Abiral Mammalogy

Unit 1: Definition and glossary of mammalogical terms (2)
Arboreal (Scansorial) adaptation: Life on trees.

Arboreal animals are creatures who spend the majority of their lives in trees. They eat, sleep and play in the tree canopy.
There are thousands of species that live in trees, including monkeys, koalas, possums, sloths, various rodents, parrots,
chameleons, geckos, tree snakes and a variety of insects.
It is found in those animals which have the climbing or arboreal habits from fishes to mammals. It is of following types;
 Wall and rock climbers: Lizards, Flying Squirrels

 Terrestrio-arboreal forms: Rodents, Carnivores
 Arboreal forms: Marsupials, Lemurs, Chameleons, Squirrels
Diaphragm: Diaphragm is dome-shaped, muscular and membranous structure that separates the thoracic (chest) and
abdominal cavities in mammals; it is the principal muscle of respiration.
The muscles of the diaphragm arise from the lower part of the sternum (breastbone), the lower six ribs, and the lumbar
(loin) vertebrae of the spine and are attached to a central membranous tendon.
Contraction of the diaphragm increases the internal height of the thoracic cavity, thus lowering its internal pressure and
causing inspiration of air. Relaxation of the diaphragm and the natural elasticity of lung tissue and the thoracic cage
produce expiration. The diaphragm is also important in expulsive actions—e.g., coughing, sneezing, vomiting, crying, and
expelling feces, urine, and, in parturition, the fetus.
Diastema: A diastema (plural diastemata) is a space or gap between two teeth. Many species of mammals have
diastemata as a normal feature, most commonly between the incisors and molars. Diastemata are common for children
and can exist in adult teeth as well.
Diastemata are primarily caused by imbalance in the relationship between the jaw and the size of teeth. If the
labial frenulum (lip tissue) pulls, it can also push the teeth apart and cause a diastema between the center of the two front
teeth.
Echolocation: Echolocation, also called bio sonar, is the biological sonar used by several kinds of animals. Echo locating
animals emit calls out to the environment and listen to the echoes of those calls that return from various objects near
them.
Implantation: In humans, implantation is the stage of pregnancy at which the embryo adheres to the wall of the uterus.
At this stage of prenatal development, the conceptus is called a blastocyst. It is by this adhesion that the embryo receives
oxygen and nutrients from the mother to be able to grow.
Fertilization in humans. The sperm and ovum unite through fertilization, creating a conceptus that (over the course of 8-9
days) will implant in the uterine wall, where it will reside over the course of 9 months.
Lactation: Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands and the period of time that a mother
lactates to feed her young. The process can occur with all post-pregnancy female mammals, although it predates
mammals. In humans the process of feeding milk is also called breastfeeding or nursing.
Juvenile: A juvenile is a child or young person who is not yet old enough to be regarded as an adult. A juvenile is an
individual organism that has not yet reached its adult form, sexual maturity or size. Juveniles sometimes look very
different from the adult form, particularly in body colour.
Sweat Glands: Sweat glands, also known as sudoriferous or sudoriparous glands, from Latin sudor, meaning 'sweat', are
small tubular structures of the skin that produce sweat. Sweat glands are a type of exocrine gland, which are glands that
produce and secrete substances onto an epithelial surface by way of a duct.
Mammary Gland: A mammary gland is an exocrine gland in mammals that produces milk to feed young offspring.
Mammals get their name from the Latin word mamma, "breast".
Mammary gland, milk-producing gland characteristic of all female mammals and present in a rudimentary and generally
nonfunctional form in males. Mammary glands are regulated by the endocrine system and become functional in response
to the hormonal changes associated with parturition.
1 PWM 612: Mammalogy A.A.

Body Temperature: Normal body temperature, also known as normothermia or euthermia, is the typical temperature
range found in animals.
In humans, Normal: 36.5–37.5 °C (97.7–99.5 °F).

Fever: >37.5 or 38.3 °C (99.5 or 100.9 °F)
Individual body temperature depends upon the age, exertion, infection, sex, and reproductive status of the subject, the
time of day, the place in the body at which the measurement is made, and the subject's state of consciousness (waking,
sleeping or sedated), activity level, and emotional state. It is typically maintained within this range by thermoregulation.
Human body temperature is of interest in medical practice, human reproduction, and athletics.
Courtship Behavior: A courtship display is a set of display behaviors in which an animal attempts to attract a mate and
exhibit their desire to copulate. These behaviors often include ritualized movement ("dances"), vocalizations, mechanical
sound production, or displays of beauty, strength, or agonistic ability.
Parental Care: Parental care is a behavioral and evolutionary strategy adopted by some animals, making a parental
investment into the evolutionary fitness of their offspring. This strategy means that more effort is spent on a relatively
small number of offspring to give each of them a high chance of surviving to reproduce; an opposite strategy is to produce
a very large number of small offspring, often as eggs, which are left to fend for themselves.
Parental care is seen in many insects, notably the social insects such as ants, bees and wasps; in certain fishes, such as the
mouth brooders; widely in birds; and especially widely in mammals, which share two major adaptations for care of the
young, namely gestation (development of the embryo inside the mother's body) and production of milk.
Unit 2- General Characters and Classification and

Importance of Mammals in context of Nepal (4)
Characteristics of Mammals
Today as we travel around the globe we are able to find thousands of mammal species occupying this beautiful world. And
the scientist are discovery a new species then and then. Mammals are vertebrates and are warm blooded animals. They
have different characteristics that are far apart from other animal species. The unique feature of the mammal's family is
that they feed their young ones with their milk produced by the mammary gland. And all most all the mammals give birth
to their young ones.
The general mammalian characteristic are:
 Mammals are endothermic vertebrates.

 Have hair and fur on the body.
 Have mammary glands.
 Four chambered hearts.
 Have sebaceous (fat secreting glands), sudoriferous (sweat), and scent glands.
 Have heterodont dentation (different types of teeth).
 Possess diaphragm.
 Possess one single jaw bone.
 Have three small bones in the middle of the ear.
Other characteristics
 Mammals possess other characteristic that are different from other animals but they are all not so apparent.
 Diaphragm is a muscular wall that is used to separate the heart and the lungs from the stomach. The brain of the
mammals is a developed one than any other animals in the world.
 The four chambered heart of the mammals helps to circulate the blood and oxygen throughout the body.
Mammals with the help of lungs breathe in the air for respiration.
Conspicuous characteristic of mammals
The conspicuous characteristics of mammals help you to identify any species in the world as mammals. They are as
follows:
a) Mammals can be easily identified by their external ears.

b) Females have the milk secreting organs to feed their young ones so they are easily identified by the mammary
glands.
c) Sweat, ears and hair glands help to distinguish between the male and female mammals.
d) Mammals possess teeth.
e) During development the mammals use their placenta.
f) Some mammals are found to be egg laying and mammals with pouch.
g) Hair and fur on the body also helps to identify the mammal’s class easily.
h) Mammals have a single heart with multiple arteries.
i) Diphyodonty: Diphyodonty is the process of tooth replacement. Because the young mammals have teeth that are
smaller and weaker these weaker teeth are replaced by the permanent teeth once they attaint their adult hood
j) Endothermy: Endothermy means metabolism. Mammals seem to have a high metabolic rate just like birds.
k) Mammalsis: This is the important characteristic of the mammal class. Most of the mammals lack the color vision
except a few. Because of the nocturnal heritage of characteristic of the mammals the color vision has less value
and importance. The photoreceptors help the mammals to distinguish between the colors. But most of the
mammals are color blind
l) Locomotion: Except human all the most of the mammals walk in four legs. Humans have the capacity to walk in
two legs. Aquatic mammals possess fins for swimming.
Classification of Mammals
1. General Classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Superclass: Tetrapoda
Clade: Amniota
Class: Mammalia
2. Basics for Classification
Mammals have been thoroughly classified and described. They include approximately 5000 living species and 15000 sub
species and numerous fossil forms. Today the classification varies coming from various agencies and taxonomists. But the
current classification is basically described on the basis of following characteristics:
1. Mode of caring for their young ones.

2. Nature of their dentitions present in the animal group.
3. Foot posture.
4. Nails, claws and hoofs.
5. Complexity of the nervous system.
6. Systems
Here we are going to study the classification provided by G.G. Simpson. He provided a complete review of the group in a
publication entitled “The principles of Classification and a classification of mammals”. He recognized 18 living and 14
extinct orders of mammals. For purpose of knowledge here we discuss the most adapted book classification describing
only the 18 living orders of mammals.
Classification of Living Mammals
Mammals are classified into two main subclasses: Prototheria and Theria. They are classified on the basis of their egg
formation.
Prototheria are egg laying mammals whereas animals of Theria are the ones which give life to living young ones directly.
The Protherians have only one order called Monotremata. Theria on the other hand consists of 2 infraclasses before
getting classified into orders, they are Metatheria and Eutheria. Metatheria are the marsupials i.e. the animals with
marsupium or abdominal pouch and Theria bearing all the placental mammals that have presence of placenta. Taking
these basic notes of classification into account let us now study the characters of all the orders and how are they
distinguished from others.
Subclass I: Prototheria (Gr. Protos-first and therios-beast)
• They are highly primitive and reptile like.

• They are the only egg laying mammals that is why oviparous animals.
• This subclass is comprised of only 1 order i.e. Monotremata and is further described in details.
Order 1: Monotremata (Gr. Monos - single and trema - opening)
• They have only one cloacal opening present.

• They are confined to the Australian continent only as previously described.
• Examples of Monotremes are Platypus or duckbill, Spiny Anteater.
Subclass II: Theria (Gr. Ther - animal)

• They are the modern and typical animals.
• These are the mammals which give birth to the living young ones i.e. viviparous.
• This order is subdivided into 2 infraclasses: Metatheria and Eutheria.
Infraclass (i): Metatheria (Gr. Meta - after)
• They are the pouched and viviparous mammals.

• They maybe with or without a rudimentary yolksac placenta.
• They are mostly confined to Australian region.
• It comprises of only 1 order i.e. Order Marsupialia.
Order 2: Marsupialia (Gr. Marsypion - pouch)
• These are the animals born in a very immature state, and complete their development attached to the tits
or the nipples of the abdominal pouch or marsupium.
• Usually 3 premolars and 4 molars in each jaw on the either side are present. Vagina is double.
• Examples of this order are Opossum, Kangaroo, etc.
Infraclass (ii) : Eutheria (Gr. Eu- true and therios - beast)
• These are the higher viviparous placental mammals without marsupium.
• Young ones are born in a relatively adult state.
• Dentition never exceeds 3143/3143 = 44
• Eutherians constitute the vast majority of living mammals arranged in 16 orders.
• If we will keenly observe all the characteristics of mammals they mostly represent the characters typically
of the infraclass Eutheria.
Orders classified under Eutheria are described as further.
Order 3: Insectivora (L., Insectum-insect and vorare-to eat)
• These are the small mammals with long pointed snout.

• Their feet are plantigrade usually 5-toed with claws.
• They have molars with pointed, peg-like cusps for insect feeding.
• Examples of this order are Mole, common shrew, Solenodon and Hedgdhog.
Order 4: Chiroptera (Gr. Cheiros-hand and teron-wings)

• This is the order of the mammals whose forelimbs are modified into wings.
• These mammals are called as flying mammals.
• Hindlegs are very short and are included in the wing membrane.
• Their teeth are very small, sharp and peg like.
• They are nocturnal and are capable of true flight.
• It is having furthermore 2 suborders named Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera depending upon the
sizes of animal.
• Examples of this order are fruit bats, flying foxes, little brown bat, vampire bat.
Order 5: Dermoptera (Gr., derm – skin and pteron - wings)
• Four equal-sized limbs are present in the animals of this order.
• The tail is included in the lateral furry skin fold called as patagium.
• They are nocturnal and live in the trees.
• The living mammals present are the gliding mammal called flying lemur resembling a flying squirrel.
• Examples of this order are flying lemur.
Order 6: Edentata (L., edentates - toothless)

• In these animals the teeth are either absent or are reduced only to molar without enamel.
• Toes are present with long strong curved claws.
• Examples of this order are Giant anteater, armadillo and 3- toed sloth.
Order 7: Pholidota (Gr., pholis – a horny scale)
• The body is totally covered with large overlapping horny scales with sparse hair in between.
• They don’t possess teeth at all.
• Their tongue is long and protrusible and is used to capture insects.
• Scaly anteaters or pangolins are the only examples of this order.
Order 8: Tubulidentata (L., Tubulus-tubelike and dens - tooth)
• Their tongue is slender and protrusible.

• No canines or incisors are present.
• Each jaw with 4-5 teeth lacking enamel are perforated by numerous fine tubules of pulp.
• Examples of this order are single genus of pig like cape anteater of South Africa.
Order 9: Primates (L., Primus – of the first rank)
• Generalized or primitive mammals except for the great development of brain.

• Flat nails on fingers and toes.
• First digit is usually opposable, an adaptation for grasping.
• Eyes are typically large and turned forward.
• They are mostly arboreal in habitat.
• Primates are divided into 3 suborders Lemuroidea, Tarsiodea and Anthropoidea.
• Examples of primates are Loris, Old and New world monkeys,
 Apes, Humans etc.
Order 10: Rodentia (L., rodo - gnaw)

• This is the largest order of class Mammalia.
• It usually includes small gnawing mammals.
• Each jaw is with one pair of long, rootless, chisel like incisors growing throughout life. No canines are
found.
• Examples are rat, mouse, guinea pig, beaver, porcupine and prairie dog.
Order 11: Lagomorpha (Gr. Logos-hare + morphe-form)

• They have first pair of large chisel like incisors and second pair of small upper incisors.
• No canines are present
• Examples of this order are rabbit, hare etc.
Order 12: Cetacea (Gr., ketos or L., cetus a whale)

• These are large marine fish like mammals well adapted for aquatic life.
• Pectoral limbs are modified into broad paddle like flippers.
• The tail is sub-divided into 2 broad horizontal fleshy flukes with a notch, used in propulsion.
• No claws, no hindlimbs and no external ears are present.
• The living cetacean are further divided into Odontoceti i.e. toothed whales and Mysticeti i.e. whalebone
whales.
• Examples of this order are blue whale, sperm whale, etc.
Order 13: Sirenia (Gr., Siren – sea nymph)
• They are large clumpsy, herbivorous and aquatic mammals with paddle like forelimbs,
• No hindlimbs and a flattened tail with horizontal lateral fleshy flukes with or without a notch.
• No external ears are present.
• Muzzle is blunt and hairs are few.
• Its stomach is very complex.
• It inhabits estuaries and coastal seas.
• Examples are Manatee, Dugong etc.
Order 14: Carnivora (L., Caro – flesh and vorare – to eat)
• Small to large predatory, flesh-eating mammals.

• Claws are well developed.
• Incisors are small, canines are large, fang-like and molars of cutting type.
• Living carnivores are divided into 2 suborders - Fissipedia andbPinnipeidia.
• Examples are dog, wolf, jackal, hyena, raccoon, seal, walrus,etc.
Order 15: Hyracoidea (Gr., Hyrax – shrew and eidos – form)

• They are small animals, guinea pig like mammals distantly related to elephants.
• Snout, ears and legs are short. 4 toes are present on front foot and 3 are on the hindfoot each with a
flattened hoof like nail. Incisors are 1 or 2. No canines are present. Cheek teeth lophodont.
• Conies from South Africa are its example.
Order 16: Proboscidea (Gr., Pro – in front and boskein – to eat)
• Largest living land animals having large heads, massive ears, thick and practically hairless skin.
• Bulky straight legs, 3-5 toes with small, nail-like hoofs.
• Conspicuous feature is the nose and upper lip modified as a long elongated flexible proboscis or trunk.
• 2 upper incisors elongated as ivory tusks.
• Cheek teeth lophodont
• Asiatic and African elephant are the worldwide examples of this order.
Order 17: Perissodactyla (Gr., perissos – odd and dactylos – toes)
• The odd-toed hoofed mammals or ungulates have an odd number of toes 1 or 3.

• Functional axis of the foot passes through the middle or third digit.
• Incisors present in both jaws and stomach is very simple.
• Examples are horses, wild ass, zebra, tapir, rhinoceros, etc.
Order 18: Artodactyla (Gr., artios – even and dactylos – digit)
• The even-toed hoofed mammals having an even number of toes i.e. 2 or 4.

• Axis of the support passes between the 3rd and 4th toe.
• All except pigs and peccaries ruminate or chew their cud.
• Incisors and canines in upper jaw usually lacking.
• Stomach 4 chambered.
• There are many animals present having antlers and horns.
• Pig, Hippopotamus, Camel, etc. are the examples of this order.
Although the major differences are mentioned above with respect to the Orders, there are many minor differences seen in
the terms of different systems like Digestive system, Nervous system, Reproductive and other systems.
Importance of Mammals
Wild and domesticated mammals are so interlocked with our political and social history that it is impractical to attempt to
assess the relationship in precise economic terms. Throughout our own evolution, for example, humans have depended on
other mammals for food and clothing. Domestication of mammals helped to provide a source of protein for ever-
increasing human populations and provided means of transportation and heavy work as well. Today, domesticated strains
of the house mouse, European rabbit, guinea pig, hamster, gerbil, and other species provide much-needed laboratory
subjects for the study of human-related physiology, psychology, and a variety of diseases from dental caries to cancer. The
study of nonhuman primates (monkeys and apes) has opened broad new areas of research relevant to human welfare. The
care of domestic and captive mammals is, of course, the basis for the practice of veterinary medicine.
Wild mammals are a major source of food in some parts of the world, and many different kinds, from fruit bats and
armadillos to whales, are captured and eaten by various cultural groups. In addition, hunting, primarily for sport, of
various rodents, lagomorphs, carnivores, and ungulates is a multibillion-dollar enterprise. In the United States alone, for
example, it is estimated that more than two million deer are harvested annually by licensed hunters.
Geopolitically, the quest for marine mammals was responsible for the charting of a number of areas in both Arctic and
Antarctic regions. The presence of terrestrial furbearers, particularly beavers and several species of mustelid carnivores
(e.g., marten and fisher), was one of the principal motivations for the opening of the American West, Alaska, and the
Siberian taiga. Ranch-raised animals such as the mink, fox, and chinchilla are also important to the fur industry, which
directly and indirectly accounts for many millions of dollars in revenue each year in North America alone.
Aside from pelts and meat, special parts of some mammals regularly have been sought for their special attributes.
Rhinoceros horn is used for concocting potions in eastern Asia; ivory from elephants and walruses is highly prized; and
ambergris, a substance regurgitated by sperm whales, was once widely used as a base for perfumes.
Some mammals are directly detrimental to human activities. House rats and mice of Old World origin now occur virtually
throughout the world and each year cause substantial damage and economic loss. Herbivorous mammals may eat or
trample crops and compete with livestock for food, and native carnivores sometimes prey on domestic herds. Large sums
are spent annually to control populations of “undesirable” wild mammals, a practice long deplored by conservationists.
Not only do they have an impact on food resources, but mammals are also important reservoirs or agents of transmission
of a variety of diseases that afflict man, such as plague, tularemia, yellow fever, rabies, leptospirosis, Lyme disease,
hemorrhagic fevers such as Ebola, and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. The annual “economic debt” resulting from
mammal-borne diseases that affect humans and domestic animals is incalculable.
Many large mammals have been extirpated entirely or exist today only in parks and zoos; others are in danger of
extinction, and their plight is receiving increased attention from a number of conservation agencies. By the early 21st
century, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reported that nearly one-quarter of all mammals are
at risk of extinction. The single greatest threat to these mammals is the continued destruction of their habitat; however,
many species are also aggressively hunted. The IUCN classifies each imperiled mammal into one of the following
categories: near threatened, vulnerable, endangered, critically endangered, critically endangered and possibly extinct, or
extinct in the wild (see IUCN Red List of Threatened Species).
One of the most noteworthy cases of direct extirpation by man is the Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas). These large
(up to 10 meters, or 33 feet, long), inoffensive marine mammals evidently lived only along the coasts and shallow bays of
the Komandor Islands in the Bering Sea. Discovered in 1741, they were easily killed by Russian sealers and traders for
food, their meat being highly prized, and the last known live individual was taken in 1768.
Of final note is the aesthetic value of wild mammals and the relatively recent expense of considerable energy and resources
to study and, if possible, conserve vanishing species, to set aside natural areas where native floral and faunal elements can
exist in an otherwise highly agriculturalized or industrialized society, and to establish modern zoological parks and
gardens. Such outdoor “laboratories” attract millions of visitors annually and will provide means by which present and
future generations of humans can appreciate and study, in small measure at least, other kinds of mammals.
Importance of Mammals in context of Nepal
Beneficial mammals:
1. Domesticated mammals: The domesticated mammals are used for work, food (milk, meat, fish etc.) clothing, transport,
draft or hunting.
2. as food:
Meat: Large even- toed ungulates such as cattle, buffaloes, pigs, goats, sheep, reindeer; big game mammals such as deers,
rabbits, seals, whales, bears, dogs etc.
Milk: Cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, llamas, camels, reindeers etc. provide milk which makes an important component of
human food like ghee, butter, cheese, curd etc.
3. Commercial products:
Hides: Leather and fur of otter, mink, weasel, marten, ermine, beaver, fur seal, muskrat, skunk, fox, raccoon, lynx, bear,
rabbit, kangaroo, and house cat are used for making suitcases, bags, shoes, harness, saddles, belts, purses, garments etc.
Hair and wool: Hairs of camels, horses, pigs, sables etc are used for making brushes. The wool of sheep, goats, alpaca,
camels etc are used for making warm clothes for winter.

Perfumes: Muskdeer (musk) and Sperm whales (ambergris) produce perfumes.
Oil and fat: Blubber of baleen whale and seal provides edible fat or oil.
Ivory and baleen: The tusks of elephant and walrus are used for making ivory. Baleen or whalebone is obtained from
toothless whales.
Glue and gelatine: These are obtained from the skin, horns, hoofs and bones of cattle.
4. Beasts of burden: Many mammals have been domesticated to serve as beasts of burden for transport and draft of heavy
loads. Horses, mules, sheep, goats, elephants, camels, llamas, reindeers and dogs are used by man to serve as beasts of
burden.
5. In agriculture: Buffaloes, yak, horses and camels are employed for ploughing fields in agriculture.
Harmful mammals:
1. Pests: Rats, rabbits, woodchucks, deer, bear, boar, hippopotamus, elephant, kangaroo etc. eat up crops.
2. Predators: Lions, tigers, wolves, bears, sanguivorous vampire bats and hyenas attack people and livestock.
3. Disease carriers: Rats, cats, pigs, dogs etc are the worst carriers and distributors of the germs of certain diseases
like bubonic plague, typhus, relapsing fever, spotted fever, tularemia, trichina, hydrophobia etc.
Unit 3: Physiology (8)
Digestive System
Digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller components that can be more easily absorbed and assimilated by
the body.
The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for
fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for reabsorption of water from digests before excretion.
Carnivorous Mammals have a simple digestive system because the lipids, proteins and minerals found in their diet are
very easy to digest. The food is moved along the tract by the contraction of smooth muscles in the walls of the canal.
Ruminants are mammals that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in the digestive system
in different mammals. Mammals appeared about 200 million years ago in the Late Triassic period of the Mesozoic Era.
Herbivores either have a rumen or a functional caecum, not both. Plants have a low food value and animals need to eat a
large volume to obtain sufficient nutrients. Food then moves to the small intestine, where enzymes from the pancreas start
the digestion process. Cow and human have different digestive systems as they have different types of feeding habits. In
mammals, digestive juices begin to break down food as soon as it enters the mouth.
Fig 1: Ruminant Digestive system
Monogastric Digestive System - These are the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large
intestine. The digestive system is the series of tube like organs that convert our meals into body fuel.
The general digestive system and process:
Food egested & ingested by the animal is bitten off by the canine teeth, incisors and chewed by the incisors, premolars and
molars. The hoofed mammals with simple stomach have a mouth, tongue, an esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, caecum and rectum.
All ruminants have rumens except for the pig which has an unmodified stomach with a single compartment –
monogastric. The digestion process for most animals is similar to human. The general digestion process in mammals:
The Oral Cavity – Mouth
Physical and chemical digestion of food begin in the mouth. During chewing the food is made easier to swallow and the
food’s surface area is increased. The presence of food in the mouth triggers a nervous reflect that causes the salivary
glands to secret saliva into the mouth. Often saliva is secreted due to a smell or sight. In humans, almost a liter of saliva is
secreted into the mouth daily. That may sound like a lot, but for horses it is gallons! Human saliva contains mucin which
is a slippery glycol-protein which protects the mouth from abrasion and lubricated the food for swallowing. Saliva
contains buffers that help prevent tooth decay by neutralizing acids in the mouth. There are also antibacterial agents in
the saliva. The digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth. Saliva contains salivary amylase, a digestive enzyme that
hydrolyses starch (a glucose polymer from plants and glycogen ( a glucose polymer from animals). This enzyme breaks
down the carbohydrates into smaller polysaccharides and the disaccharide maltose. The tongue located in the oral cavity
helps to manipulate the food during chewing and shapes the food into a ball called the bolus which it pushes to the back of
the mouth and into the pharynx.
The Pharynx
Out throat is the pharynx which leads to both the esophagus and the windpipe (trachea).
When a human swallows the top of the windpipe moves up so that its opening, the glottis, is blocked by a flap of cartilage
called the epiglottis. This helps to ensure that the bolus enters the esophagus.
The Esophagus
The esophagus channels food from the pharynx to the stomach. The muscles in the walls move the food. The first part of
swallowing is a voluntary act but then the involuntary waves of contraction of the smooth muscles take over. Salivary
amylase continues to hydrolyze starch as the bolus passes through the esophagus.
The Stomach
The stomach is located on the left side of the abdomen, just below the diaphragm. Since its walls are elastic and it has
accordion-like folds, the stomach can hold up to 2 liters of food and water. The walls of the stomach secret gastric juices,
digestive fluid that mixes with the food. Since this fluid has a high percentage of HCl , its pH is about 2 which is acidic
enough to dissolve iron nails. The functions of this acid includes:
1. disrupt the extra-cellular matrix that binds cells together
2. Kill most bacteria in the food.
Also present in this gastric juice is pepsin, an enzyme that begins the hydrolysis of proteins by breaking peptide bonds.
Cells of the stomach wall are protected from pepsin by a coating of mucus. The epithelial cells which generate this mucus
are eroded by the acid and therefore the stomach lining must be replaced by mitosis every three days. Much of the time the
stomach is closed off at both ends. The opening from the esophagus to the stomach is called the cardiac orifice.
Small Intestine
The small intestine is the major organ of digestion and absorption. The small intestine is the longest section of the
digestive tract at more than 6 meters in length. It is referred to as the small intestine because its diameter is smaller than
the large intestine. Most digestion and absorption happens in this organ. The pancreas, liver and gall bladder participate
in digestion.
The first part of the small intestine is called the duodenum. This is where the chime from the stomach mixes with digestive
juices from the pancreas, liver gall bladder and gland cells from the intestinal wall. The pancreas produces bicarbonate
which helps to offset the acidity of the stomach. The liver produces bile which is stored in the gall bladder. Bile does not
contain digestive enzymes. It contains bile salts which act as detergents and aid in the digestion and absorption of fats.
Bile also carries wastes from the liver (where old red blood cells are destroyed).

Carbohydrate digestion: Pancreatic amylases hydrolyze starch, glycogen, and smaller polysaccharides convert into
disaccharides including maltose. The enzyme maltase completes the digestion of maltose by splitting it into two molecules
of glucose.
Sucrase hydrolyzes sucrose.
Lactase digest lactose. These disaccharides are in the membranes of the intestinal epithelial where the final monomers are
absorbed by the blood.
Protein digestion: Enzymes in the duodenum break the polypeptide chains down into amino acids. These enzymes are
supplies by the pancreas.
Nucleic acid digestion: Enzymes called nucleases hydrolyze DNA and RNA in food into their nucleic acids. Other enzymes
break the nucleotides down.
Fat digestion: Nearly all the fat in a meal reaches the small intestine completely undigested. Fat molecules are insoluble in
water. Bile salts coat the tiny fat droplets to keep them from coalescing in a process called emulsification. Since the
droplets re small, a large surface area is exposed to lipase which is an enzyme which hydrolyzes fat. Most of this digestion
happens in the duodenum. The remaining regions of the small intestine, jejunum and ileum, function mainly in the
absorption of nutrients and water.
Absorption of nutrients
Most of the absorption of nutrients takes place in the small intestine while there is some absorption in the stomach and
small intestine. The lining of the small intestine has a surface area about the size of a tennis court. Large circular folds in
the lining have villi and each of the cells of the villi have microvilli. These villi absorb nutrients which are then transported
across the capillary membranes.
Large Intestine
The large intestine or colon is connected to the small intestine at a T-shaped junction where a sphincter regulates the
movement of materials. One arm of the T structure is a sac called the cecum which has a fingerlike extension called the
appendix. The main function of the colon is to reabsorb water although most re-absorption of water happens in the small
intestine with the absorption of nutrients. The small and large intestines absorb about 90% of the water that enters the
digestive tract. The wastes of the digestive tract, feces, become more solid as they move along the colon.
Many harmless bacteria live in the colon. E. coli is in the colon. Intestinal bacteria live on organic bacteria that would
otherwise be included in feces. By-products of colon bacteria metabolism include gases (like methane and hydrogen
sulfide) and some vitamins. Bacteria in the colon generate Vitamin K which is used in blood clotting. The terminal
portion of the colon is called the rectum which is where feces are stored until they can be eliminated. Between the rectum
and the anus are two sphincters, one involuntary and one voluntary. Once or more a day, strong contractions of the colon
create an urge to defecate. And defecation is the ultimate of digestive system.

The digestive system and their functions in ruminants
Ruminants are mammals that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in a
specialized stomach prior to digestion, principally through microbial actions. The process, which takes place in the front
part of the digestive system and therefore is called foregut fermentation, typically requires the fermented ingesta (known
as cud) to be regurgitated and chewed again. The process of rechewing the cud to further break down plant matter and
stimulate digestion is called rumination. The word "ruminant" comes from the Latin ruminare, which means "to chew over
again". Ruminating mammals include cattle, all domesticated and wild bovines, goats, sheep, giraffes, deer, gazelles,
and antelopes.
The first two chambers are the rumen and the reticulum. These two compartments make up the fermentation vat, they are
the major site of microbial activity. Fermentation is crucial to digestion because it breaks down complex carbohydrates,
such as cellulose, and enables the animal to utilize them. Microbes function best in a warm, moist, anaerobic environment
with a temperature range of 100 to 108 degrees F and a pH between 6.0 and 6.4. Without the help of microbes, ruminants
would not be able to utilize nutrients from forages. The food is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of solid and
liquid material.
Solids clump together to form the cud or bolus.
The cud is then regurgitated and chewed to completely mix it with saliva and to break down the particle size. Smaller
particle size allows for increased nutrient absorption.
Fiber, especially cellulose and hemicellulose, is primarily broken down in these chambers by microbes (mostly bacteria, as
well as some protozoa, fungi, and yeast) into the three volatile fatty acids (VFAs): acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric
acid. Protein and nonstructural carbohydrate (pectin, sugars, and starches) are also fermented. Saliva is very important
because it provides liquid for the microbial population, recirculates nitrogen and minerals, and acts as a buffer for the
rumen pH.
The degraded digesta, which is now in the lower liquid part of the reticulorumen, then passes into the next chamber, the
omasum. This chamber controls what is able to pass into the abomasum. It keeps the particle size as small as possible in
order to pass into the abomasum. The omasum also absorbs volatile fatty acids and ammonia.
After this, the digesta is moved to the true stomach, the abomasum. This is the gastric compartment of the ruminant
stomach. The abomasum is the direct equivalent of the monogastric stomach, and digesta is digested here in much the
same way. This compartment releases acids and enzymes that further digest the material passing through. This is also
where the ruminant digests the microbes produced in the rume Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the
digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. The small intestine is the main site of nutrient absorption.
The surface area of the digesta is greatly increased here because of the villi that are in the small intestine. This increased
surface area allows for greater nutrient absorption. Microbes produced in the reticulorumen are also digested in the small
intestine. After the small intestine is the large intestine. The major roles here are breaking down mainly fiber by
fermentation with microbes, absorption of water (ions and minerals) and other fermented products, and also expelling
waste. Fermentation continues in the large intestine in the same way as in the reticulorumen.
Only small amounts of glucose are absorbed from dietary carbohydrates. Most dietary carbohydrates are fermented into
VFAs in the rumen. The glucose needed as energy for the brain and for lactose and milk fat in milk production, as well as
other uses, comes from non-sugar sources, such as the VFA propionate, glycerol, lactate, and protein.
Monogastric herbivores, such as rhinoceroses, horses, and rabbits, are not ruminants, as they have a simple single-
chambered stomach. These hindgut fermenters digest cellulose in an enlarged cecum through the reingestion of
the cecotrope.
Accessory organs of Digestion: (search for details)
1. Salivary glands
2. Tongue or Lingue
3. Teeth
4. Liver
5. Gallbladder
6. Pancreas
7. Vermiform appendix

Circulatory system
The system that circulates blood and lymph through the body, consisting of the heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph, and the
lymphatic vessels and glands.
Circulatory systems generally have three main features:

1. Fluid (blood or hemolymph) that transports materials
2. System of blood vessels
3. A heart to pump the fluid through the vessels
Animals that have a circulatory system have one of two kinds:
 Open: fluid is circulated through an open body chamber.

 Closed: fluid is circulated through blood vessels
1. Blood:
Blood is made up of four major components.
1. Plasma: the liquid portion.

2. Red blood cells ( Erythrocytes)
3. White Blood cells (Leucocytes)
4. Platelets(Thrombocytes)
The hormone erythropoeitin, made by the kidneys, stimulates the production of RBCs in red bone marrow. RBCs live
about 4 months. Iron from hemoglobin is recycled in the liver and spleen. RBCs make up about 99% of the blood’s cellular
component. Red color is due to hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a complex protein made up of four protein strands, plus iron-
rich heme groups. Each hemoglobin molecule can carry four oxygen atoms. The presence of oxygen turns hemoglobin
bright red. White blood cells defend against disease by recognizing proteins that do not belong to the body. White cells are
able to ooze through the walls of capillaries to patrol the tissues and reach the lymph system. Platelets are cell fragments
used in blood clotting. Platelets are derived from megakaryocites. Because they lack a nucleus, platelets have a short
lifespan, usually about 10 days.
2. Blood vessels:
Blood vessels fall into three major classes:

 Arteries and arterioles carry blood away from the heart.
 Veins and venules carry blood to the heart.
 Capillaries allow exchange of nutrients, wastes and gases.
Arteries are thick-walled, and lined with smooth muscle. Arterioles branch off of arteries. Arterioles can constrict to direct
and control blood flow. They may, for example, increase or decrease blood supply to the skin.
Body tissues contain a vast network of thin capillaries. Capillary walls are only one cell thick, allowing exchange of gases,
nutrients, and wastes. Capillaries are so fine that RBCs must line up single-file to go through them.
Veins are thin-walled collectors of blood. Low pressure in the venules allows the capillary beds to drain into them distant
from heart. Blood travels back to heart at low velocity & pressure through veins. Veins have thinner walls than arteries.
Veins have fewer smooth muscle cells, but do have valves.
3. The Heart:
Vertebrate hearts are separated into two types of chambers

 Atria (singular: atrium): receive blood from body or lungs. Contractions of the atria send blood through a valve to
the ventricles.
 Ventricles: receive blood from atria, contract to send blood to body or lungs.
On the outside, the heart mainly consists of a dark red muscle. It is attached to four very important blood vessels: the Vena
Cava, the Pulmonary Artery, the Pulmonary Vein and the Aorta. Internally, the heart is made up of four main cavities: two
Atria (singular: atrium) and two Ventricles. The atria hold blood briefly, then allow it to fall into the ventricles, which
provide the actual ‘pump’.
Internally, the heart is made up of four main cavities: two Atria (singular: atrium) and two Ventricles. The atria hold blood
briefly, then allow it to fall into the ventricles, which provide the actual ‘pump’.
The vena cava supplies de-oxygenated blood from the body, which then flows into the right atrium then the right ventricle.
This gets pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs where it gets oxygenated, before returning to the heart via
the pulmonary vein. This flows through the left atrium into the left ventricle, and then gets pumped to the body via the
aorta. It finally returns to the heart through the vena cava, and the process repeats. The atria are separated from the
ventricles by Atrioventricular Valves (specifically called Tricuspid Valves - right; and Bicuspid/Mitral Valves - left). These
valves allow blood to flow downwards when the atria and ventricles relax, but close to prevent blood from flowing back up
to the atria when the ventricles are contracting.
The ventricles are separated from the aorta and the pulmonary artery by the Semilunar Valves (specifically called,
respectively, the Aortic and Pulmonary Valves). These prevent blood from flowing in the wrong direction back into the
heart.
The atrial walls are thin; they don’t need to withstand much pressure. The ventricles walls on the other hand are much
thicker. When the ventricles contract, the blood pressure inside becomes very high, and they need to be able to withstand
this. Also, the walls of the left ventricle are thicker than those of the right ventricle. This is because the left side of the heart
controls the systemic circuit (blood to the whole body) while the right side controls the pulmonary circuit (blood to the
lungs).
Blood in the systemic circuit needs to be at a high pressure in order to make its way around the whole body and back
again. In contrast, the lungs are very close to the heart, and contain very delicate capillaries which would break if
subjected to too great a pressure. Hence the systemic circuit requires a greater blood pressure than the pulmonary circuit,
and thus the walls of the left ventricle must be thicker than those of the right ventricle.
Fig: Pulmonary circulation
Fig: Mammalian heart
The process of blood circulation involves:

Pulmonary circulation system: In the pulmonary circulation system, deoxygenated blood leaves the heart
through the right ventricle and is transported to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery is
the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood. It carries blood to the capillaries where carbon dioxide diffuses
out of the blood into the alveoli (lung cells) and then into the lungs, where it is exhaled. At the same time,
oxygen diffuses into the alveoli, and then enters the blood and is returned to the left atrium of the heart via the
pulmonary vein.

Systemic circulation: Systemic circulation refers to the part of the circulation system that leaves the heart,
carrying oxygenated blood to the body's cells, and returning deoxygenated blood to the heart. Blood leaves
through the left ventricle into the aorta, the body's largest artery. The aorta leads to smaller arteries that supply
all organs of the body. These arteries finally branch into capillaries. In the capillaries, oxygen diffuses from the
blood into the cells, and waste and carbon dioxide diffuse out of cells and into blood. Deoxygenated blood in
capillaries then moves into venules that merge into veins, and the blood is transported back to the heart. These
veins merge into two major veins, namely the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. The movement of
blood is indicated by arrows on the diagram. The deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via the the
superior vena cava. Major arteries supply blood to the brain, small intestine, liver and kidneys. However,
systemic circulation also reaches the other organs, including the muscles and skin.
Respiratory System:
The respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange in
organisms.
“Respiration” is used in several different ways:
 Cellular respiration is the aerobic breakdown of glucose in the mitochondria to make ATP.
 Respiratory systems are the organs in animals that exchange gases with the environment.
Parts of the respiratory system include:
 Nose/nasal cavity or mouth/buccal cavity

 Glottis and Pharynx
 Trachea
 Lungs (Bronchi, Bronchioles, Alveoli)
Mammalian respiratory systems rely on a single large muscle at the base of the lungs. This muscle is called a diaphragm.
The diaphragm pulls the lungs downward to increase their volume, causing air to rush into the lungs. As it presses
upward, the lungs become smaller, and air is exhaled. Muscles in the rib cage work in consort with the diaphragm to
expand and contract the lungs.
Different mammals breathe differently. Some breathe through the nose, others breathe through the mouth. Some
mammals are able to breathe through either the nose or the mouth. As the air passes through the nose or down the
trachea, or airway, small hairs and microscopic hair-like structures filter the air by attracting dust and microbes that could
cause damage or infection in the lungs.
Process of respiration:
The chief organ in mammalian respiration is the lungs. The lungs are actively ventilated via a suction-pump mechanism of
inhalation and exhalation. Breathing is dependent upon the rib muscles and the diaphragm, a structure shaped like a
dome-shaped floor just beneath the lungs.
Inhalation happens when the rib cage opens up and the diaphragm flattens and moves downward. The lungs expand into
the larger space, causing the air pressure inside to decrease. The drop in air pressure inside the lung makes the outside air
rush in.
Exhalation is the opposite process. The diaphragm and the rib muscles relax to their neutral state, causing the lungs to
contract. The squashing of the lungs increases their air pressure and forces the air to flow out.
Most mammals are nose breathers. Inhaling through the nose warms and moistens the air. The air is filtered by cilia and
mucus membranes, which trap dust and pathogens. Air then reaches the epiglottis, the tiny leaf-shaped flap at the back of
the throat. The epiglottis regulates air going into the windpipe and closes upon swallowing to prevent food from being
inhaled. It’s the gatekeeper to the lungs.
The trachea is a long structure of soft tissue surrounded by c-shaped rings of cartilage. In humans, the trachea splits into
two bronchi branches that lead to each lung. Each bronchi divides into increasingly smaller branches, until they form a

massive tree of tubes. The smallest branches are called the bronchioles, and each bronchiole ends with a tiny air sac (no
larger than a grain of sand) called an alveolus.
The tiny alveoli are crucial because they increase the surface area used for gas exchange. If the lungs were just empty sacs,
then only area available for gas exchange would be the walls of the lungs. In humans, that comes out to an area of
approximately 0.01 m2. The alveoli, though, provide a whopping 75m2 of surface area where oxygen absorption can take
place.
As discussed above, gas exchange takes place in the capillaries, so the alveoli have a close working relationship with the
network of capillaries. This brings the blood-carrying waste products close enough to the fresh air for diffusion to take
place. The waste is removed and the oxygen is taken up by the blood. The hemoglobin in blood attaches oxygen molecules,
kind of like a bus carrying passengers. Each hemoglobin protein can carry four passengers of oxygen at one time. Oxygen
is delivered to the cells and carbon dioxide is removed. Water vapor and carbon dioxide are exhaled, and the process
begins again with inhalation.
Fig: Gas exchange in alveoli
Excretory System
Excretory systems regulate the chemical composition of body fluids by removing metabolic wastes and retaining the
proper amounts of water, salts, and nutrients. Components of this system in vertebrates include the kidneys, liver, lungs,
and skin.
Nitrogen wastes are a byproduct of protein metabolism. Amino groups are removed from amino acids prior to energy
conversion. The NH2 (amino group) combines with a hydrogen ion (proton) to form ammonia (NH3).
Ammonia is very toxic and usually is excreted directly by marine animals. Terrestrial animals usually need to conserve
water. Ammonia is converted to urea, a compound the body can tolerate at higher concentrations than ammonia.
Mammalian excretory/urinary system:

1. Kidneys
2. Ureters
3. Urinary bladder
4. Urethra
The urinary system is made-up of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The nephron, an evolutionary modification of
the nephridium, is the kidney's functional unit. Waste is filtered from the blood and collected as urine in each kidney.
Urine leaves the kidneys by ureters, and collects in the bladder. The bladder can distend to store urine that eventually
leaves through the urethra.

Kidney: Cortex, Medulla, Renal pelvis, renal pyramids, Blood vessels (Renal artery, Renal vein)
The mammalian kidney is a compact organ with two distinct regions: cortex and medulla. The functional unit of the
kidney is the nephron. Each nephron is a tubular structure consisting of four regions. It arises in the cortex as a small
vesicle about one-fifth of a millimeter (0.008 inch) in diameter, known as Bowman’s capsule, into which projects a tuft of
capillary blood vessels, the glomerulus. Bowman’s capsule is continuous with the proximal convoluted tubule, which also
lies in the cortex. Following the proximal convoluted tubule is the loop of Henle, which descends into the medulla and
then runs straight up again to the cortex where it continues as the distal convoluted tubule. A collecting tubule, into which
several nephrons open, courses through the medulla to open a wide cavity, the pelvis of the kidney. From the pelvis the
ureter leads to the bladder, and from the bladder the urethra leads out of the body.
The mechanism of urine formation involves three processes: filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
Primary urine is formed by filtration from the blood. From this primary urine certain substances are reabsorbed into the
blood and other substances are secreted into the primary urine from the blood. The word secretion is used by renal
physiologists to imply transport, other than by filtration, from the blood to urine. Filtration implies that all molecules
below a certain size are allowed to pass non-selectively into the primary urine; reabsorption and secretion imply the
existence of specific mechanisms for the transport of specific substances.
The membrane covering the glomerulus allows the passage of water and all the constituents of the blood plasma except
proteins. The glomerular capillaries are intercalated in the course of an artery, with the consequence that the pressure of
the blood in these capillaries is higher than in the capillaries in other parts of the kidney. Opposed to the blood pressure
are the pressure of the fluid within Bowman’s capsule and the osmotic pressure exerted by the proteins of the blood
plasma; but the blood pressure is sufficiently in excess of the sum of these to ensure a rapid flow of fluid, the glomerular
filtrate or primary urine, into Bowman’s capsule. The glomerular filtrate contains the nitrogenous compounds ultimately
to be excreted in the urine. As the glomerular filtrate passes through the proximal tubule, 80 percent of the water, and
many substances of value to the body (e.g., glucose), is reabsorbed into the blood capillaries surrounding the tubule. This
reabsorptive process is accomplished without any change in the concentration of the tubular fluid, which remains the
same as that of the blood plasma.
After traversing the loop of Henle, the remaining 20 percent of the glomerular filtrate passes into the distal tubule, where
further reabsorption, notably of salts, takes place. If this is accompanied by a proportionate reabsorption of water, the
tubular fluid remains at the same concentration as the blood plasma, but if the reabsorption of water is restricted, as it
may be in certain circumstances (see below), the tubular fluid becomes more dilute than the blood plasma. Under normal
physiological conditions some 15 percent of the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed in the distal tubule. Most of the
remaining 5 percent is reabsorbed in the collecting tubule. The amount of fluid, at this point called urine that reaches the
pelvis of the kidney is only 1 percent of the volume originally filtered at the glomerulus; but it contains nearly all the
nitrogenous waste of the filtrate in concentrated solution. A few substances are also secreted from the blood through the
walls of the tubule into the tubular fluid.
Ureter: The ureter is a tube that carries urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. There are two ureters, one attached
to each kidney. The upper half of the ureter is located in the abdomen and the lower half is located in the pelvic area.
The urinary bladder: The urinary bladder is a muscular sac in the pelvis, just above and behind the pubic bone. When
empty, the bladder is about the size and shape of a pear. Urine is made in the kidneys and travels down two tubes called
ureters to the bladder. The bladder stores urine, allowing urination to be infrequent and controlled.
Urethra: Urethra is duct that transmits urine from the bladder to the exterior of the body during urination. The urethra is
held closed by the urethral sphincter, a muscular structure that helps keep urine in the bladder until voiding can occur.
The Nervous System:

The vertebrate nervous system develops from a hollow dorsal neural tube. The brain forms from three swellings at its
anterior end, which become the: hindbrain, midbrain, and Forebrain.
The forebrain develops into the cerebral hemispheres and the underlying thalamus and hypothalamus. The midbrain and
hindbrain develop into the brain stem. More primitive and autonomic functions are localized in the brain stem, and
conscious experience depends on the cerebrum.
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that connect these
organs with the rest of the body. Together, these organs are responsible for the control of the body and communication
among its parts. The brain and spinal cord form the control center known as the central nervous system (CNS), where
information is evaluated and decisions made. The sensory nerves and sense organs of the peripheral nervous system
(PNS) monitor conditions inside and outside of the body and send this information to the CNS. Efferent nerves in the PNS
carry signals from the control center to the muscles, glands, and organs to regulate their functions.
The brain is the central organ of nervous system. The brains of some animals, like apes, monkeys, and rodents, are
structurally similar to humans (Figure 1), while others are not. Human neurons exhibit more intricate complexity than

other animals; for example, neuronal processes (dendrites) in humans have many more branch points, branches, and
spines.
The mammalian nervous system is divided into Central Nervous System and the peripheral nervous system.
Neurons, also known as nerve cells, communicate within the body by transmitting electrochemical signals. Neurons look
quite different from other cells in the body due to the many long cellular processes that extend from their central cell body.
The cell body is the roughly round part of a neuron that contains the nucleus, mitochondria, and most of the cellular
organelles. Small tree-like structures called dendrites extend from the cell body to pick up stimuli from the environment,
other neurons, or sensory receptor cells. Long transmitting processes called axons extend from the cell body to send
signals onward to other neurons or effector cells in the body.
There are 3 basic classes of neurons: afferent neurons, efferent neurons, and interneurons.
1. Afferent neurons. Also known as sensory neurons, afferent neurons transmit sensory signals to the central
nervous system from receptors in the body.
2. Efferent neurons. Also known as motor neurons, efferent neurons transmit signals from the central nervous
system to effectors in the body such as muscles and glands.
3. Interneurons. Interneurons form complex networks within the central nervous system to integrate the
information received from afferent neurons and to direct the function of the body through efferent neurons.
Functional Subsystems of the Nervous System:
The nervous system is composed of many subsystems functioning simultaneously. Some important ones are the spinal
cord, reticular system, limbic system, and cerebrum.

The spinal cord: The spinal cord communicates information between brain and body. It processes and integrates much
information, and can issue some commands to the body without brain input.
The reticular system: The reticular system of the brain stem is a complex network that directs incoming information to
appropriate brain stem nuclei. They control autonomic functions, as well as transmitting the information to the forebrain
resulting in conscious sensation. The reticular system controls level of nervous system arousal.
The limbic system: The reticular system is an evolutionarily primitive part of the forebrain involved in:
• emotions
• physiological drives
• instincts
• memory
Cerebrum: The cerebral hemispheres are the dominant structures of the human brain. Their surfaces consist of a layer of
neurons called the cerebral cortex. Most of the cerebral cortex is involved in higher-order information processing, and
these areas are generally called association cortex.
The cerebral hemispheres can be divided into temporal, frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes.
1. Many motor functions are localized in the frontal lobe

2. Information from many receptors around the body projects to the parietal lobe
3. Visual information projects to the occipital lobe
4. Auditory information projects to the temporal lobe
Information Processing by Neuronal Circuits
The functions of the nervous system are beginning to be understood in terms of the properties of cells organized in
neuronal circuits. The autonomic nervous system consists of efferent pathways that control the body’s organs and organ
systems. Its sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions normally work in opposition. They are characterized by their
anatomy, neurotransmitters, and effects on target tissues.
Neuronal circuits in the occipital cortex integrate visual information. Receptive field responses of retinal ganglion cells are
communicated to the brain in optic nerves. This information is projected to the visual cortex so as to create receptive fields
for cortical cells.
A simple cell is stimulated by a bar of light with a specific orientation falling at a specific location on the retina. A complex
cell is maximally stimulated by such a stimulus moving across the retina. The visual cortex seems to assemble a mental
image of the visual world by analyzing edges of patterns of light. Binocular vision results from circuits that communicate
information from both eyes to binocular cells in the visual cortex. These cells interpret distance by measuring the disparity
between where the same stimulus falls on the two retinas.
Figures:
Mammalian Reproductive System:

• All mammals have sexual reproduction
• Haploid gametes by meiosis
• Control of gamete production dependent on hormones
Mammals are viviparous (except the Monotremes)
• Placental mammals retain their young in utero

• Most mammalian offspring require large amount of parental care
• Males play a small role in parental care (in most cases)
Monotremes –
• Lay eggs
• Cloaca

• No nipples
Some features of monotreme reproduction
• Ovaries larger (relative to body size) than other mammals

• Oviducts open into common urogenital sinus, similar to reptile cloaca (meaning of name “monotreme”)
• Milk secreted by glands in skin, licked from tufts of fur at concentrations of glands.
• Testes abdominal, penis is sac in floor of cloaca
• Young have “egg tooth” like birds to help break out of egg
• Platypus: 1-2 eggs
• Echidna: 1 egg
Female reproductive cycles involve periodic release of a mature ovum- Ovulation.
Most female mammals have estrous cycles- Females sexually receptive to males only at time of ovulation (“estrus”).
Primates (Inc. humans) have menstrual cycles.
Human Reproductive System (Similar in most mammals ie. Placental mammals):
• Sex differentiation is determined genetically; presence of Y chromosome determines maleness

• Developing embryo has wolffian ducts and müllerian ducts
• Wolffian ducts – develop into male epididymus, vas deferans, and accessory organs (seminal vesicle and prostate)
• Müellerian ducts – develop into vagina, uterus, cervix and oviducts
In males, genes located on Y chromosome initiate differentiation of epithelial cells into Sertoli cells
• Sertoli cells produce anti-Müllerian hormone; causes the deterioration of the Müllerian duct (defeminization)
• Mesenchyme cells differentiate into Leydig cells
• Leydig cells produce the androgens (male sex steroids)
Androgens
• Testosterone – primary male sex hormone, responsible for the development and differentiation of the Wolffian
duct. Sertoli cells require testosterone for spermatogenesis
• 5-Dihydrotestosterone – responsible for masculine development of external genitalia. Guevodoces – genetic
condition, delays male sexual development until puberty
In females (XX), the absence of testosterone leads to feminization (default condition)
• All mammals, regardless of sex, begin life with primordial (undifferentiated) gonads
• No androgens for Wolffian ducts to develop, will degenerate. Müellerian ducts will develop due to secretion of
estrodial
• Gonads will become ovaries, vagina, uterus, and cervix.
Human Male Reproductive System
• When testes form in the male embryo, they develop highly-convoluted seminiferous tubules, the site of sperm
production
• In the wall of the seminiferous tubule, a spermatogonium divides by mitosis producing diploid cells
• Diploid cell known as the primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis producing secondary spermatocytes
Parts:
Testes
• Semineferous tubules
• Sperm production
• Testosterone production
• In scrotum sac

Epididymis
• Sperm storage and maturation site
Vas deferens
• Sperm ducts
Urethra
• Exit route for sperm through penis
Glands:
• Seminal vesicles=thick, nutrient-rich fluid

• Cowper’s Gland (Bulbourethral glands)= preejaulation lubricant
• Prostate Gland=milky, alkaline fluid
• (Semen is sperm and fluids)
Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System
Hormons involved:
• Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

• Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH), also called LH
• Testosterone
• Inhibin(Acts on anterior pituitary Inhibits FSH production).
• FSH promotes the activity of Sertoli cells, which nourish developing sperm
• LH regulates Leydig cells, which secrete testosterone and other androgens, which in turn promote spermatogenesis.
• Testosterone regulates the production of GnRH, FSH, and LH through negative feedback mechanisms
• Sertoli cells secrete the hormone inhibin, which reduces FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary

Female Reproductive System
Parts:
Ovaries
• matures eggs located in follicle sacs

• Make estrogen
• Usually one egg matures/month
• Mature egg ovulated
• Egg enters oviducts
Oviduct
o Site of fertilization
Uterus
o Site of embryo development
Cervix
o Doorway into Uterus
Vagina
o Birth canal and sperm receiving area
Hormones involved:
• Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

• Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
• Estrogen
• Progesterone
Hormone regulation and control:
• In females, the secretion of hormones and the reproductive events they regulate are cyclic
• Prior to ovulation, the endometrium thickens with blood vessels in preparation for embryo implantation
• If an embryo does not implant in the endometrium, the endometrium is shed in a process called menstruation.
• Hormones closely link the two cycles of female reproduction
Changes in the uterus define the menstrual cycle (also called the uterine cycle)
Changes in the ovaries define the ovarian cycle

The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle:
• Hormones coordinate the uterine cycle with the ovarian cycle

– Thickening of the endometrium during the proliferative phase coordinates with the follicular phase
– Secretion of nutrients during the secretory phase coordinates with the luteal phase
– Shedding of the endometrium during the menstrual flow phase coordinates with the growth of new
ovarian follicles.
• A new cycle begins if no embryo implants in the endometrium
• Cells of the uterine lining can sometimes migrate to an abnormal, or ectopic, location
• Swelling of these cells in response to hormone stimulation results in a disorder called endometriosis.
After about 500 cycles, human females undergo menopause, the cessation of ovulation and menstruation. Menopause is
very unusual among animals.
Menstrual cycles Estrous cycles

Menstrual cycles are characteristic only of humans and Estrous cycles are characteristic of most mammals
some other primates • The endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus
• The endometrium is shed from the uterus in a • Sexual receptivity is limited to a “heat” period
bleeding called menstruation • The length and frequency of estrus cycles vary
• Sexual receptivity is not limited to a timeframe from species to species
Human Sexual Response:
• Two reactions predominate in both sexes

 Vasocongestion, the filling of tissue with blood
 Myotonia, increased muscle tension
• The sexual response cycle has four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
• Excitement prepares the penis and vagina for coitus (sexual intercourse)
• Direct stimulation of genitalia maintains the plateau phase and prepares the vagina for receipt of sperm
• Orgasm is characterized by rhythmic contractions of reproductive structures
 In males, semen is first released into the urethra and then ejaculated from the urethra
 In females, the uterus and outer vagina contract
• During the resolution phase, organs return to their normal state and muscles relax
What are the stages of fetal development?
1. First Trimester:
• For the first few weeks the embryo gets nutrients from the endometrium.
• The outer layer of the blastocyst – the trophoblast grows into the endometrium and forms the placenta.
• Organogenesis is occurring during the first trimester.
• The heart starts beating about the fourth week.
• At 8 weeks, all major organs are present in rudimentary form.
• Now called a fetus.
Placental Circulation: The placenta contains closely entwined embryonic & maternal blood vessels for the exchange of
nutrients and wastes. HCG is produced by the placenta. Estrogen and progesterone are produced by the corpus luteum,
then by the placenta.
2. Second Trimester
The fetus grows to about 30 cm and is very active. Hormone levels stabilize, hCG declines, the corpus luteum disintegrates
and the placenta takes over production of progesterone.
3. Third Trimester
• Fetal activity may decrease as space becomes limited. Fetus grows to about 50 cm and 3-4 kg.
• Development of organs is completed.
• Neural development continues even after birth.
Birth, parturition, occurs through strong rhythmic contractions of the uterus.
• Dilation
• Expulsion
• Delivery of placenta
Gestation versus lactation:
• Big difference between marsupials and placentals is development of young at birth.

• Marsupials have very short gestation periods compared to placentals of the same size, but longer periods of
lactation. In marsupials, lacation shuts down development of any other fertilized eggs (= diapause).
General pattern for a placental mammalian reproductive event is: O -> F -> B -> I -> DP -> DF -> Part
 O = ovulation
• F = fertilization
• B = formation of blastocyst
• I = implantation of blastocyst in uterine wall
• DP = development of placenta
• DF = development of fetus
• Part = parturition (birth)
Reproductive Cycles and patterns:
 Most mammals have mating seasons timed to coincide with most favorable time to rear young.
 Female mammals usually restrict mating to a fertile period during the periodic estrous cycle.
 This time of female receptivity is known as heat or estrous.
 Some animals lengthen gestation period by delayed implantation; the blastocyst remains dormant while its
implantation in the uterine wall is postponed to align birth with a favorable season.
 Animals with only one breeding season a year are monestrous; recurrent breeding is polyestrous.
Egg-Laying Monotremes
 Monotremes, such as the duck-billed platypus, lay eggs with one breeding season per year.
 Eggs are fertilized in the oviduct before albumin and a thin, leathery shell are added.
 She lays eggs in a burrow nest where they are incubated for 12 days.
 Similar to reptiles and birds, there is no gestation and the egg provides all nutrients.
 However, after hatching, young suck milk from the mother’s fur near her mammary glands.
Pouched Marsupials
 Marsupials are pouched, viviparous mammals.

 Although only eutherians are “placental mammals,” marsupials do have a primitive choriovitelline “placenta.”
 The embryo is first encapsulated by shell membranes and floats free for several days.
 After “hatching” from shell membranes, the embryo erodes a shallow depression in the uterine wall and absorbs
nutrient secretions by a vascularized yolk sac.
 Gestation is brief and marsupials give birth to tiny young that are still embryos.
 Early birth is followed by a prolonged interval of lactation and parental care.
 In red kangaroos, the first pregnancy is followed by a 33-day gestation and then birth.
 The mother immediately becomes pregnant, but the presence of a suckling young arrests development of the new
embryo at the 100-cell stage.
 Such a period of arrest is called embryonic diapause.
 It is possible to stairstep three young with one external, one suckling, and one embryonic.

Placental Mammals
 Eutherians are viviparous placental mammals.

 They have an investment in a prolonged gestation in contrast to marsupials with an investment in prolonged
lactation.
 The embryo in the uterus is nourished through a chorioallantoic placenta.
 Gestation is longer than in marsupials and is much longer for large mammals.
 Gestation and body size are loosely correlated because there is variation in maturity at birth.
 Humans are slower developing than any other mammal; this contributes to our uniqueness.
 The ultimate number of young produced per year also depends on mortality rate.
 Small rodents that are prey for carnivores usually produce more than one litter each season.
 Meadow mice can produce up to 17 litters of four to nine young each year!
 At the other extreme, an elephant produces on average four calves during her 50-year life.
Unit 4: Animal Behavior (8) (Ethology)

Behavior is the way in which an animal interacts with its surrounding environment [both Animate Environment=
(humans, other animals, plants) and Inanimate Environment= (objects, places, sun, air)].
All acts performed by animals (feeding, drinking, fighting, etc. are called animal behaviors. It also includes responses of
animal to a certain stimulus.
Aims of ethology
1. To find and establish the optimum environmental condition

2. To know what is going within the animal mind and understand the body language
3. To diagnose disease (normal Vs. abnormal)
4. To examine and treat animals (how to handle animals)
5. Select method of restraint acc. to behavior of animal
6. To achieve animal reproduction and raise livestock (sexual and maternal behavior)
7. To achieve animal welfare which will lead to high performance and production
8. To know the actual causes which induce the behavioral disorders or vices
Classification of animal behavior
1. Inherited behavior (innate, unlearned, instinctive, and native): Important for survival and conservation of species
 Behavior of maintenance
– Constant behavioral patterns needed to maintain animal life (self-maintenance) such as ingestion,
elimination, rest and sleep
 Reproductive behavior
– Behavioral patterns occurring during reproduction needed to maintain animal species
– Sexual behavior
– Maternal behavior
2. Acquired behavior (learned): useful for survival within their environment
4.1 Territory
Territory is the sociographical area that an animal of a particular species consistently defends against conspecifics (or,
occasionally, animals of other species). Animals that defend territories in this way are referred to as territorial.

Territorial behavior, in zoology, are the methods by which an animal, or group of animals, protects its territory from
incursions by others of its species. Territorial boundaries may be marked by sounds such as bird song, or scents such as
pheromones secreted by the skin glands of many mammals. If such advertisement does not discourage intruders, chases
and fighting follow.
Territorial behavior is adaptive in many ways; it may permit an animal to mate without interruption or to raise its young
in an area where there will be little competition for food. It can also prevent overcrowding by maintaining an optimum
distance among members of a population. Territories may be seasonal.
Reports of territory size can be confused by a lack of distinction between home range and the defended territory. The size
and shape of a territory can vary according to its purpose, season, the amount and quality of resources it contains, or the
geography. The size is usually a compromise of resource needs, defense costs, predation pressure and reproductive needs.
Some species of squirrels may claim as much as 10 hectares of territory.
Wolf packs maintain territories in which they hunt and live. These areas are aggressively defended from all non-pack
members. The male cougar has a large territory that may overlap the territories of several females but is defended against
other males. Responding to scent marks, the inhabitants of the overlapping ranges also avoid each other, except for
breeding.
Tigers are solitary animals and highly territorial. They primarily live in home ranges that often overlap with a number of
female home ranges, but exclude other males. Female tigers usually remain within the same home range for their lifetime,
but male tigers may establish new home ranges over the years. Sometimes, tigers establish their own territories, which
don't overlap with any others. This decision primarily depends on the amount of prey in the area, which also influences
the size of tigers' home ranges or territories. Areas with a dense population of prey show smaller home ranges, but male
tigers consistently have larger territories than females.
Female tigers tend to establish themselves near the territory they grew up in, while male tigers set out on their own. They
either find an area not already occupied by other tigers, or challenge another tiger for the territory he has already
established.
In situations where tigers have home ranges rather than clear territories, they use intimidation rather than aggression
when confronted with another male within their range. Often, the intruding tiger with display a subordinate posture and
the dominant tiger will allow him to stay in the range, as long as he keeps his distance.
Tigers mark their territory with scent and visual cues. The most basic means of scent marking is urinating on trees or
rocks surrounding the boundary of the territory. Tigers produce a unique type of urine with a longer lasting scent for this
purpose. They also visually establish their territory by scraping out marks along the boundary.
“Deception hypothesis” claims that males have territories at far enough distances that females will not be able to discern
(detect) already-mated males.
Males of many species defend specific sites against other members of the same species. The area is known as territory. The
territory is usually a part of larger home unit called the home range. Territorial behavior represents a type of biological
symbolism in which males express their social dominance over other males. In effect, territorial display proclaims “This is
my castle”. The territory of bobwhites (Colinus virginians) is no more than a space around a single fencepost, from which

mates individually perch and imperiously issue for calls of ownership. Territorial behavior is initiated before females are
present. Territory is best understood in birds because they generally are more conspicuous and more readily observed
than mammals and other vertebrates. Territorial defenses involve violent behavior, like headlong battering of big horn
sheep. Territories are proclaimed with some combinations of visual displays, threats, sound and scent.
Functions of territory:
The ultimate function of animals inhabiting and defending a territory is to increase the individual fitness or inclusive
fitness of the animals expressing the behaviour. Fitness in this biological sense relates to the ability of an animal to survive
and raise young. The proximate functions of territory defense vary. For some animals, the reason for such protective
behaviour is to acquire and protect food sources, nesting sites, mating areas, or to attract a mate.
Breeding territory:
• Maintained for breeding and mating purpose

• Possibility of having a female or a mate inside the territory
• A female with young ones shows this territoriality
Non- breeding territories:
• Maintained for purposes other than breeding and mating

• An animal may protect its core area from intruders
• A predator may maintain its territory around a hunted prey and actively guard against intruders.
How is it done?
1. Scent: Scent marking, also known as territorial marking or spraying when this involves urination, is a behaviour used by
animals to identify their territory. Most commonly, this is accomplished by depositing strong-smelling substances
contained in the urine, faeces, or, from specialized scent glands located on various areas of the body. Often, the scent
contains pheromones or carrier proteins such as the major urinary proteins to stabilize the odours and maintain them for
longer. The animal sniffing the scent frequently displays a flehmen response to assist in detecting the mark. Scent marking
is often performed by scent rubbing in many mammals.
2. Visual: Visual sign-posts may be a short-term or long-term mode of advertising a territory. Short-term communication
includes the coloration or behaviour of the animal, which can only be communicated when the resident is present. Other
animals may use more long-term visual signals such as faecal deposits, or marks on the vegetation or ground. Visual
marking of territory is often combined with other modes of animal communication.
3. Auditory: Many animals use vocalizations to advertise their territory. These are short-term signals transmitted only
when the animal is present, but can travel long distances and over varied habitats. Examples of animals which use
auditory signals include canids.
Wolves advertise their territories to other packs through a combination of scent marking and howling. Under certain
conditions, wolf howls can be heard over areas of up to 130 km2 (50 sq mi).

4.2 Mating
Mating is the pairing of either opposite-sex or hermaphroditic organisms, usually for the purposes of sexual reproduction.
In evolutionary psychology and behavioral ecology, human mating strategies are a set of behaviors used by individuals to
attract, select, and retain mates.
Male mammals show a diverse array of mating bonds, including obligate monogamy, unimale and group polygyny and
promiscuity. These are associated with a wide variety of different forms of mate guarding, including the defense of feeding
and mating territories, the defense of female groups and the defense of individual receptive females. Female mating bonds
include long-term monogamy, serial monogamy, polyandry and promiscuity. Both male and female mating behaviour
varies widely within species. Variation in male mating behaviour is related to the effect of male assistance in rearing young
and to the defensibility of females by males. The latter is, in turn, related to female ranging behaviour and to the size and
stability of female groups. Much of the variation in mammalian mating bonds and systems of mate guarding can be
attributed to differences in these three variables.
The Evolution of Sex
Asexually reproducing animals pass on all of their chromosomes, and consequently all copies of each gene, to their
offspring. In contrast, due to meiosis, diploid sexually reproducing animals have two copies of each chromosome but only
pass one copy of each chromosome on to an egg or sperm cell. Sexual reproduction is much more common than asexual
reproduction among animals because it provides several evolutionary advantages.
Advantages
 The major advantage of sexual reproduction comes from genetic recombination.

 Genetic recombination allows an organism's offspring to be genetically diverse.
 Sexual reproduction increases the chances of acquiring favorable mutations and is unlikely to propagate
deleterious ones.
 Genetic diversity within a group of offspring is advantageous as the local environment changes.
Bateman’s Principle
Bateman's principle, in evolutionary biology, is that in most species, variability in reproductive success (or reproductive
variance) is greater in males than in females. It was first proposed by Angus John Bateman (1919– 1996), an English
geneticist. It can be seen as the result of anisogamy.
Bateman suggested that, since males are capable of producing millions of sperm cells with little effort, while females invest
much higher levels of energy in order to nurture a relatively small number of eggs, the female plays a significantly larger
role in their offspring's reproductive success. Bateman‘s paradigm thus views females as the limiting factor due to
parental investment, over which males (intrasexual competition) will compete in order to copulate successfully. Typically
it is the females who have a relatively larger investment in producing each offspring. Bateman attributed the origin of the
unequal investment to the differences in the production of gametes: sperm are cheaper than eggs. A single male can easily
fertilize all females' eggs: she will not produce more offspring by mating with more than one male. Whereas, a male is
capable of fathering more offspring if he mates with several females. By and large, a male's potential reproductive success
is limited by the number of females he mates with, whereas a female's potential reproductive success is limited by how
many eggs she can produce. This results in sexual selection, in which males compete with each other, and females become
choosy in which males to mate with. As a result of being anisogamous, males are fundamentally promiscuous, and females
are fundamentally selective.
These above figures illustrate Bateman‘s principle — after one mating, female mating frequency increases and relative
fitness (reproductive success) remains constant, as the sperm from one mating is adequate to fertilize all the female‘s eggs.
In males, as mating frequency increases relative fitness also increases proportionally.
4.2.1 Types of mating system
1. Monogamy
Social monogamy is the behavioral pairing of a single male with a single female. It is rare in other animals. Theoretically,
individuals in monogamous pairs will both contribute to the defense and parental care of offspring. Because the costs of
poor mate choice in monogamous species can be so high, in some instances organisms engage in strategies of either serial
monogamy or extra pair copulations. Extra-pair copulations are very common in birds. Monogamy reduces the potential
for genetic variation among a female's offspring
2. Polygyny
Polygyny is the association of one male with multiple females. This mating system is found in a few birds and insects, but
is most common in mammals. Polygyny is a strategy used by males to increase their reproductive fitness.
• Resource Defense Polygyny:- Resource defense polygyny, groups of females are attracted to a resource — males then
compete for territorial possession of the resource, and, by extension, mating priority with females at the resource. Thus,
individual males form territories centered on resources needed for successful mating.
• Harems: - Another common type of polygyny is membership in a harem, a defended group of females associated with
one male. Females may initially associate in a harem for group defense, or they may be herded together by a male. Males
compete for control of the groups. Harems typically exhibit a dominance hierarchy among the females in the group.
• Leks: - A lek is an aggregation of males that are each seeking to attract a mate. Within a lek, males typically perform
sexual displays. Aggregations of males may be near particularly attractive females or in areas where females are likely to
travel. It is thought that males form leks because they attract more females than do isolated males. Attracting more
females is a strategy used by males to help increase their reproductive success.
3. Polyandry
Polyandry is a group with one female and many males. For example, honey bee, cricket, and emu. Polyandry is a
reproductive strategy that helps a female ensure reproductive success by providing her with multiple mating options.
• Resource Defense Polyandry: - In the Spotted Sandpiper, female control resources, which in turn controls male mating
associations.
• Cooperative Polyandry: In this case all males in the group copulate with the female and all participate in brood
provisioning
4. Polygynandry
In polygynandrous groups, multiple females and males mate with each other, and males may care for the broods of several
females. Chimpanzees and bonobos rely on this strategy — it allows groups of males and females to live together and
spend less time being concerned with mate competition. Polygynandry may be advantageous from the female's perspective

because it causes paternity confusion, which decreases infanticide and allows her to have multiple males care for her
brood
5. Promiscuity
In promiscuity there are no pair bonds, and males and females, although sometimes choosy, often seem to mate randomly.
As it is typically more advantageous for one or both sexes to pick their mate. For example, bear, wild dogs, etc.
4.2.2 Courtship Displays
Courtship in animals is the behaviour by which different species select their partners for reproduction. Usually, the male
starts the courtship, and the female chooses to either mate or reject the male based on his "performance”.
 The behavior by which different species select their partner for reproduction.
 The visible part of a complex series of events or activities whereby males and females come together for mating.
 It is a set of display behaviors where animal attempts to attract a mate and exhibit their desire to copulate.
Mammals use various strategies in courtship. Pheromones act as sexual lures that bring members of the opposite sex
together. These attractants are so powerful that a male dog can smell a female in estrus more than half a mile (1 km) away.
The fact that at puberty humans begin to produce odorous sweat suggests the role of pheromones in primate courtship.
Sex selection also exists in primates. Females usually choose their male partners, but sometimes the reverse occurs.
Recent research reveals that male lion-tailed macaques remain aloof during the day. At night, however, they seek out
sleeping estrous females for mating.

Until this study, biologists thought that it was the females who initiated mating. In humans, various cultures determine
the customs of courtship. For example, in some societies, marriages are arranged by relatives. In these cases, a woman is
matched to a man with the appropriate resources. Just as other female animals select mates with resources, humans tend
to select mates with wealth and status. Further, even if a woman has no say in the selection of her husband, she will help
arrange the marriage of her offspring. This merely delays female mate choice by a generation.
4.3 Parental care
Parental care is a behavioral and evolutionary strategy adopted by some animals, making a parental investment into the
evolutionary fitness of their offspring. This strategy means that more effort is spent on a relatively small number of
offspring to give each of them a high chance of surviving to reproduce; an opposite strategy is to produce a very large
number of small offspring, often as eggs, which are left to fend for themselves.
Parental care is seen in mammals, which share two major adaptations for care of the young, namely gestation
(development of the embryo inside the mother's body) and production of milk.
Paternal care may provide in concert with the mother (parental care) or, more rarely, by the male alone (so called
exclusive paternal care).
The provision of care, by either males or females, is presumed to increase growth rates, quality, and/or survival of young,
and hence ultimately increase the inclusive fitness of parents. In a variety of vertebrate species (e.g., about 80% of birds.
and about 6% of mammals), both males and females invest heavily in their offspring. Many of these biparental species are
socially monogamous, so individuals remain with their mate for at least one breeding season. Male mammals may invest
heavily in reproduction through efforts to enhance reproductive success (e.g., courtship displays, intrasexual combat) or
to provide paternal care. However, the costs of paternal care have rarely been studied in mammals, in large part because
only 5-10% of mammals exhibit such care. Nonetheless, in those species in which males do provide extensive care for their
offspring (i.e., biparental species, including humans), indirect evidence suggests that its costs can be substantial. For
example, mammalian fathers that care for their young may undergo systematic changes in body mass and in circulating or
excreted concentrations of a number of hormones (e.g., androgens, glucocorticoids, leptin) as a function of reproductive
status, and several of these hormones have important effects on body composition, metabolism, and organismal
performance. Nonetheless, the energetic and performance consequences of male parental investment have rarely been
investigated directly in mammals.
In mammals, paternal care is found most commonly in primates, rodents and canids.
4.3.1Feeding:
Orangutans are long-term parents. Baby orangutans are entirely dependent on their mother and breastfeed up to eight
years in some cases. For the first two years of life, baby orangutans cling to their mother's belly, depending on her for all
transportation. Orangutans teach their young where to find food, what to eat, and how to avoid predators. Orangutans
have such a strong maternal bond that offspring have been seen visiting with their mothers even 15 years after birth.
Meerkats are social creatures, similar to prairie dogs, living in southern Africa. In this society, one alpha male and female
do most of the breeding. Yet, these parents have to go out foraging during the day, much like humans go to work. The
parent meerkats leave their offspring with 'babysitters' back in the burrow. The babysitters watch the offspring, and other
members of their group bring back snacks for the youngsters until they are old enough to forage with the group.
Hyena which have alphas i.e. male and female having birth rights, the litters are nurtured by their females in the pack.
Most of felid (cat family), the cubs are fed breast milk in the initial days and then into meat which are hunted by the
parents and are fed either by bringing the hunt to their cubs or regurgitation.
4.3.2Habitat Selection:
It is done either by learning or instinct. Spatial segregation from predators can be crucial, because species breeding or
foraging far from a predator will have reduced probability of direct encounter with it.
Also individuals of the same or of different species, which compete for similar resources, might benefit from reciprocal
avoidance and spatial segregation to reduce competition.
It may be individual or demography induced and may vary in experienced and non-ideal territory individual (which have
poor selection).
The preferred habitat may be Forest, Grassland, shrubland or mixed which comprises following preferred sites:
• Burrow
• Sand dune
• Litter deposit
• Stagnant Pond
• Tree tops
4.3.3Defense:
Parental care may be done through:
1. Nesting: where male and female or female alone raises the young by making the nest or dens of their own.
2.Protective Nesting Association: Nesting is separate but concentrated where young are nurtured by birth parents but are
protected by the neighboring nesting parents due to integration of parents on protecting their owns from predator e.g. :
sea gull, commorant.
3. Parasitic Parenting: Cuckoo lays their eggs on the nest of other species where the species raises young ones as their own.
4. Extended Kin: Where not only birthing parent but the relatives are engaged in nurturing the young ones e.g.: Elephant,
Monkey, Wolves, and Gorillas.
5. Close association with top predator
4.4 Competition
Competition in an interaction between two organisms that are using the same limited resource. Competition can be within
the same species (intraspecific) or between different species (interspecific).
Competition is an interaction between organisms or species in which both the organisms and species are harmed. Limited
supply of at least one resource (such as food, water, and territory) used by both can be a factor. Competition both within
and between species is an important topic in ecology, especially community ecology. Aggressive behavior often occurs
when individuals compete for the same resources. Animals may compete for territory, water, food, or mates. There are two
basic types of competition: intraspecific and interspecific.
“Competition is an interaction between individuals, brought about by a shared requirement for a resource in limited
supply, and leading to a reduction in the survivorship, growth and/or reproduction of the competing individuals
concerned”. -Begon, et al. Chapter 6

Intraspecific competition occurs between members of the same species. For example, two male deer may compete for
mates by clashing their antlers together.
Four characteristics of intraspecific competition
• The ultimate effect: decreased contribution of individuals to the next generations

• The resource must be in limited supply.
• Competing individuals are all essentially equivalent.
• The effect on any individual increases with increasing number of competitors
Interspecific competition occurs between members of different species.
Individuals of one species suffer reduction in fecundity, survivorship, or growth as a result of exploitation of resources or
interference by individuals from another species.
• May exclude one another from particular habitats (no coexistence)

• Or may coexist (utilize slightly different habitats)
 Intraguild predation is the behavior which involves killing and eating among competitors.
 Alternatively, if species are both predators but do not compete for the same prey the interaction is defined as food chain
omnivory.
By mechanism: Competition occurs by various mechanisms, which can generally be divided into direct and indirect. These
apply equally to intraspecific and interspecific competition. Biologists typically recognize two types of competition:
interference and exploitative competition.
Interference: Interference competition occurs directly between individuals via aggression etc. when the individuals
interfere with foraging, survival, reproduction of others, or by directly preventing their physical establishment in a portion
of the habitat. An example of this can be seen between the ant Novomessor cockerelli and red harvester ants, where the
former interferes with the ability of the latter to forage by plugging the entrances to their colonies with small rocks.
Exploitative: Exploitation competition occurs indirectly through a common limiting resource which acts as an
intermediate. For example, use of resources depletes the amount available to others, or they compete for space.
Apparent: Apparent competition occurs indirectly between two species which are both preyed upon by the same predator.
For example, species A and species B are both prey of predator C. The increase of species A may cause the decrease of
species B, because the increase of As may aid in the survival of predator Cs, which will increase the number of predator Cs,
which in turn will hunt more of species B.
Summary:
 Competition occurs naturally between living organisms that coexist in the same environment and need to compete
for territory, water, food, or mates.
 Competition between members of the same species is the driving force behind natural selection within a species.
 Interspecific competition is generally used to refer to competition between members of different species for the
same limited resources and may or may not involve aggression.
4.5 Migration:
Animal migration is the relatively long-distance movement of individual animals, usually on a seasonal basis. It is the
most common form of migration in ecology. It is found in all major animal groups, including birds, mammals, fish,
reptiles, amphibians, insects, and crustaceans. The trigger for the migration may be local climate, local availability of food,
and the season of the year or for mating reasons. To be counted as a true migration, and not just a local dispersal or
irruption, the movement of the animals should be an annual or seasonal occurrence, such as Northern Hemisphere birds
migrating south for the winter; wildebeest migrating annually for seasonal grazing; or a major habitat change as part of
their life, such as young Atlantic salmon or Sea lamprey leaving the river of their birth when they have reached a few
inches in size.

Migration encompasses four related concepts: persistent straight movement; relocation of an individual on a greater scale
(both spatially and temporally) than its normal daily activities; seasonal to-and-fro movement of a population between
two areas; and movement leading to the redistribution of individuals within a population. Migration can be either
obligate, meaning individuals must migrate, or facultative, meaning individuals can "choose" to migrate or not. Within a
migratory species or even within a single population, often not all individuals migrate. Complete migration is when all
individuals migrate, partial migration is when some individuals migrate while others do not, and differential migration is
when the difference between migratory and non-migratory individuals is based on age or sex.
Many aquatic animals make a Duel vertical migration, travelling a few hundred meters up and down the water column,
while some jellyfish make daily horizontal migrations, traveling a few hundred meters across a lake.
 Irregular (non-cyclical) migrations such as irruptions can occur under pressure of famine, overpopulation of a locality, or
some more obscure influence.
 Seasonal migration is the movement of various species from one habitat to another during the year. Resource availability
changes depending on seasonal fluctuations, which influence migration patterns.

Abiral Mammalogy

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Abiral Mammalogy

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Unit 1: Definition and glossary of mammalogical terms (2)

Arboreal (Scansorial) adaptation: Life on trees.

 Wall and rock climbers: Lizards, Flying Squirrels

1 PWM 612: Mammalogy A.A.

In humans, Normal: 36.5–37.5 °C (97.7–99.5 °F).

Unit 2- General Characters and Classification and

 Mammals are endothermic vertebrates.

a) Mammals can be easily identified by their external ears.

2. Basics for Classification

1. Mode of caring for their young ones.

Classification of Living Mammals

Subclass I: Prototheria (Gr. Protos-first and therios-beast)

• They are highly primitive and reptile like.

• They have only one cloacal opening present.

Subclass II: Theria (Gr. Ther - animal)

Infraclass (i): Metatheria (Gr. Meta - after)

• They are the pouched and viviparous mammals.

Order 2: Marsupialia (Gr. Marsypion - pouch)

Orders classified under Eutheria are described as further.

Order 3: Insectivora (L., Insectum-insect and vorare-to eat)

• These are the small mammals with long pointed snout.

Order 4: Chiroptera (Gr. Cheiros-hand and teron-wings)

Order 6: Edentata (L., edentates - toothless)

Order 7: Pholidota (Gr., pholis – a horny scale)

Order 8: Tubulidentata (L., Tubulus-tubelike and dens - tooth)

• Their tongue is slender and protrusible.

Order 9: Primates (L., Primus – of the first rank)

• Generalized or primitive mammals except for the great development of brain.

Order 10: Rodentia (L., rodo - gnaw)

Order 11: Lagomorpha (Gr. Logos-hare + morphe-form)

Order 12: Cetacea (Gr., ketos or L., cetus a whale)

Order 14: Carnivora (L., Caro – flesh and vorare – to eat)

• Small to large predatory, flesh-eating mammals.

Order 15: Hyracoidea (Gr., Hyrax – shrew and eidos – form)

Order 17: Perissodactyla (Gr., perissos – odd and dactylos – toes)

• The odd-toed hoofed mammals or ungulates have an odd number of toes 1 or 3.

Order 18: Artodactyla (Gr., artios – even and dactylos – digit)

• The even-toed hoofed mammals having an even number of toes i.e. 2 or 4.

7 PWM 612: Mammalogy A.A.

Unit 3: Physiology (8)

9 PWM 612: Mammalogy A.A.

10 PWM 612: Mammalogy A.A.

Accessory organs of Digestion: (search for details)

11 PWM 612: Mammalogy A.A.

Circulatory systems generally have three main features:

Animals that have a circulatory system have one of two kinds:

 Open: fluid is circulated through an open body chamber.

Blood is made up of four major components.

1. Plasma: the liquid portion.

Blood vessels fall into three major classes:

Vertebrate hearts are separated into two types of chambers

Fig: Pulmonary circulation

Fig: Mammalian heart

The process of blood circulation involves:

13 PWM 612: Mammalogy A.A.

“Respiration” is used in several different ways:

Parts of the respiratory system include:

 Nose/nasal cavity or mouth/buccal cavity

14 PWM 612: Mammalogy A.A.

Fig: Gas exchange in alveoli

Mammalian excretory/urinary system:

15 PWM 612: Mammalogy A.A.