core teaching standards are addressed in this book.
STANDARDS CHAPTER COVERAGE
THE LEARNER AND LEARNING
1. Learner Development 2–7

Understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of learning
and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic, social,
emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally appro-
priate and challenging learning experiences.
2. Learning Differences 2–7

Uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and communities
to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet high
standards.
3. Learning Environments 7–10

Works with others to create environments that support individual and collaborative
learning, and that encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in
learning, and self-motivation.
CONTENT KNOWLEDGE
4. Content Knowledge 3
Understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline(s)
he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make these aspects of the
discipline accessible and meaningful for learners to ensure mastery of the content.
5. Application of Content 4–7

Understands how to connect concepts and use differing perspectives to engage
learners in critical thinking, creativity, and collaborative problem solving related to
authentic local and global issues.
INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE
6. Assessment 2, 11–12
Understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners in their
own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacher’s and learner’s
decision making.
7. Planning for Instruction 3–7

Plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals by
drawing on knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and
pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.
8. Instructional Strategies 5–7

Understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage learners to
develop deep understanding of content areas and their connections, and to build
skills to apply knowledge in meaningful ways.

STANDARDS xvii
STANDARDS CHAPTER COVERAGE
PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY
9. Professional Learning and Ethical Practice 1

Engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually evalu-
ate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others
(Learners, Families, Other Professionals, and the Community), and adapts practice
to meet the needs of each learner.
10. Leadership and Collaboration 13

Seeks appropriate leadership roles and opportunities to take responsibility for student
learning, to collaborate with learners, families, colleagues, other school professionals,
and community members to ensure learner growth, and to advance the profession.
From Council of Chief State School Officers. (2011, April). Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) Model Core
Teaching Standards: A Resource for State Dialogue. Washington, DC: Author.

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Teaching Students
in Today’s World
1
Track5/Getty Images
EFFECTIVE TEACHING
Decisions about Basic Teaching Functions
Essential Teacher Characteristics
Expectations for Effectiveness
STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS

InTASC Standards
Framework for Teaching
Principles of Learning and Teaching
THE TEACHER AS A
REFLECTIVE DECISION
MAKER
Reflection
Tools to Become More Reflective
Aspects of Instructional Decision Making

This Chapter Provides Information That
Will Help You To: THE CHANGING TEACHING
ENVIRONMENT
1.1 Describe the basic teaching functions and the MORE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
key characteristics of effective teachers. LEARNERS
1.2 Recognize the professional teaching standards Challenges of English Language Learners
and understand the purposes they serve. Teaching English Language Learners in All
1.3 Formulate a plan to use reflection to enhance Classrooms
teacher decision making. The SIOP Model
1.4 Identify ways the teaching environment is

changing due to increased diversity in student
populations including students with special needs
and English language learners.
1.5 Describe ways that instruction of English language
learners can be enhanced in all classrooms.
M01_BURD5747_08_SE_C01.indd 1 3/14/18 4:58 PM

2 PART I Foundations of Teaching Methods
Your journey to become a teacher continues. You want to be an effective teacher,

but what are the characteristics of effective teachers? What do they need to know
and do? To a large extent, effective teaching involves making good decisions to help
students learn.
Even before instruction takes place, teachers think about and make decisions concern-
ing content, instructional strategies, the use of instructional materials and technology,
delivery techniques, classroom management and discipline, assessment of student
learning, and a host of other related issues. During instruction, teachers must imple-
ment these decisions as they interact with students in a dynamic way.
Decision making involves giving consideration to a matter, identifying the desired end
result, determining the options to get to the end result, and then selecting the most
suitable option to achieve the desired purpose. Teacher decisions about the issues just
mentioned ultimately will influence student learning.
To examine teacher decision making and its relationship to teaching methods, the dis-
cussion in this chapter centers on several questions: What is effective teaching? What
are the standards used to guide the professional development of teachers? How can
a teacher be a reflective decision maker? What are the conditions that are changing
the teaching environment? How can instruction of English language learners (ELLs) be
enhanced in all classrooms?
Effective Teaching
What are teachers’ responsibilities, and what makes teachers effective in meeting these
responsibilities? To answer these questions, it is useful to examine the basic teaching func-
tions, essential teacher characteristics, and expectations for effectiveness.
DECISIONS ABOUT BASIC TEACHING FUNCTIONS

Teachers make countless decisions all day long in an effort to promote student learning.
When you break the decisions down, they fall into three categories: planning, implement-
ing, and assessing. Some decisions are made at the desk when preparing lesson or unit
plans, designing an instructional activity, or grading papers. Other decisions are made
on the spot during the dynamic interactions with students when delivering a lesson. Let’s
briefly examine these three basic teaching functions. Each will be considered in more detail
in later chapters.
Planning. Planning involves teacher decisions about student needs, the most appropri-
ate goals and objectives, the content to be taught, instructional strategies, lesson delivery
techniques, instructional media, classroom climate, and student assessment. These deci-
sions are made before actual instruction takes place. The goal of planning is to ensure
student learning. Planning occurs when teachers are alone and have time to reflect and
consider issues such as short-range and long-range plans, student progress, time available,
and instructional materials. Planning helps arrange the appropriate flow and sequence of
instructional content and events.Planning is considered in more detail in Chapters 3 and 4.
Implementing. Implementing involves the actual enactment of the instructional plans

concerning lesson delivery and assessment. Implementation occurs when interacting with
students. Teaching skills that support implementation include presenting and explaining,
M01_BURD5747_08_SE_C01.indd 2 3/14/18 4:58 PM

CHAPTER 1 Teaching Students in Today’s World 3
questioning, listening, monitoring, giving feedback, and demonstrating. Additional skills

are needed to monitor student behavior, enforce rules and procedures, use instructional
technology, exhibit caring and respect, and create a positive learning environment.
As you can see, a multitude of skills are required for implementation of the instruc-
tional plans, and teachers make decisions constantly during the delivery of instruction to
enact those plans and to promote student learning. Several chapters in this book relate to
implementation, including topics such as differentiating instruction for diverse learners,
instructional strategies, motivating students, strategies to promote student understanding,
managing lesson delivery, and classroom management and discipline.
Assessing. Assessing involves determining the level of student learning. Actually, many
aspects of assessment are determined during the planning phase when instructional goals
and content are identified. The means to measure student learning include paper-and-
pencil tests, portfolios, work samples, projects, reports, journals, models, presentations,
demonstrations, and various other types of product and performance assessments. Once
assessment data has been gathered, the information is recorded and judgments are made.
Assessment is considered in more detail in Chapters 11 and 12.
Teacher decisions about planning, implementing, and assessing matter a great
deal. As attempts are made to improve schools and increase student achievement, one
constant has remained: Teachers are the most important factor in improving schools.
Attempts to reform or improve education depend on the knowledge, skills, and commit-
ment of teachers. This point is made emphatically in A Good Teacher in Every Classroom:
Preparing the Highly Qualified Teachers Our Children Deserve (Darling-Hammond and
Baratz-Snowden, 2007). Teachers need to know how to implement new practices con-
cerning the basic teaching functions, but they must also take ownership or the innova-
tion will not succeed.
ESSENTIAL TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS

When you reflect about the most effective teachers you have had, you may think about
their warmth and caring, their creative instructional strategies, their strong command of
the content, or their unique presentation skills. When examining effective teachers, the
essential teacher characteristics fall into three categories: knowledge, skills, and disposi-
tions. Let’s briefly examine each of these.
Knowledge. Effective teachers must know the facts about the content they are teaching.
That is vital, but it is not sufficient. Teachers also must have at least three other types of
knowledge.
First, they must have professional knowledge related to teaching in general. This
includes information about the historical, economic, sociological, philosophical, and psy-
chological understanding of schooling and education. It also includes knowledge about
learning, diversity, technology, professional ethics, legal and policy issues, pedagogy, and
the roles and responsibilities of the profession of teaching.
Second, teachers must have pedagogical knowledge, which includes the general con-
cepts, theories, and research about effective teaching, regardless of the content area. Thus,
it involves general teaching methods.
Finally, teachers must have pedagogical content knowledge. This involves teaching
methods that are unique to a particular subject or the application of certain strategies in
a manner particular to a subject. For example, there may be some unique ways to teach
map reading skills in a social studies class. You must have a thorough understanding of
the content to teach it in multiple ways, drawing on the cultural backgrounds and prior
knowledge and experiences of the students.
Thus, teachers must possess rich knowledge about the content, foundational infor-
mation about teaching and learning, information about teaching methods in general, and
information about teaching techniques unique to particular subjects.
M01_BURD5747_08_SE_C01.indd 3 3/14/18 4:58 PM

w h a t WOULD YOU DECIDE?

DEMONSTRATING YOUR EFFECTIVE TEACHING
Teachers need to have the necessary knowledge, skills, and dispositions to be
effective in the classroom. Throughout your teacher preparation program, you will
learn and acquire many of these characteristics. Imagine that you are teaching a
lesson in your first year of teaching.
1. How would it be evident in your lesson that you have the necessary knowledge,
skills, and dispositions to be an effective teacher? What would the students
observe in your teaching to identify these qualities?
2. What could you do during your teacher preparation program to acquire these
qualities?
Skills. Teachers also must possess the necessary skills to use their knowledge effectively
in the four areas just described to ensure that all students are learning. Teachers must be
able to apply these skills as they plan, implement, and assess in diverse teaching settings.
In listings of professional standards, the term performances is sometimes used instead of
the term skills.
Dispositions. Teachers also must have appropriate dispositions to promote learning for
all students. Dispositions include the necessary values, commitments, and professional
ethics that influence teacher behaviors. Dispositions are guided by beliefs and attitudes
related to values such as caring, fairness, honesty, responsibility, and social justice. Dis-
positions are affective, thus in the mind of teachers. But dispositions show up in teacher
behaviors. For example, a teacher might be willing to use a variety of instructional strate-
gies to promote learning for all students. This disposition could be evidenced by written
plans indicating the use of cooperative learning groups, demonstrations, and a role-playing
activity, and by the actual use of those approaches when instruction took place.
When making decisions, you must have the necessary knowledge, skills, and disposi-
tions to help promote learning for all students. Research has shown that teacher expertise
is one of the most important factors that influences student growth and achievement. There
is interest in the educational community to develop criteria for the knowledge, skills, and
dispositions that teachers need to promote student achievement.
As a prospective teacher, it is important that you identify these essential teacher char-
acteristics (knowledge, skills, dispositions) when you examine the main teaching func-
tions of planning, implementing, and assessing. As the teaching functions are discussed
in this book, several chapters have a boxed feature to indicate the knowledge, skills, and
dispositions related to the chapter topic using the descriptions in the InTASC standards.
For example, Chapter 3 on planning will include a box of information about representative
knowledge, skills, and dispositions related to planning.
EXPECTATIONS FOR EFFECTIVENESS

Over the years, there have been calls to improve the quality of teaching, the quality and
substance of the K–12 curriculum, and the performance of students on standardized tests.
School districts and teachers always feel some degree of pressure from the local school
district, state and federal governments, professional organizations, legislators, and the
public in general. Occasionally, there are major education reports with information about
student performance, and then there are new calls for improving teacher education and
the quality of teaching. Effective teaching is expected.
M01_BURD5747_08_SE_C01.indd 4 3/14/18 4:58 PM

CHAPTER 1 Teaching Students in Today’s World 5
Measures of Effectiveness. Various approaches have been used to indicate the qual-
ity of teaching and its influence on student learning. One approach has been to examine
student achievement test scores over a three-year time period in a so-called value-added
comparison. This value-added concept compares the performance of a student against
that same student’s performance at an earlier time. The difference in the two assessments
is taken as a measure of student learning growth, which can also be conceptualized as the
value added by the instructional effectiveness of the teacher. Students’ average annual rates
of improvement are then used to estimate how much value a teacher has contributed to
student achievement.
A second approach to determining the quality of teaching has involved the study of
teacher test scores and their relationship to the achievement of students in their classes. A
series of studies correlated teachers’ basic skills tests and college entrance exams with the
scores of their students on standardized tests. These studies have found that high-scoring
teachers are more likely to elicit significant gains in student achievement than their lower-
scoring counterparts (Card & Rothstein, 2007).
A third approach to determining the quality of teaching has involved the review of
teachers’ content knowledge. A teacher’s deep understanding of the content he/she teaches
has a positive influence on student achievement. This appears to be especially true for sci-
ence and mathematics teachers. In a review of research, Michael Allen, program director
for the Education Commission of the States (ECS) Teaching Quality Policy Center, found
support for the necessity of teachers being knowledgeable in their subjects and on how
best to teach a particular subject (Allen, 2003).
In addition, teaching experience appears to have an influence on student achievement.
Teachers with less teaching experience typically produce smaller learning gains in their
students compared with more seasoned teachers (Murnane & Steele, 2007). However, most
of those studies have also discovered that the benefits of experience level off after the first
five or so years of teaching.
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). While education is often considered a local and
state matter, the federal government in the past two decades has increased its involvement
in how teachers are prepared and certified and how education is conducted in school dis-
tricts. This effort was undertaken through the “highly qualified” teacher provisions of the
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2002). A new Every Student Succeeds Act (2015) rolled
back many, but not all, of the provisions for accountability embedded in NCLB.
The Every Student Succeeds Act is a federal law that required states to develop plans
that address standards, assessments, school and district accountability, and special help
for struggling schools. ESSA replaced the No Child Left Behind Act and represents a shift
from broad federal oversight of primary and secondary education to greater flexibility and
decision making at the state and local levels.
With ESSA, states are still required to give substantial weight to accountability plans
and academic indicators. With ESSA, states will:
1. Have greater flexibility in selection of goals for testing, English-language learner pro-
ficiency measures, and graduation rates.
2. Be required to include a minimum of one indicator of school quality or student success.
Examples include measures of student engagement; educator engagement; access to
completion of advanced coursework; postsecondary readiness; and school climate/safety.
3. Have to identify and intervene in the bottom 5 percent of low-performing schools and
high schools with graduation rates at or below 67 percent.
4. Still have to test students in reading and mathematics in grades 3-8 and once at the
high school level and report data on subgroups of students (e.g., English learners,
students receiving special education services, racial minorities, and those in poverty).
In 2017, further changes to the federal accountability systems were passed by Congress. For
example, states will no longer be required to label all schools with a summative uniform
M01_BURD5747_08_SE_C01.indd 5 3/14/18 4:58 PM

s a m p l e STANDARDS
DECISION MAKING AND R EFL ECTION
There are 10 InTASC standards (see pages xvi–xvii), and ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
each standard in the original document includes a list
■■ The teacher understands and knows how to use a vari-
of performances, essential knowledge, and critical dis-
ety of self-assessment and problem-solving strategies
positions to indicate more clearly what is intended in the
to analyze and reflect on his/her practice and to plan
standard.
for adaptations/adjustments.
Because this chapter deals with decision making and
reflection, some representative statements from InTASC ■■ The teacher knows how to build and implement a plan
Standard #9, Professional Learning and Ethical Practice, are for professional growth directly aligned with his/her
listed here concerning topics in this chapter. needs as a growing professional using feedback from
teacher evaluations and observations, data on learner
performance, and school and system-wide priorities.
PERFORMANCES
■■ The teacher engages in ongoing learning oppor-
tunities to develop knowledge and skills in order to CRITICAL DISPOSITIONS
provide all learners with engaging curriculum and ■■ The teacher sees him-/herself as a learner, continuously
learning experiences based on local and state seeking opportunities to draw upon current education
standards. policy and research as sources of analysis and reflec-
■■ The teacher engages in meaningful and appropriate tion to improve practice.
professional learning experiences aligned with his/her ■■ The teacher understands the expectations of the pro-
own needs and the needs of the learners, school, and fession, including codes of ethics, professional stan-
system. dards of practice, and relevant law and policy.
Council of Chief State School Officers. (2011, April). Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) Model Core Teach-
ing Standards: A Resource for State Dialogue. Washington, DC: Author.
rating system (high to low performing). In addition, the U.S. Department of Education
updated the application that states submit as part of gaining federal approval for state
accountability plans. The major changes focused on fewer requirements, including the
elimination of the requirement that states must reach out to groups of educators and advo-
cates in the development of an accountability plan. These changes are consistent with the
recent accountability shift away from the federal government and to the states.
Standards for Teachers

Each state identifies the licensure requirements for teachers. The states do not arbitrarily
select criteria—they often rely on standards proposed by professional educational agencies.
The following standards are among those commonly used by states: (a) InTASC standards,
(b) a Framework for Teaching, and (c) Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT).
A state may use one set of standards, such as the InTASC standards, and then adapt them
somewhat to serve as the basis for the teacher licensure requirements. Once a state establishes
its teacher licensure requirements, these become the standards that colleges use to design their
teacher education programs. Consequently, you may see that your teacher education program
includes many of the topics listed in the standards. Let’s examine these three sets of standards.
M01_BURD5747_08_SE_C01.indd 6 3/14/18 4:58 PM

Another random document with
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“Brother Frank, I must tell you, and when I do, you will not believe
me—It was not our father whom we both saw this morning.”
“It was no other whom I saw. What do you mean? Do you suppose
that I do not know my own father?”
“I tell you it was not, and could not be. I had an express from him
yesterday. He is two hundred miles from this, and cannot be in
Scotland sooner than three weeks hence.”
“You astonish me, Thomas. This is beyond human
comprehension.”
“It is true—that I avouch, and the certainty of it has sickened me at
heart. You must be aware that he came not home last night, and that
his horse and retinue have not arrived.”
“He was not at home, it is true, nor have his horse and retinue
arrived in Scotland. Still there is no denying that our father is here,
and that it was he who spoke to and admonished me.”
“I tell you it is impossible. A spirit has spoken to us in our father’s
likeness, for he is not, and cannot be, in Scotland at this time. My
faculties are altogether confounded by the event, not being able to
calculate on the qualities or condition of our monitor. An evil spirit it
certainly could not be, for all its admonitions pointed to good. I
sorely dread, Francis, that our father is no more: that there has been
another engagement, that he has lost his life, and that his soul has
been lingering around his family before taking its final leave of this
sphere. I believe that our father is dead; and for my part I am so sick
at heart, that my nerves are all unstrung. Pray, do you take horse and
post off for Salop, from whence his commission to me yesterday was
dated, and see what hath happened to our revered father.”
“I cannot, for my life, give credit to this, brother, or that it was any
other being but my father himself who rebuked me. Pray allow me to
tarry another day at least before I set out. Perhaps our father may
appear in the neighbourhood, and may be concealing himself for
some secret purpose. Did you tell him of our quarrel?”
“No. He never asked me concerning it, but charged me sharply
with my intent on the first word, and adjured me, by my regard for
his blessing, and my hope of heaven, to desist from my purpose.”
“Then he knew it all intuitively; for when I first went in view of the
spot appointed for our meeting, I perceived him walking sharply to
and fro, wrapped in his military cloak. He never so much as deigned
to look at me, till I came close to his side, and thinking it was
yourself, I fell to upbraiding him, and desired him to draw. He then
threw off his cloak, drew his sword, and, telling me he came in your
place, dared me to the encounter. But he knew all the grounds of our
quarrel minutely, and laid the blame on me. I own I am a little
puzzled to reconcile circumstances, but am convinced my father is
near at hand. I heard his words, and saw his eyes flashing anger and
indignation. Unfortunately, I did not touch him, which would have
put an end to all doubts; for he did not present the hand of
reconciliation to me, as I expected he would have done, on my
yielding implicitly to all his injunctions.”
The two brothers then parted, with protestations of mutual
forbearance in all time coming, and with an understanding, as that
was the morning of Saturday, that if their father, or some word of
him, did not reach home before the next evening, the Tutor of
Cassway was to take horse for the county of Salop early on Monday
morning.
Thomas, being thus once more left to himself, could do nothing
but toss and tumble in his bed, and reflect on the extraordinary
occurrence of that morning; and, after many troubled cogitations, it
at length occurred to his recollection what Mrs Jane Jerdan had said
to him:—“Do it, then. Do it with a vengeance!—But remember this,
that wherever ye set the place of combat, be it in hill or dale, deep
linn or moss hag, I shall have a thirdsman there to encourage you on.
I shall give you a meeting you little wot of.”
If he was confounded before, he was ten times more so at the
remembrance of these words of most ominous import.
At the time he totally disregarded them, taking them for mere
rhodomontade; but now the idea was to him terrible, that his father’s
spirit, like the prophet’s of old, should have been conjured up by
witchcraft; and then again he bethought himself that no witch would
have employed her power to prevent evil. In the end he knew not
what to think, and so, taking the hammer from its rest, he gave three
raps on the pipe drum (for there were no bells in the towers of those
days), and up came John Burgess, Thomas Beattie’s henchman,
huntsman, and groom of the chambers, one who had been attached
to the family for fifty years, and he says, in his slow west-border
tongue, “How’s thou now, callan’?—Is thou ony better-lins? There
has been tway stags seen in the Bloodhope-Linns this morning
already.”
“Ay, and there has been something else seen, John, that lies nearer
to my heart to-day.” John looked at his master with an inquisitive
eye and quivering lip, but said nothing. The latter went on: “I am
very unwell to-day, John, and cannot tell what is the matter with me.
I think I am bewitched.”
“It’s very like thou is, callan’. I pits nae doubt on’t at a’.”
“Is there anybody in this moor district whom you ever heard
blamed for the horrible crime of witchcraft?”
“Ay, that there is; mair than ane or tway. There’s our neighbour,
Lucky Jerdan, for instance, and her niece Nell,—the warst o’ the pair,
I doubt.” John said this with a sly stupid leer, for he had admitted the
old lady to an audience with his master the day before, and had eyed
him afterwards bending his course towards Drumfielding.
“John, I am not disposed to jest at this time; for I am disturbed in
mind, and very ill. Tell me, in reality, did you ever hear Mrs Jane
Jerdan accused of being a witch?”
“Why, look thee, master, I dare nae say she’s a witch; for Lucky has
mony good points in her character. But it’s weel kenned she has mair
power nor her ain, for she can stop a’ the plews in Eskdale wi’ a wave
o’ her hand, and can raise the dead out o’ their graves, just as a
matter of coorse.”
“That, John, is an extraordinary power indeed. But did you never
hear of her sending any living men to their graves? For as that is
rather the danger that hangs over me, I wish you would take a ride
over and desire Mrs Jane to come and see me. Tell her I am ill, and
request her to come and see me.”
“I shall do that, callan’. But are thou sure it is the auld witch I’m to
bring? For it strikes me the young ane maybe has done the deed; and
if sae, she is the fittest to effect the cure. But I shall bring the auld
ane.—Dinna flee intil a rage, for I shall bring the auld ane; though,
gude forgie me! it is unco like bringing the houdie.”
Away went John Burgess to Drumfielding; but Mrs Jane would not
move for all his entreaties. She sent back word to his master, to “rise
out o’ his bed, for he wad be waur if ony thing ailed him; and if he
had aught to say to auld Jane Jerdan, she would be ready to hear it at
hame, though he behoved to remember that it wasna ilka subject
under the sun that she could thole to be questioned anent.”
With this answer John was forced to return, and there being no
accounts of old Beattie having been seen in Scotland, the young men
remained all the Sabbath-day in the utmost consternation at the
apparition of their father they had seen, and the appalling rebuke
they had received from it. The most incredulous mind could scarce
doubt that they had had communion with a supernatural being; and
not being able to draw any other conclusion themselves, they became
persuaded that their father was dead; and accordingly, both prepared
for setting out early on Monday morning toward the county of Salop,
from whence they had last heard of him.
But just as they were ready to set out, when their spurs were
buckled on and their horses bridled, Andrew Johnston, their father’s
confidential servant, arrived from the place to which they were
bound. He had ridden night and day, never once stinting the light
gallop, as he said, and had changed his horse seven times. He
appeared as if his ideas were in a state of derangement and
confusion; and when he saw his young masters standing together,
and ready-mounted for a journey, he stared at them as if he scarcely
believed his own senses. They of course asked immediately about the
cause of his express; but his answers were equivocal, and he
appeared not to be able to assign any motive. They asked him
concerning their father, and if anything extraordinary had happened
to him. He would not say either that there had, or that there had not;
but inquired, in his turn, if nothing extraordinary had happened with
them at home. They looked to one another, and returned him no
answer; but at length the youngest said, “Why, Andrew, you profess
to have ridden express for the distance of two hundred miles; now
you surely must have some guess for what purpose you have done
this? Say, then, at once, what your message is: Is our father alive?”
“Ye—es; I think he is.”
“You think he is? Are you uncertain, then?”
“I am certain he is not dead,—at least, was not when I left him. But
—hum—certainly there has a change taken place. Hark ye, masters—
can a man be said to be in life when he is out of himself?”
“Why, man, keep us not in this thrilling suspense. Is our father
well?”
“No—not quite well. I am sorry to say, honest gentlemen, that he is
not. But the truth is, my masters, now that I see you well and hearty,
and about to take a journey in company, I begin to suspect that I
have been posted all this way on a fool’s errand; and not another
syllable will I speak on the subject, till I have some refreshment, and
if you still insist on hearing a ridiculous story, you will hear it then.”
When the matter of the refreshment had been got over to Andrew’s
full satisfaction, he began as follows:—
“Why, faith, you see, my masters, it is not easy to say my errand to
you, for in fact I have none. Therefore, all that I can do is to tell you a
story—a most ridiculous one it is, as ever sent a poor fellow out on
the gallop for the matter of two hundred miles or so. On the morning
before last, right early, little Isaac, the page, comes to me, and he
says,—‘Johnston, thou must go and visit master. He’s bad.’”
“Bad!” says I, “Whatever way is he bad?”
“‘Why,’ says he, ‘he’s so far ill as he’s not well, and desires to see
you without one moment’s delay. He’s in fine taking, and that you’ll
find; but what for do I stand here? Lord, I never got such a fright.
Why, Johnston, does thou know that master hath lost himself?’
“‘How lost himself, rabbit?’ says I; ‘speak plain out, else I’ll have
thee lug-hauled, thou dwarf!’ for my blood rose at the imp, for
fooling at any mishap of my master’s. But my choler only made him
worse, for there is not a greater diel’s-buckie in all the Five Dales.
“‘Why, man, it is true that I said,’ quoth he, laughing; ‘the old gurly
squire hath lost himself; and it will be grand sport to see thee going
calling him at all the stane-crosses in the kingdom, in this here way.
—Ho, yes! and a two times ho, yes! and a three times ho, yes! Did
anybody no see the better half of my master, Laird of the twa
Cassway’s, Bloodhope, and Pentland, which was amissing overnight,
and is supposed to have gone a-woolgathering? If anybody hath seen
that better part of my master, whilk contains as much wit as a man
could drive on a hurlbarrow, let them restore it to me, Andrew
Johnston, piper, trumpeter, whacker, and wheedler, to the same
great and noble squire; and high shall be his reward. Ho, yes!’
“‘The deuce restore thee to thy right mind!’ said I, knocking him
down, and leaving him sprawling in the kennel, and then hasted to
my master, whom I found feverish, restless, and raving, and yet with
an earnestness in his demeanour that stunned and terrified me. He
seized my hand in both his, which were burning like fire, and gave
me such a look of despair as I shall never forget. ‘Johnston, I am ill,’
said he, ‘grievously ill, and know not what is to become of me. Every
nerve in my body is in a burning heat, and my soul is as it were torn
to fritters with amazement. Johnston, as sure as you are in the body,
something most deplorable hath happened to them.’
“‘Yes, as sure as I am in the body, there has, master,’ says I. ‘But I’ll
have you bled and doctored in style, and you shall soon be as sound
as a roach,’ says I, ‘for a gentleman must not lose heart altogether for
a little fire-raising in his outworks, if it does not reach the citadel,’
says I to him. But he cut me short by shaking his head and flinging
my hand from him.
“‘A truce with your talking,’ says he. ‘That which hath befallen me
is as much above your comprehension as the sun is above the earth,
and never will be comprehended by mortal man; but I must inform
you of it, as I have no other means of gaining the intelligence I yearn
for, and which I am incapable of gaining personally. Johnston, there
never was a mortal man suffered what I have suffered since
midnight. I believe I have had doings with hell; for I have been
disembodied, and embodied again, and the intensity of my tortures
has been unparalleled.—I was at home this morning at daybreak.’
“‘At home at Cassway!’ says I. ‘I am sorry to hear you say so,
master, because you know, or should know, that the thing is
impossible, you being in the ancient town of Shrewsbury on the
king’s business.’
“‘I was at home in very deed, Andrew,’ returned he; ‘but whether in
the body or out of the body, I cannot tell—the Lord only knoweth.
But there I was in this guise, and with this heart and all its feelings
within me, where I saw scenes, heard words, and spoke others, which
I will here relate to you. I had finished my despatches last night by
midnight, and was sitting musing on the hard fate and improvidence
of my sovereign master, when, ere ever I was aware, a neighbour of
ours, Mrs Jane Jerdan, of Drumfielding, a mysterious character, with
whom I have had some strange doings in my time, came suddenly
into the chamber, and stood before me. I accosted her with doubt
and terror, asking what had brought her so far from home.’
“‘You are not so far from home as you imagine,’ said she; ‘and it is
fortunate for some that it is so. Your two sons have quarrelled about
the possession of niece Ellen, and though the eldest is blameless of
the quarrel, yet has he been forced into it, and they are engaged to
fight at daybreak at the Crook of Glendearg. There they will assuredly
fall by each other’s hands, if you interpose not; for there is no other
authority now on earth that can prevent this woful calamity.’
“‘Alas! how can I interfere,’ said I, ‘at a distance? It is already
within a few hours of the meeting, and before I get from among the
windings of the Severn, their swords will be bathed in each other’s
blood! I must trust to the interference of Heaven.’
“‘Is your name and influence, then, to perish for ever?’ said she. ‘Is
it so soon to follow your master’s, the great Maxwell of the Dales,
into utter oblivion? Why not rather rouse into requisition the
energies of the spirits that watch over human destinies? At least step
aside with me, that I may disclose the scene to your eyes. You know I
can do it; and you may then act according to your natural impulse.’
“Such was the import of the words she spoke to me, if not the very
words themselves. I understood them not at the time; nor do I yet.
But when she had done speaking, she took me by the hand, and
hurried me towards the door of the apartment, which she opened,
and the first step we took over the threshold, we stepped into a void
space and fell downward. I was going to call out, but felt my descent
so rapid, that my voice was stifled, and I could not so much as draw
my breath. I expected every moment to fall against something, and
be dashed to pieces; and I shut my eyes, clenched my teeth, and held
by the dame’s hand with a frenzied grasp, in expectation of the
catastrophe. But down we went—down and down, with a celerity
which tongue cannot describe, without light, breath, or any sort of
impediment. I now felt assured that we had both at once stepped
from off the earth, and were hurled into the immeasurable void. The
airs of darkness sung in my ears with a booming din as I rolled down
the steeps of everlasting night, an outcast from nature and all its
harmonies, and a journeyer into the depths of hell.
“I still held my companion’s hand, and felt the pressure of hers;
and so long did this our alarming descent continue, that I at length
caught myself breathing once more, but as quick as if I had been in
the height of a fever. I then tried every effort to speak, but they were
all unavailing; for I could not emit one sound, although my lips and
tongue fashioned the words. Think, then, of my astonishment, when
my companion sung out the following stanza with the greatest glee:—
‘Here we roll,
Body and soul,
Down to the deeps of the Paynim’s goal—
With speed and with spell,
With yo and with yell,
This is the way to the palace of hell—
Sing yo! ho!
Level and low,
Down to the Valley of Vision we go!’
“‘Ha, ha, ha! Tam Beattie,’ added she, ‘where is a’ your courage
now? Cannot ye lift up your voice and sing a stave wi’ your auld
crony? And cannot ye lift up your een, and see what region you are in
now?’
“I did force open my eyelids, and beheld light, and apparently
worlds, or huge lurid substances, gliding by me with speed beyond
that of the lightning of heaven. I certainly perceived light, though of a
dim, uncertain nature; but so precipitate was my descent, I could not
distinguish from whence it proceeded, or of what it consisted,
whether of the vapours of chaotic wastes, or the streamers of hell. So
I again shut my eyes closer than ever, and waited the event in terror
unutterable.
“We at length came upon something which interrupted our farther
progress. I had no feeling as we fell against it, but merely as if we
came in contact with some soft substance that impeded our descent;
and immediately afterwards I perceived that our motion had ceased.
“‘What a terrible tumble we hae gotten, Laird!’ said my
companion. ‘But ye are now in the place where you should be; and
deil speed the coward!’
“So saying, she quitted my hand, and I felt as if she were wrested
from me by a third object; but still I durst not open my eyes, being
convinced that I was lying in the depths of hell, or some hideous
place not to be dreamt of; so I lay still in despair, not even daring to
address a prayer to my Maker. At length I lifted my eyes slowly and
fearfully; but they had no power of distinguishing objects. All that I
perceived was a vision of something in nature, with which I had in
life been too well acquainted. It was a glimpse of green glens, long
withdrawing ridges, and one high hill, with a cairn on its summit. I
rubbed my eyes to divest them of the enchantment, but when I
opened them again, the illusion was still brighter and more
magnificent. Then springing to my feet, I perceived that I was lying
in a little fairy ring, not one hundred yards from the door of my own
hall!
“I was, as you may well conceive, dazzled with admiration; still I
felt that something was not right with me, and that I was struggling
with an enchantment; but recollecting the hideous story told me by
the beldame, of the deadly discord between my two sons, I hasted to
watch their motions, for the morning was yet but dawning. In a few
seconds after recovering my senses, I perceived my eldest son
Thomas leave his tower armed, and pass on towards the place of
appointment. I waylaid him, and remarked to him that he was very
early astir, and I feared on no good intent. He made no answer, but
stood like one in a stupor, and gazed at me. ‘I know your purpose,
son Thomas,’ said I; ‘so it is in vain for you to equivocate. You have
challenged your brother, and are going to meet him in deadly
combat; but as you value your father’s blessing, and would deprecate
his curse—as you value your hope of heaven, and would escape the
punishment of hell—abandon the hideous and cursed intent, and be
reconciled to your only brother.’
“On this, my dutiful son Thomas kneeled to me, and presented his
sword, disclaiming at the same time all intentions of taking away his
brother’s life, and all animosity for the vengeance sought against
himself, and thanked me in a flood of tears for my interference. I
then commanded him back to his couch, and taking his cloak and
sword, hasted away to the Crook of Glendearg, to wait the arrival of
his brother.”
Here Andrew Johnston’s narrative detailed the selfsame
circumstances recorded in a former part of this tale, as having passed
between the father and his younger son, so that it is needless to
recapitulate them; but beginning where that broke off, he added, in
the words of the old laird: “As soon as my son Francis had left me, in
order to be reconciled to his brother, I returned to the fairy knowe
and ring, where I first found myself seated at daybreak. I know not
why I went there, for though I considered with myself, I could
discover no motive that I had for doing so, but was led thither by a
sort of impulse which I could not resist, and from the same feeling
spread my son’s mantle on the spot, laid his sword beside it, and
stretched me down to sleep. I remember nothing farther with any
degree of accuracy, for I instantly fell into a chaos of suffering,
confusion, and racking dismay, from which I was only of late
released by awaking from a trance on the very seat, and in the same
guise in which I was the evening before. I am certain I was at home
in body or in spirit—saw my sons—spake these words to them, and
heard theirs in return. How I returned I know even less, if that is
possible, than how I went; for it seemed to me that the mysterious
force that presses us to this sphere, and supports us on it, was in my
case withdrawn or subverted, and that I merely fell from one part of
the earth’s surface and alighted on another. Now I am so ill that I
cannot move from this couch; therefore, Andrew, do you mount and
ride straight home. Spare no horseflesh, by night or by day, to bring
me word of my family, for I dread that some evil hath befallen them.
If you find them in life, give them many charges from me of brotherly
love and affection; if not—what can I say, but, in the words of the
patriarch, if I am bereaved of my children, I am bereaved.”
The two brothers, in utter amazement, went together to the green
ring on the top of the knoll above the castle of Cassway, and there
found the mantle lying spread, and the sword beside it. They then,
without letting Johnston into the awful secret, mounted straight, and
rode off with him to their father. They found him still in bed, and
very ill; and though rejoiced at seeing them, they soon lost hope of
his recovery, his spirits being broken and deranged in a wonderful
manner. Their conversations together were of the most solemn
nature, the visitation deigned to them having been above their
capacity. On the third or fourth day, their father was removed by
death from this terrestrial scene, and the minds of the young men
were so much impressed by the whole of the circumstances, that it
made a great alteration in their after life. Thomas, as solemnly
charged by his father, married Ellen Scott, and Francis was well
known afterwards as the celebrated Dr Beattie of Amherst. Ellen was
mother to twelve sons; and on the night that her seventh son was
born, her aunt Jerdan was lost, and never more heard of, either
living or dead.[9]
9. This will be viewed as a most romantic and unnatural story, as without
doubt it is; but I have the strongest reasons for believing that it is founded on a
literal fact, of which all the three were sensibly and positively convinced. It was
published in England in Dr Beattie’s lifetime, and by his acquiescence, and owing
to the respectable source from whence it came, it was never disputed in that day
that it had its origin in truth. It was again republished, with some miserable
alterations, in a London collection of 1770, by J. Smith, at No. 15, Paternoster Row,
and though I have seen none of these accounts, but relate the story wholly from
tradition, yet the assurance obtained from a friend of their existence, is a curious
corroborative circumstance, and proves that if the story was not true, the parties at
least believed it to be so.—Note by the Author.
THE ELDER’S FUNERAL.
By Professor Wilson.
How beautiful to the eye and to the heart rise up, in a pastoral
region, the green silent hills from the dissolving snow-wreaths that
yet linger at their feet! A few warm sunny days, and a few breezy and
melting nights, have seemed to create the sweet season of spring out
of the winter’s bleakest desolation. We can scarcely believe that such
brightness of verdure could have been shrouded in the snow,
blending itself, as it now does, so vividly with the deep blue of
heaven. With the revival of nature our own souls feel restored.
Happiness becomes milder, meeker, and richer in pensive thought;
while sorrow catches a faint tinge of joy, and reposes itself on the
quietness of earth’s opening breast. Then is youth rejoicing—
manhood sedate—and old age resigned. The child shakes his golden
curls in his glee; he of riper life hails the coming year with temperate
exultation; and the eye that has been touched with dimness, in the
general spirit of delight, forgets or fears not the shadows of the grave.
On such a vernal day as this did we, who had visited the Elder on
his death-bed,[10] walk together to his house in the Hazel Glen, to
accompany his body to the place of burial. On the night he died, it
seemed to be the dead of winter. On the day he was buried, it seemed
to be the birth of spring. The old pastor and I were alone for awhile
as we pursued our path up the glen, by the banks of the little burn. It
had cleared itself off from the melted snow, and ran so pellucid a
race that every stone and pebble was visible in its yellow channel.
The willows, the alders, and the birches, the fairest and the earliest of
our native hill-trees, seemed almost tinged with a verdant light, as if
they were budding; and beneath them, here and there peeped out, as
in the pleasure of new existence, the primrose lonely, or in little
families and flocks. The bee had not yet ventured to leave his cell, yet
the flowers reminded one of his murmur. A few insects were dancing
in the air, and here and there some little moorland bird, touched at
the heart with the warm and sunny change, was piping his love-sweet
song among the braes. It was just such a day as a grave meditative
man, like him we were about to inter, would have chosen to walk
over his farm in religious contentment with his lot. That was the
thought that entered the pastor’s heart, as we paused to enjoy one
brighter gleam of the sun in a little meadow-field of peculiar beauty.
10. See ante, page 280.
“This is the last day of the week, and on that day often did the
Elder walk through this little happy kingdom of his own, with some
of his grandchildren beside and around him, and often his Bible in
his hand. It is, you feel, a solitary place,—all the vale is one seclusion
—and often have its quiet bounds been a place of undisturbed
meditation and prayer.”
We now came in sight of the cottage, and beyond it the
termination of the glen. There the high hills came sloping gently
down; and a little waterfall, in the distance, gave animation to a
scene of perfect repose. We were now joined by various small parties
coming to the funeral through openings among the hills; all sedate,
but none sad, and every greeting was that of kindness and peace. The
Elder had died full of years; and there was no need why any out of his
household should weep. A long life of piety had been beautifully
closed; and, therefore, we were all going to commit the body to the
earth, assured, as far as human beings may be so assured, that the
soul was in heaven. As the party increased on our approach to the
house, there was even cheerfulness among us. We spoke of the early
and bright promise of spring—of the sorrows and joys of other
families—of marriages and births—of the new schoolmaster—of to-
morrow’s Sabbath. There was no topic of which, on any common
occasion, it might have been fitting to speak, that did not now
perhaps occupy, for a few moments, some one or other of the group,
till we found ourselves ascending the greensward before the cottage,
and stood below the bare branches of the sycamores. Then we were
all silent, and, after a short pause, reverently entered into the house
of death.
At the door the son received us with a calm, humble, and
untroubled face; and in his manner towards the old minister, there
was something that could not be misunderstood, expressing
penitence, gratitude, and resignation. We all sat down in the large
kitchen; and the son decently received each person at the door, and
showed him to his place. There were some old gray heads, more
becoming gray, and many bright in manhood and youth. But the
same solemn hush was over them all, and they sat all bound together
in one uniting and assimilating spirit of devotion and faith. Wine and
bread were to be sent round; but the son looked to the old minister,
who rose, lifted up his withered hand, and began a blessing and a
prayer.
There was so much composure and stillness in the old man’s
attitude, and something so affecting in his voice, tremulous and
broken, not in grief but age, that no sooner had he begun to pray,
than every heart and every breath at once were hushed. All stood
motionless, nor could one eye abstain from that placid and
patriarchal countenance, with its closed eyes, and long silvery hair.
There was nothing sad in his words, but they were all humble and
solemn, and at times even joyful in the kindling spirit of piety and
faith. He spoke of the dead man’s goodness as imperfect in the eyes
of his Great Judge, but such as, we were taught, might lead, through
intercession, to the kingdom of heaven. Might the blessing of God, he
prayed, which had so long rested on the head now coffined, not
forsake that of him who was now to be the father of this house. There
was more—more joy, we were told, in heaven, over one sinner that
repenteth, than over ninety and nine just persons which need no
repentance. Fervently, too, and tenderly, did the old man pray for
her, in her silent chamber, who had lost so kind a parent, and for all
the little children round her knees. Nor did he end his prayer without
some allusion to his own gray hairs, and to the approaching day on
which many then present would attend his burial.
Just as he ceased to speak, one solitary stifled sob was heard, and
all eyes turned kindly round to a little boy who was standing by the
side of the Elder’s son. Restored once more to his own father’s love,
his heart had been insensibly filled with peace since the old man’s
death. The returning tenderness of the living came in place of that of
the dead, and the child yearned towards his father now with a
stronger affection, relieved at last from all his fear. He had been
suffered to sit an hour each day beside the bed on which his
grandfather lay shrouded, and he had got reconciled to the cold but
silent and happy looks of death. His mother and his Bible told him to
obey God without repining in all things; and the child did so with
perfect simplicity. One sob had found its way at the close of that
pathetic prayer; but the tears that bathed his glistening cheeks were
far different from those that, on the day and night of his
grandfather’s decease, had burst from the agony of a breaking heart.
The old minister laid his hand silently upon his golden head; there
was a momentary murmur of kindness and pity over the room; the
child was pacified, and again all was repose and peace.
A sober voice said all was ready, and the son and the minister led
the way reverently out into the open air. The bier stood before the
door, and was lifted slowly up with its sable pall. Silently each
mourner took his place. The sun was shining pleasantly, and a gentle
breeze, passing through the sycamore, shook down the glittering
raindrops upon the funeral velvet. The small procession, with an
instinctive spirit, began to move along; and as I cast up my eyes to
take a farewell look of that beautiful dwelling, now finally left by him
who so long had blessed it, I saw at the half-open lattice of the little
bedroom window above, the pale weeping face of that stainless
matron, who was taking her last passionate farewell of the mortal
remains of her father, now slowly receding from her to the quiet field
of graves.
We proceeded along the edges of the hills, and along the meadow-
fields, crossed the old wooden bridge over the burn, now widening in
its course to the plain, and in an hour of pensive silence, or pleasant
talk, we found ourselves entering, in a closer body, the little gateway
of the churchyard. To the tolling of the bell we moved across the
green mounds, and arranged ourselves, according to the plan and
order which our feelings suggested, around the bier and its natural
supporters. There was no delay. In a few minutes the Elder was laid
among the mould of his forefathers, in their long-ago chosen spot of
rest. One by one the people dropped away, and none were left by the
new made grave but the son and his little boy, the pastor and myself.
As yet nothing was said, and in that pause I looked around me, over
the sweet burial-ground.
Each tombstone and grave over which I had often walked in
boyhood arose in my memory, as I looked steadfastly upon their
long-forgotten inscriptions; and many had then been erected. The
whole character of the place was still simple and unostentatious, but
from the abodes of the dead I could see that there had been an
improvement in the condition of the living. There was a taste visible
in their decorations, not without much of native feeling, and
occasionally something even of native grace. If there was any other
inscription than the name and age of the poor inhabitants below, it
was, in general, some short text of Scripture; for it is most pleasant
and soothing to the pious mind, when bereaved of friends, to
commemorate them on earth by some touching expression taken
from that Book which reveals to them a life in heaven.
There is a sort of gradation, a scale of forgetfulness, in a country
churchyard, where the processes of nature are suffered to go on over
the green place of burial, that is extremely affecting in the
contemplation. The soul goes from the grave just covered up, to that
which seems scarcely joined together, on and on to those folded and
bound by the undisturbed verdure of many, many unremembered
years. It then glides at last into nooks and corners where the ground
seems perfectly calm and waveless, utter oblivion having smoothed
the earth over the long mouldered bones. Tombstones, on which the
inscriptions are hidden in green obliteration, or that are mouldering,
or falling to a side, are close to others which last week were brushed
by the chisel;—constant renovation and constant decay—vain
attempts to adhere to memory—and oblivion, now baffled and now
triumphant, smiling among all the memorials of human affection, as
they keep continually crumbling away into the world of
undistinguishable dust and ashes.
The churchyard, to the inhabitants of a rural parish, is the place to
which, as they grow older, all their thoughts and feelings turn. The
young take a look of it every Sabbath-day, not always perhaps a
careless look, but carry away from it, unconsciously, many salutary
impressions. What is more pleasant than the meeting of a rural
congregation in the churchyard before the minister appears? What is
there to shudder at in lying down, sooner or later, in such a peaceful
and sacred place, to be spoken of frequently on Sabbath among the
groups of which we used to be one, and our low burial-spot to be
visited, at such times, as long as there remains on earth any one to
whom our face was dear? To those who mix in the strife and dangers
of the world, the place is felt to be uncertain wherein they may finally
lie at rest. The soldier—the sailor—the traveller—can only see some
dim grave dug for him when he dies, in some place obscure,
nameless, and unfixed to the imagination. All he feels is, that his
burial will be—on earth—or in the sea. But the peaceful dwellers who
cultivate their paternal acres, or tilling at least the same small spot of
soil, shift only from a cottage on the hillside to one on the plain, still
within the bounds of one quiet parish; they look to lay their bones at
last in the burial-place of the kirk in which they were baptised, and
with them it almost literally is but a step from the cradle to the grave.
Such were the thoughts that calmly followed each other in my
reverie, as I stood beside the Elder’s grave, and the trodden grass was
again lifting up its blades from the pressure of many feet, now all, but
a few, departed. What a simple burial had it been! Dust was
consigned to dust—no more. Bare, naked, simple, and austere is in
Scotland the service of the grave. It is left to the soul itself to
consecrate, by its passion, the mould over which tears, but no words,
are poured. Surely there is a beauty in this; for the heart is left unto
its own sorrow—according as it is a friend—a brother—a parent—or a
child, that is covered up from our eyes. Yet call not other rites,
however different from this, less beautiful or pathetic. For willingly
does the soul connect its grief with any consecrated ritual of the
dead. Sound or silence—music—hymns—psalms—sable garments, or
raiment white as snow—all become holy symbols of the soul’s
affection; nor is it for any man to say which is the most natural,
which is the best, of the thousand shows and expressions, and
testimonies of sorrow, resignation, and love, by which mortal beings
would seek to express their souls when one of their brethren has
returned to his parent dust.
My mind was recalled from all these sad, yet not unpleasant
fancies, by a deep groan, and I beheld the Elder’s son fling himself
down upon the grave and kiss it passionately, imploring pardon from
God. “I distressed my father’s heart in his old age—I repented—and
received thy forgiveness even on thy death-bed! But how may I be
assured that God will forgive me for having so sinned against my old,
grayheaded father, when his limbs were weak and his eyesight dim!”
The old minister stood at the head of the grave without speaking a
word, with his solemn and pitiful eyes fixed upon the prostrate and
contrite man. His sin had been great, and tears that till now had, on
this day at least, been compressed within his heart by the presence of
so many of his friends, now poured down upon the sod as if they
would have found their way to the very body of his father. Neither of
us offered to lift him up, for we felt awed by the rueful passion of his
love, his remorse, and his penitence; and nature, we felt, ought to
have her way. “Fear not, my son,” at length said the old man, in a
gentle voice—“fear not, my son, but that you are already forgiven.
Dost thou not feel pardon within thy contrite spirit?” He rose up
from his knees with a faint smile, while the minister, with his white
head yet uncovered, held his hands over him as in benediction; and
that beautiful and loving child, who had been standing in a fit of
weeping terror at his father’s agony, now came up to him and kissed
his cheek—holding in his little hand a few faded primroses which he
had unconsciously gathered together as they lay on the turf of his
grandfather’s grave.
MACDONALD, THE CATTLE-RIEVER.
Archibald Macdonald was perhaps the most perfect master of his

hazardous profession of any who ever practised it. Archibald was by
birth a gentleman, and proprietor of a small estate in Argyleshire,
which he however lost early in life. He soon distinguished himself as
a cattle-lifter on an extensive scale; and weak as the arm of the law
might then have been, he found it advisable to remove further from
its influence, and he shifted his residence from his native district of
Appin to the remote peninsula of Ardnamurchan, which was
admirably adapted to his purpose, from its geographical position. He
obtained a lease of an extensive farm, and he fitted up a large
cowhouse, though his whole visible live-stock consisted of one filly.
His neighbours could not help making remarks on this subject, but
he begged of them to have no anxiety on that head, assuring them
that his byre would be full ere Christmas; and he was as good as his
word. He had trained the filly to suit his purpose, and it was a
practice of his to tie other horses to her tail; she then directed her
course homeward by unfrequented routes, and always found her way
in safety.
His expeditions were generally carried on by sea, and he annoyed
the most distant of the Hebrides, both to the south and north. He
often changed the colour of his boats and sails, and adopted
whatever appeared best suited to his immediate purpose. In
consequence of this artifice, his depredations were frequently
ascribed to others, and sometimes to men of the first distinction in
that country, so dexterously did he imitate their birlings and their
insignia. He held his land from Campbell of Lochnell, into whose
favour he had insinuated himself by his knowledge and address.
When Lochnell resided at the castle of Mingary, Archibald was
often ordered to lie on a mattress in his bedroom, to entertain him at
night with the recitation of the poems of Ossian, and with tales.
Archibald contrived means to convert this circumstance to his
advantage. He ordered his men to be in readiness, and that night he
selected one of his longest poems. As he calculated, Lochnell fell
asleep before he had finished the recital; the robber slunk out and
soon joined his associates. He steered for the island of Mull, where
some of his men had been previously sent to execute his orders; he
carried off a whole fold of cattle, which he landed safely, and
returned to his mattress before Lochnell awoke. When he lay down
he purposely snored so loudly that the sleeping chief was disturbed,
and complained of the tremendous noise the fellow made, observing
that, fond as he was of poetry, he must deprive himself of it in future
on such conditions. To this Archibald had no objections; his
principal object was then accomplished, and taking up the tale where
he had stopped when his patron fell asleep, he finished it, and slept
soundly to an advanced hour.
The cattle were immediately missed, and suspicion fell on
Archibald; but he triumphantly referred to Lochnell for a proof of his
innocence, and this he obtained. That gentleman solemnly declared
that the robber had never been out of his room during that night, and
the charge was of course dropped.
A wealthy man who resided in the neighbourhood was noted for
his penurious habits, and he had incurred particular odium by
refusing a supply of meal to a poor widow in distress. This man had
sent a considerable quantity of grain to the mill, which, as usual, he
attended himself, and was conveying the meal home at night on
horseback. The horses were tied in a string, the halter of one fixed to
the tail of another; and the owner led the foremost by a long tether.
His road lay through a wood, and Archibald there watched his
approach. The night was dark, and the man walked slowly, humming
a song; the ground was soft, and the horses having no shoes (as is
still usual in that country), their tread made no noise. Archibald
ordered one of his men to loosen the tether from the head of the
front horse, and to hold it, himself occupying the place of the horse,
and walking on at the same pace. He thus got possession of the
whole. The miser soon arrived at his own door, and called for
assistance to deposit his winter store in safety, but, to his
astonishment, found he had but the halter!

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Teaching Meeting the Needs of All

PART III SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

5 Teacher-Centered Instructional Strategies 119

A CONTINUUM OF INSTRUCTIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES FOR DIRECT

6 Student-Centered Instructional Strategies 143

SELECTING STUDENT-CENTERED STRATEGIES 144 Cooperative Learning 160

SOCIAL APPROACHES 157

7 Strategies That Promote Understanding, Thinking, and Engagement 171

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PART IV MANAGING INSTRUCTION AND THE CLASSROOM

8 Managing Lesson Delivery 197

ISSUES AFFECTING LESSON DELIVERY 198 MANAGING WHOLE-GROUP INSTRUCTION 216

9 Classroom Management 225

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 226 SELECTING AND TEACHING RULES AND

PREPARING FOR THE SCHOOL YEAR 230 MAINTAINING APPROPRIATE STUDENT

10 Classroom Discipline 259

MISBEHAVIOR 260 THREE-STEP RESPONSE PLAN 263

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CAUTIONS AND GUIDELINES 273 BULLYING 280

PART V ASSESSING AND REPORTING STUDENT PERFORMANCE

11 Assessing Student Performance 285

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT 286 PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT 295

12 Grading Systems, Marking, and Reporting 317

PURPOSES OF GRADING 318 NONACHIEVEMENT OUTCOMES 328

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PART VI WORKING WITH OTHERS

13 Collaborating with Colleagues and Families 337

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New to this Edition

■■ Major restructuring and updating of Chapter 1 on Teaching Students in Today’s

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• Motivating students to learn (in Chapter 7)

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■■ Discussion/Reflective Questions. Questions at the end of each chapter promote

Relating This Book to Standards

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■■ Praxis Classroom Performance Assessments. These assessments are conducted for

INVIGORATE LEARNING WITH THE ENHANCED PEARSON ETEXT

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InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards

STANDARDS CHAPTER COVERAGE

THE LEARNER AND LEARNING

1. Learner Development 2–7

2. Learning Differences 2–7

3. Learning Environments 7–10

5. Application of Content 4–7

7. Planning for Instruction 3–7

8. Instructional Strategies 5–7

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STANDARDS CHAPTER COVERAGE

9. Professional Learning and Ethical Practice 1

10. Leadership and Collaboration 13

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Essential Teacher Characteristics