Original PDF Physics 11th Edition by John D Cutnell PDF

(Original PDF) Physics, 11th Edition by
John D. Cutnell
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Contents
1 Introduction and Mathematical 4 Forces and Newton’s Laws of Motion 80
Concepts 1
4.1 The Concepts of Force and Mass 80
4.2 Newton’s First Law of Motion 81
1.1 The Nature of Physics 1
4.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 83
1.2 Units 2
4.4 The Vector Nature of Newton’s Second Law of Motion 85
1.3 The Role of Units in Problem Solving 3
4.5 Newton’s Third Law of Motion 86
1.4 Trigonometry 6
4.6 Types of Forces: An Overview 88
1.5 Scalars and Vectors 8
4.7 The Gravitational Force 88
1.6 Vector Addition and Subtraction 10
4.8 The Normal Force 92
1.7 The Components of a Vector 12
4.9 Static and Kinetic Frictional Forces 95
1.8 Addition of Vectors by Means of Components 15
4.10 The Tension Force 101
Concept Summary 19
4.11 Equilibrium Applications of Newton’s Laws
Focus on Concepts 19
of Motion 102
Problems 21
4.12 Nonequilibrium Applications of Newton’s Laws
Additional Problems 24
of Motion 106
Concepts and Calculations Problems 25
Concept Summary 111
Team Problems 26
Problems 114
2 Kinematics in One Dimension 27 Additional Problems 118
2.1 Displacement 27 Team Problems 120
2.2 Speed and Velocity 28
2.3 Acceleration 31 5 Dynamics of Uniform Circular
2.4 Equations of Kinematics for Constant
Acceleration 34
Motion 121
2.5 Applications of the Equations of Kinematics 37
5.1 Uniform Circular Motion 121
2.6 Freely Falling Bodies 41
5.2 Centripetal Acceleration 122
2.7 Graphical Analysis of Velocity and
5.3 Centripetal Force 125
Acceleration 45
5.4 Banked Curves 129
Concept Summary 47
5.5 Satellites in Circular Orbits 130
5.6 Apparent Weightlessness and Artificial Gravity 133
Problems 49
5.7 *Vertical Circular Motion 136
Concept Summary 137
Team Problems 54
Problems 139
3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions 55 Concepts and Calculations Problems 142
Team Problems 143
3.1 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration 55
3.2 Equations of Kinematics in Two Dimensions 56 6 Work and Energy 144
3.3 Projectile Motion 60
3.4 Relative Velocity 68 6.1 Work Done by a Constant Force 144
Concept Summary 72 6.2 The Work–Energy Theorem and Kinetic Energy 147
Focus on Concepts 73 6.3 Gravitational Potential Energy 153
Problems 74 6.4 Conservative Versus Nonconservative Forces 155
Additional Problems 77 6.5 The Conservation of Mechanical Energy 157
Concepts and Calculations Problems 78 6.6 Nonconservative Forces and the Work–Energy
Team Problems 79 Theorem 161
C on te n t s vii
6.7 Power 162 Concept Summary 246

6.8 Other Forms of Energy and the Conservation Focus on Concepts 247
of Energy 164 Problems 248
6.9 Work Done by a Variable Force 164 Additional Problems 254
Concept Summary 166 Concepts and Calculations Problems 255
Focus on Concepts 167 Team Problems 256
Problems 168
10 Simple Harmonic Motion
Team Problems 174 and Elasticity 257
10.1 The Ideal Spring and Simple Harmonic Motion 257

7 Impulse and Momentum 175 10.2 Simple Harmonic Motion and the Reference Circle 261
10.3 Energy and Simple Harmonic Motion 267
7.1 The Impulse–Momentum Theorem 175
10.4 The Pendulum 270
7.2 The Principle of Conservation of Linear
10.5 Damped Harmonic Motion 273
Momentum 179
10.6 Driven Harmonic Motion and Resonance 274
7.3 Collisions in One Dimension 184
10.7 Elastic Deformation 275
7.4 Collisions in Two Dimensions 189
10.8 Stress, Strain, and Hooke’s Law 279
7.5 Center of Mass 189
Concept Summary 280
Concept Summary 192
Problems 282
Problems 194
Team Problems 288
Team Problems 199
11 Fluids 289
8 Rotational Kinematics 200
11.1 Mass Density 289
8.1 Rotational Motion and Angular Displacement 200 11.2 Pressure 291
8.2 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 203 11.3 Pressure and Depth in a Static Fluid 293
8.3 The Equations of Rotational Kinematics 205 11.4 Pressure Gauges 297
8.4 Angular Variables and Tangential Variables 208 11.5 Pascal’s Principle 298
8.5 Centripetal Acceleration and Tangential 11.6 Archimedes’ Principle 300
Acceleration 210 11.7 Fluids in Motion 305
8.6 Rolling Motion 213 11.8 The Equation of Continuity 307
8.7 *The Vector Nature of Angular Variables 214 11.9 Bernoulli’s Equation 309
Concept Summary 215 11.10 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation 311
Focus on Concepts 216 11.11 *Viscous Flow 314
Problems 216 Concept Summary 317
Additional Problems 220 Focus on Concepts 318
Concepts and Calculations Problems 221 Problems 319
Team Problems 222 Additional Problems 323
9 Rotational Dynamics 223 Team Problems 325
9.1 The Action of Forces and Torques on Rigid 12 Temperature and Heat 326
Objects 223
9.2 Rigid Objects in Equilibrium 226 12.1 Common Temperature Scales 326
9.3 Center of Gravity 231 12.2 The Kelvin Temperature Scale 328
9.4 Newton’s Second Law for Rotational Motion About a 12.3 Thermometers 329
Fixed Axis 236 12.4 Linear Thermal Expansion 330
9.5 Rotational Work and Energy 241 12.5 Volume Thermal Expansion 337
9.6 Angular Momentum 244 12.6 Heat and Internal Energy 339
viii Content s
12.7 Heat and Temperature Change: Specific Heat Concept Summary 425
Capacity 340 Focus on Concepts 426
12.8 Heat and Phase Change: Latent Heat 343 Problems 427
12.9 *Equilibrium Between Phases of Matter 347 Additional Problems 431
12.10 *Humidity 350 Concepts and Calculations Problems 432
Concept Summary 352 Team Problems 432
Problems 353 16 Waves and Sound 433
Concepts and Calculations Problems 358 16.1 The Nature of Waves 433
Team Problems 359 16.2 Periodic Waves 435
16.3 The Speed of a Wave on a String 436
13 The Transfer of Heat 360 16.4 *The Mathematical Description of a Wave 439
16.5 The Nature of Sound 439
13.1 Convection 360 16.6 The Speed of Sound 442
13.2 Conduction 363 16.7 Sound Intensity 446
13.3 Radiation 370 16.8 Decibels 448
13.4 Applications 373 16.9 The Doppler Effect 450
Concept Summary 375 16.10 Applications of Sound in Medicine 454
Focus on Concepts 375 16.11 *The Sensitivity of the Human Ear 455
Problems 376 Concept Summary 456
Additional Problems 378 Focus on Concepts 457
Concepts and Calculations Problems 379 Problems 458
Team Problems 379 Additional Problems 463
14 The Ideal Gas Law and Kinetic Team Problems 464
Theory 380
17 The Principle of Linear Superposition
14.1 Molecular Mass, the Mole, and Avogadro’s Number 380 and Interference Phenomena 465
14.2 The Ideal Gas Law 383
14.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases 388 17.1 The Principle of Linear Superposition 465
14.4 *Diffusion 392 17.2 Constructive and Destructive Interference of
Concept Summary 395 Sound Waves 466
Focus on Concepts 396 17.3 Diffraction 470
Problems 397 17.4 Beats 473
Additional Problems 399 17.5 Transverse Standing Waves 474
Concepts and Calculations Problems 400 17.6 Longitudinal Standing Waves 478
Team Problems 400 17.7 *Complex Sound Waves 481
Concept Summary 482
15 Thermodynamics 401 Focus on Concepts 483
Problems 484
15.1 Thermodynamic Systems and Their Surroundings 401 Additional Problems 487
15.2 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 402 Concepts and Calculations Problems 488
15.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics 402 Team Problems 488
15.4 Thermal Processes 404
15.5 Thermal Processes Using an Ideal Gas 408 18 Electric Forces and Electric Fields 489
15.6 Specific Heat Capacities 411
15.7 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 412 18.1 The Origin of Electricity 489
15.8 Heat Engines 413 18.2 Charged Objects and the Electric Force 490
15.9 Carnot’s Principle and the Carnot Engine 414 18.3 Conductors and Insulators 493
15.10 Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps 417 18.4 Charging by Contact and by Induction 493
15.11 Entropy 420 18.5 Coulomb’s Law 495
15.12 The Third Law of Thermodynamics 425 18.6 The Electric Field 500
C on te n t s ix
18.7 Electric Field Lines 505 21 Magnetic Forces and Magnetic

18.8 The Electric Field Inside a Conductor: Shielding 508
18.9 Gauss’ Law 510
Fields 590
18.10 *Copiers and Computer Printers 513
21.1 Magnetic Fields 590
Concept Summary 516
21.2 The Force That a Magnetic Field Exerts on a Moving
Charge 592
Problems 517
21.3 The Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field 595
21.4 The Mass Spectrometer 599
21.5 The Force on a Current in a Magnetic Field 600
Team Problems 522
21.6 The Torque on a Current-Carrying Coil 602
21.7 Magnetic Fields Produced by Currents 605
19 Electric Potential Energy and the 21.8 Ampère’s Law 612
Electric Potential 523 21.9 Magnetic Materials 613
Concept Summary 616
19.1 Potential Energy 523 Focus on Concepts 617
19.2 The Electric Potential Difference 524 Problems 618
19.3 The Electric Potential Difference Created by Point Additional Problems 623
Charges 530 Concepts and Calculations Problems 624
19.4 Equipotential Surfaces and Their Relation to the Team Problems 624
Electric Field 534
19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics 537 22 Electromagnetic Induction 625
19.6 *Biomedical Applications of Electric Potential
Differences 541 22.1 Induced Emf and Induced Current 625
Concept Summary 544 22.2 Motional Emf 627
Focus on Concepts 544 22.3 Magnetic Flux 631
Problems 546 22.4 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction 634
Additional Problems 548 22.5 Lenz’s Law 637
Concepts and Calculations Problems 549 22.6 *Applications of Electromagnetic Induction to the
Team Problems 550 Reproduction of Sound 640
22.7 The Electric Generator 641
20 Electric Circuits 551 22.8 Mutual Inductance and Self-Inductance 646
22.9 Transformers 649
20.1 Electromotive Force and Current 551 Concept Summary 652
20.2 Ohm’s Law 553 Focus on Concepts 653
20.3 Resistance and Resistivity 554 Problems 654
20.4 Electric Power 557 Additional Problems 659
20.5 Alternating Current 559 Concepts and Calculations Problems 659
20.6 Series Wiring 562 Team Problems 660
20.7 Parallel Wiring 565
20.8 Circuits Wired Partially in Series and Partially in 23 Alternating Current Circuits 661
Parallel 569
20.9 Internal Resistance 570 23.1 Capacitors and Capacitive Reactance 661
20.10 Kirchhoff’s Rules 571 23.2 Inductors and Inductive Reactance 664
20.11 The Measurement of Current and Voltage 574 23.3 Circuits Containing Resistance, Capacitance, and
20.12 Capacitors in Series and in Parallel 575 Inductance 665
20.13 RC Circuits 577 23.4 Resonance in Electric Circuits 670
20.14 Safety and the Physiological Effects of Current 579 23.5 Semiconductor Devices 672
Concept Summary 580 Concept Summary 678
Focus on Concepts 581 Focus on Concepts 679
Problems 582 Problems 680
Additional Problems 588 Additional Problems 681
Concepts and Calculations Problems 589 Concepts and Calculations Problems 682
Team Problems 589 Team Problems 683
x Content s
24 Electromagnetic Waves 684 Additional Problems 775

24.1 The Nature of Electromagnetic Waves 684 Team Problems 776
24.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 688
24.3 The Speed of Light 690 27 Interference and the Wave Nature
24.4 The Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves 692 of Light 777
24.5 The Doppler Effect and Electromagnetic Waves 695
24.6 Polarization 697 27.1 The Principle of Linear Superposition 777
Concept Summary 704 27.2 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment 779
Focus on Concepts 704 27.3 Thin-Film Interference 782
Problems 705 27.4 The Michelson Interferometer 786
Additional Problems 708 27.5 Diffraction 787
Concepts and Calculations Problems 709 27.6 Resolving Power 791
Team Problems 710 27.7 The Diffraction Grating 796
27.8 *Compact Discs, Digital Video Discs, and the Use of
25 The Reflection of Light: Mirrors 711 Interference 798
27.9 X-Ray Diffraction 799
25.1 Wave Fronts and Rays 711 Concept Summary 801
25.2 The Reflection of Light 712 Focus on Concepts 802
25.3 The Formation of Images by a Plane Mirror 713 Problems 803
25.4 Spherical Mirrors 716 Additional Problems 805
25.5 The Formation of Images by Spherical Mirrors 718 Concepts and Calculations Problems 806
25.6 The Mirror Equation and the Magnification Team Problems 807
Equation 722
Concept Summary 728
28 Special Relativity 808
Problems 729 28.1 Events and Inertial Reference Frames 808

Additional Problems 731 28.2 The Postulates of Special Relativity 809
Concepts and Calculations Problems 731 28.3 The Relativity of Time: Time Dilation 811
Team Problems 732 28.4 The Relativity of Length: Length Contraction 815
28.5 Relativistic Momentum 817
26 The Refraction of Light: Lenses 28.6 The Equivalence of Mass and Energy 819
and Optical Instruments 733 28.7 The Relativistic Addition of Velocities 824
Concept Summary 827
26.1 The Index of Refraction 733 Focus on Concepts 827
26.2 Snell’s Law and the Refraction of Light 734 Problems 828
26.3 Total Internal Reflection 739 Additional Problems 830
26.4 Polarization and the Reflection and Refraction of Concepts and Calculations Problems 831
Light 745 Team Problems 831
26.5 The Dispersion of Light: Prisms and Rainbows 746
26.6 Lenses 748 29 Particles and Waves 832
26.7 The Formation of Images by Lenses 749
26.8 The Thin-Lens Equation and the Magnification 29.1 The Wave–Particle Duality 832
Equation 752 29.2 Blackbody Radiation and Planck’s Constant 833
26.9 Lenses in Combination 755 29.3 Photons and the Photoelectric Effect 834
26.10 The Human Eye 756 29.4 The Momentum of a Photon and the Compton
26.11 Angular Magnification and the Magnifying Glass 761 Effect 840
26.12 The Compound Microscope 763 29.5 The De Broglie Wavelength and the Wave Nature
26.13 The Telescope 764 of Matter 843
26.14 Lens Aberrations 765 29.6 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 845
Concept Summary 767 Concept Summary 849
Focus on Concepts 768 Focus on Concepts 849
Problems 769 Problems 850
C on te n t s xi
Additional Problems 852 Concept Summary 906

Concepts and Calculations Problems 852 Focus on Concepts 907
Team Problems 852 Problems 908
30 The Nature of the Atom 853
Team Problems 910
30.1 Rutherford Scattering and the Nuclear Atom 853
30.2 Line Spectra 855 32 Ionizing Radiation, Nuclear Energy,
30.3 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 857 and Elementary Particles 911
30.4 De Broglie’s Explanation of Bohr’s Assumption About
Angular Momentum 861 32.1 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation 911
30.5 The Quantum Mechanical Picture of the Hydrogen 32.2 Induced Nuclear Reactions 915
Atom 862 32.3 Nuclear Fission 916
30.6 The Pauli Exclusion Principle and the Periodic Table of 32.4 Nuclear Reactors 919
the Elements 866 32.5 Nuclear Fusion 920
30.7 X-Rays 868 32.6 Elementary Particles 922
30.8 The Laser 872 32.7 Cosmology 928
30.9 *Medical Applications of the Laser 874 Concept Summary 931
30.10 *Holography 876 Focus on Concepts 932
Concept Summary 878 Problems 932
Focus on Concepts 879 Additional Problems 934
Problems 880 Concepts and Calculations Problems 935
Additional Problems 883 Team Problems 935
Team Problems 883 Appendixes A-1
31 Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity 885 APPENDIX A Powers of Ten and Scientific Notation A-1
APPEN DIX B Significant Figures A-1
31.1 Nuclear Structure 885
APPEN DIX C Algebra A-2
31.2 The Strong Nuclear Force and the Stability of the
Nucleus 887 APPEN DIX D Exponents and Logarithms A-3
31.3 The Mass Defect of the Nucleus and Nuclear Binding APPEN DIX E Geometry and Trigonometry A-4
Energy 888 APPEN DIX F Selected Isotopes A-5
31.4 Radioactivity 890
31.5 The Neutrino 896 A NS W E RS TO CH E CK YO UR UNDERSTANDING A-10
31.6 Radioactive Decay and Activity 897
31.7 Radioactive Dating 900 A NS W E RS TO O DD-NU M B E R ED PR OBLEMS A-18
31.8 Radioactive Decay Series 903
31.9 Radiation Detectors 904 INDE X I-1
Note: Chapter sections marked with an asterisk (*) can be omitted with little impact to the overall development of the material.
Our Vision and the WileyPLUS
with ORION Advantage
physics principles come into play over and over again in their lives. To
Our Vision emphasize this goal, we have included a wide range of applications of
physics principles. Many of these applications are biomedical in nature
Our goal is to provide students with the skills they need (for example, wireless capsule endoscopy). Others deal with modern
to succeed in this course, and instructors with the tools technology (for example, 3-D movies). Still others focus on things that
they need to develop those skills. we take for granted in our lives (for example, household plumbing). To
call attention to the applications we have used the label The Physics of.
Skills Development
One of the great strengths of this text is the synergistic relationship The WileyPLUS with ORION
between conceptual understanding, problem solving, and establish-
ing relevance. We identify here some of the core features of the text
that support these synergies.
Advantage
WileyPLUS is an innovative, research-based online environment for
Conceptual Understanding Students often regard physics as effective teaching and learning. The hallmark of WileyPLUS with
a collection of equations that can be used blindly to solve problems. How- ORION for this text is that the media- and text-based resources are
ever, a good problem-solving technique does not begin with equations. It all created by the authors of the project, providing a seamless present-
starts with a firm grasp of physics concepts and how they fit together to ation of content.
provide a coherent description of natural phenomena. Helping students
develop a conceptual understanding of physics principles is a primary WileyPLUS builds students’ confidence because it takes the guess-
goal of this text. The features in the text that work toward this goal are: work out of studying by providing students with a clear roadmap:
what to do, how to do it, if they did it right.
• Lecture Videos (one for each section of the text)
With WileyPLUS, our efficacy research shows that students improve
• Conceptual Examples their outcomes by as much as one letter grade. WileyPLUS helps
• Concepts & Calculations problems (now with video solutions) students take more initiative, so you’ll have greater impact on their
• Focus on Concepts homework material achievement in the classroom and beyond.
• Check Your Understanding questions
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• WileyPLUS Quickstart: WileyPLUS comes with a pre-created
Problem Solving The ability to reason in an organized and course plan designed by the author team exclusively for this
mathematically correct manner is essential to solving problems, and course. The course plan includes both conceptual assignments and
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primary goals. To this end, we have included the following features:
• Breadth and Depth of Assessment: WileyPLUS contains a
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• Explicit reasoning steps in all examples work and assessment including:
• Reasoning Strategies for solving certain classes of problems • ALL end-of-chapter questions, plus favorites from past editions
not found in the printed text, coded algorithmically, each with at
• Analyzing Multiple-Concept Problems least one form of instructor-controlled question assistance (GO
• Video Support and Tutorials (in WileyPLUS) tutorials, hints, link to text, video help)
Physics Demonstration Videos • Simulation, animation, and video-based questions
Video Help • Free body and vector drawing questions
Concept Simulations • Test bank questions
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Relevance Since it is always easier to learn something new if progress toward learning objectives, thereby helping instructors’
it can be related to day-to-day living, we want to show students that decisions and driving classroom discussion.
O u r V is io n a n d t h e Wi l e yP LUS wi t h ORION A dvan tage xiii
With WileyPLUS, students receive: Team Problems In each chapter we have introduced two new
“team problems” in the end-of-chapter problems that are designed for
• The complete digital textbook, saving students up to 60% off the group problem-solving exercises. These are context-rich problems of
cost of a printed text medium difficulty designed for group cooperation, but may also be
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online digital textbook parts of an adventure story, where the student (or their team) is the main
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pronoun “you” is used throughout, and the problem statements often
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tions, video demonstrations, and much more—that provide mul- are not given with these problems except in rare cases. Students must
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• GO Tutorials bers to solve them. The problems require two or more steps/multiple
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New to WileyPlus for the The Physics of Problems The text now contains 294 real-
world application examples that reflect our commitment to showing
Eleventh Edition students how relevant physics is in their lives. Each application is
identified in the text with the label The Physics of. A subset of these
examples focuses on biomedical applications, and we have increased
Lecture Videos Short video lectures (259 in all!) have been
their number by 40% in the new edition. Students majoring in bio-
created and are narrated by the authors for every section of the book.
medical and life sciences will find new examples in every chapter
These animated lectures are 2–10 minutes in length, and introduce the
covering topics such as cooling the human brain, abdominal aortic
basic concepts and learning objectives of each section. Each video is
aneurysms, the mechanical properties of bone, and many more! The
accompanied by questions that can be assigned and graded within
application of physics principles to biomedical problems in these
WileyPLUS, which are designed to check the students’ understanding
examples is similar to what premed students will encounter in the
of the video lecture content. Other than providing another learning
Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems Passages
medium that can be accessed by the students at their convenience,
section of the MCAT. All biomedical examples and end-of-chapter
these videos are designed to accommodate other learning strategies.
problems will be marked with the BIO icon.
For instance, an instructor can create a full video lecture by building a
sequence of videos, section by section, and assigning corresponding
questions that the students must complete before class. This func- EXA M P L E 7 BIO The Physics of Hearing Loss—
tionality is well suited for “flipping the classroom,” although it also
serves a purpose for conventional lecturing, such as reading quizzes
Standing Waves in the Ear
that can be administered outside of lecture. The videos also serve
well for reviewing before exams. This comprehensive set of custom- Inner ear
izable lectures and questions is also suitable for online courses, where Anvil Semicircular Cochlea
students otherwise rely solely on written content. Hammer
canals
2.3 cm
Auditory
nerve
Pinna Eustachian
Tympanic Stirrup Oval
tube
Auditory membrane window
canal
Middle ear
Outer ear
Interactive Graphics The online reading experience within

WileyPLUS has been enhanced with the addition of “Interactive
Graphics.” Several static figures in each chapter have been trans-
formed to include interactive elements. These graphics drive students
to be more engaged with the extensive art program and allow them to
more easily absorb complex and/or long multi-part figures.
xiv Our Vision and the Wi l e y PLUS w i th OR IO N Ad va nta ge
Also Available in WileyPLUS WileyPLUS is used to construct the diagram. It is essential for stu-
dents to practice drawing FBDs, as that is the critical first step in
Free-Body Diagram (FBD) Tools For many problems solving many equilibrium and non-equilibrium problems with
involving multiple forces, an interactive free-body diagram tool in Newton’s second law.
Free-body
diagram window
Easy to use
“snap-to-grid
functionality”
Students are
graded on the
orientation and
labeling of the
forces
GO Tutorial Problems Some of the homework problems or WebAssign. There are now 550 GO problems in the tenth edition.
found in the collection at the end of each chapter are marked with a Each of these problems in WileyPLUS includes a guided tutorial
special GO icon. All of these problems are available for assignment option (not graded) that instructors can make available for student
via an online homework management program such as WileyPLUS access with or without penalty.
The GO tutorial
Multiple-choice questions in the GO

tutorial include extensive feedback for
both correct and incorrect answers
Access to the GO Access to a relevant Answer input,

tutorial text example including direction
and units Multiple-choice questions guide
students to the proper conceptual
basis for the problem. The GO
tutorial also includes calculational
steps
O u r V is io n a n d t h e Wi l e yP LUS wi t h ORION A dvan tage xv
ORION
WileyPLUS with ORION provides students with a personal, The questions used for the adaptive practice are numerous and
adaptive learning experience so they can build their proficiency on are not found in the WileyPLUS assignment area. This ensures that
concepts and use their study time effectively. students will not be encountering questions in ORION that they may
Unique to ORION, students begin by taking a quick diagnostic also encounter in their WileyPLUS assessments.
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ORION includes a number of reports and ongoing recommend-
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for each topic. Students can easily access ORION from multiple
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adaptive learning system.
About the Adaptive Engine ORION includes a powerful

algorithm that feeds questions to students based on their responses
to the diagnostic and to the practice questions. Students who answer How to access WileyPLUS with ORION
questions correctly at one difficulty level will soon be given ques-
tions at the next difficulty level. If students start to answer some To access WileyPLUS, students need a WileyPLUS registration code.
of those questions incorrectly, the system will present questions of This can be purchased stand-alone or the code can be bundled with
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xvi Our Vision and the Wi l e y PLUS w i th OR IO N Ad va nta ge
Acknowledgments
The publishing world is changing rapidly! The digital age is here, and college you for staying committed to the Cutnell franchise, providing us such a great
textbooks must evolve with the times. How today’s students obtain and pro- team to improve the text, and being such a strong advocate for the physics
cess information is very different than it was just 10 years ago. Our goal as program at Wiley.
authors is to provide the best content we can and deliver it to today’s students Last, but certainly not least, we thank the sales representatives of John
in ways that are both efficient and pedagogically effective. This paradigm Wiley & Sons, Inc. You are very special members of our team. Your profes-
shift in textbook publishing from largely print-based media to both print and sionalism and knowledge of the book’s features, the online content, and its
digital content leads to uncharted waters, and we rely, now more than ever, on functionality is pivotal to the success of the book. We are very grateful for
a talented team of people who are essential in completing such an enormous your tireless promotional efforts.
and multifaceted project. As the authors, we are immensely grateful for their We are particularly indebted to Dayna Leaman. More than just our local
guidance and insight. Account Manager, she is also our friend. You have been supportive on so
We would like to especially acknowledge Jessica Fiorillo, our Executive many levels, and we are absolutely certain that we would not have been af-
Editor. We depend upon her experience and vast knowledge of the industry, forded this wonderful opportunity had it not been for your support. Managing
as well as her encouragement and suggestions. Creating the new content for multiple adoptions across several states is not easy, and we benefit greatly
this edition has been, at times, tedious, to say the least. Her infectious enthu- from your hard work. Thank you, Dayna!
siasm has kept us going, and we are certainly grateful for that. Many of our physics colleagues and their students have generously
We had the pleasure of working with our Production Editor, Elizabeth shared their ideas about good pedagogy with us and improved the text by
Swain, on the previous edition of the book and during the early stages of pointing out our errors. For all of their suggestions, we are grateful. They
this new edition. She has been a consummate professional during the copy- have helped us to write more clearly and accurately and have influenced
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considering her long career at Wiley, we and the title have benefited greatly editions, we especially owe a large debt of gratitude. Specifically, we thank:
from her hard work and experience.
We owe a tremendous thank you to our Project Manager, Jennifer Yee, Lai Cao, Baton Rouge Magnet High School
for managing our revision timeline and assuming much of the responsibility Candee Chambers-Colbeck, Maryville University
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One of the many facets of the book is the extensive supplemental pack- synaptic gap between an axon and a dendrite of a human nerve cell. Just like
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Ayantika Chatterjee, and Assistant Development Editor, Lindsey Myers, for tions in circuits called neural pathways. The transmission of chemical signals
the flawless assembly of these important components. between the axon and dendrite relies on the electrical potential difference
We are also grateful to Ayantika Chatterjee, Editorial Assistant, for help across the gap, which is a topic in Volume 2 of the text. Our hope is that this
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We owe a special thank you to Petra Recter, who was a former publisher your own!
on this title and who now is the Vice President & Director of Science. Thank
In spite of our best efforts to produce an error-free book, errors no doubt remain. They are solely our responsibility, and we would appreciate hearing of any that
you find. We hope that this text makes learning and teaching physics easier and more enjoyable, and we look forward to hearing about your experiences with
it. Please feel free to write us care of Physics Editor, Global Education, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, or contact the authors
at dyoun14@gmail.com or sstadler23@gmail.com.
CHAPTER 1
Photo 12/Alamy Stock Photo

The animation techniques and special effects used in the film The Avengers rely on computers and
mathematical concepts such as trigonometry and vectors. Such mathematical concepts will be very useful
throughout this book in our discussion of physics.
Introduction and LEARNING O BJ ECTIVES
After reading this module, you should be able

to...
Mathematical Concepts 1.1 Describe the fundamental nature of

physics.
1.2 Describe different systems of units.
1.3 Solve unit conversion problems.
1.4 Solve trigonometry problems.
1.1 The Nature of Physics 1.5 Distinguish between vectors and scalars.
Physics is the most basic of the sciences, and it is at the very root of subjects like chem- 1.6 Solve vector addition and subtraction
istry, engineering, astronomy, and even biology. The discipline of physics has developed problems by graphical methods.
over many centuries, and it continues to evolve. It is a mature science, and its laws en- 1.7 Calculate vector components.
compass a wide scope of phenomena that range from the formation of galaxies to the in-
teractions of particles in the nuclei of atoms. Perhaps the most visible evidence of physics 1.8 Solve vector addition and subtraction
in everyday life is the eruption of new applications that have improved our quality of life, problems using components.
such as new medical devices, and advances in computers and high-tech communications.
The exciting feature of physics is its capacity for predicting how nature will be-
have in one situation on the basis of experimental data obtained in another situation.
Such predictions place physics at the heart of modern technology and, therefore, can
have a tremendous impact on our lives. Rocketry and the development of space travel
have their roots firmly planted in the physical laws of Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) and
Isaac Newton (1642–1727). The transportation industry relies heavily on physics in
the development of engines and the design of aerodynamic vehicles. Entire electronics
and computer industries owe their existence to the invention of the transistor, which
grew directly out of the laws of physics that describe the electrical behavior of solids.
The telecommunications industry depends extensively on electromagnetic waves, 1
2 CH APTE R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts
TA B L E 1. 1 Units of Measurement
System
Courtesy NIST Archives
SI CGS BE
Length Meter (m) Centimeter (cm) Foot (ft)
Mass Kilogram (kg) Gram (g) Slug (sl)
Time Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)
FIGURE 1.1 The standard platinum–iridium whose existence was predicted by James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) in his theory of electricity
meter bar.
and magnetism. The medical profession uses X-ray, ultrasonic, and magnetic resonance methods
for obtaining images of the interior of the human body, and physics lies at the core of all these.
Perhaps the most widespread impact in modern technology is that due to the laser. Fields ranging
from space exploration to medicine benefit from this incredible device, which is a direct applica-
tion of the principles of atomic physics.
Because physics is so fundamental, it is a required course for students in a wide range of
major areas. We welcome you to the study of this fascinating topic. You will learn how to see the
world through the “eyes” of physics and to reason as a physicist does. In the process, you will
learn how to apply physics principles to a wide range of problems. We hope that you will come
to recognize that physics has important things to say about your environment.
Science Source
1.2 Units
Physics experiments involve the measurement of a variety of quantities, and a great deal of effort
FIGURE 1.2 The standard platinum–iridium
goes into making these measurements as accurate and reproducible as possible. The first step toward
kilogram is kept at the International Bureau ensuring accuracy and reproducibility is defining the units in which the measurements are made.
of Weights and Measures in Sèvres, France. In this text, we emphasize the system of units known as SI units, which stands for the French
This copy of it was assigned to the United phrase “Le Système International d’Unités.” By international agreement, this system employs
States in 1889 and is housed at the National the meter (m) as the unit of length, the kilogram (kg) as the unit of mass, and the second (s) as
Institute of Standards and Technology. the unit of time. Two other systems of units are also in use, however. The CGS system utilizes the
centimeter (cm), the gram (g), and the second for length, mass, and time, respectively, and the
BE or British Engineering system (the gravitational version) uses the foot (ft), the slug (sl), and
the second. Table 1.1 summarizes the units used for length, mass, and time in the three systems.
Originally, the meter was defined in terms of the distance measured along the earth’s surface
between the north pole and the equator. Eventually, a more accurate measurement standard was
needed, and by international agreement the meter became the distance between two marks on
a bar of platinum–iridium alloy (see Figure 1.1) kept at a temperature of 0 °C. Today, to meet
further demands for increased accuracy, the meter is defined as the distance that light travels in a
vacuum in a time of 1/299 792 458 second. This definition arises because the speed of light is a
universal constant that is defined to be 299 792 458 m/s.
The definition of a kilogram as a unit of mass has also undergone changes over the years.
As Chapter 4 discusses, the mass of an object indicates the tendency of the object to continue
in motion with a constant velocity. Originally, the kilogram was expressed in terms of a specific
amount of water. Today, one kilogram is defined to be the mass of a standard cylinder of platinum–
iridium alloy, like the one in Figure 1.2.
As with the units for length and mass, the present definition of the second as a unit of time is
different from the original definition. Originally, the second was defined according to the average
time for the earth to rotate once about its axis, one day being set equal to 86 400 seconds. The earth’s
© Geoffrey Wheeler
rotational motion was chosen because it is naturally repetitive, occurring over and over again. Today,
we still use a naturally occurring repetitive phenomenon to define the second, but of a very different
kind. We use the electromagnetic waves emitted by cesium-133 atoms in an atomic clock like that
in Figure 1.3. One second is defined as the time needed for 9 192 631 770 wave cycles to occur.*
The units for length, mass, and time, along with a few other units that will arise later, are
regarded as base SI units. The word “base” refers to the fact that these units are used along with
FIGURE 1.3 This atomic clock, the
NIST-F1, keeps time with an uncertainty of
about one second in sixty million years. *See Chapter 16 for a discussion of waves in general and Chapter 24 for a discussion of electromagnetic waves in particular.
various laws to define additional units for other important physical quantities, such as force and Standard Prefixes Used to
energy. The units for such other physical quantities are referred to as derived units, since they are TA B L E 1 . 2 Denote Multiples of Ten
combinations of the base units. Derived units will be introduced from time to time, as they arise
naturally along with the related physical laws. Prefix Symbol Factor a
The value of a quantity in terms of base or derived units is sometimes a very large or very tera T 1012
small number. In such cases, it is convenient to introduce larger or smaller units that are related giga G 109
to the normal units by multiples of ten. Table 1.2 summarizes the prefixes that are used to denote
mega M 106
multiples of ten. For example, 1000 or 103 meters are referred to as 1 kilometer (km), and 0.001
or 10 −3 meter is called 1 millimeter (mm). Similarly, 1000 grams and 0.001 gram are referred kilo k 103
to as 1 kilogram (kg) and 1 milligram (mg), respectively. Appendix A contains a discussion of hecto h 102
scientific notation and powers of ten, such as 103 and 10 −3. deka da 101
deci d 10−1
1.3 The Role of Units in Problem Solving centi

milli
c
m
10−2
10−3
micro μ 10−6
The Conversion of Units nano n 10−9
Since any quantity, such as length, can be measured in several different units, it is important to pico p 10−12
know how to convert from one unit to another. For instance, the foot can be used to express the femto f 10−15
distance between the two marks on the standard platinum–iridium meter bar. There are 3.281 feet a
Appendix A contains a discussion of powers of ten and
in one meter, and this number can be used to convert from meters to feet, as the following example scientific notation.
demonstrates.
E XAMPLE 1 The World’s Highest Waterfall
The highest waterfall in the world is Angel Falls in Venezuela, with a total
drop of 979.0 m (see Figure 1.4). Express this drop in feet.
Reasoning When converting between units, we write down the units

explicitly in the calculations and treat them like any algebraic quantity.
In particular, we will take advantage of the following algebraic fact:
Multiplying or dividing an equation by a factor of 1 does not alter an
equation.
Solution Since 3.281 feet = 1 meter, it follows that (3.281 feet)/

(1 meter) = 1. Using this factor of 1 to multiply the equation “Length =
979.0 meters,” we find that
3.281 feet
Length = (979.0 m) (1) = (979.0 meters)
( 1 meter ) = 3212 feet
The colored lines emphasize that the units of meters behave like any al-
gebraic quantity and cancel when the multiplication is performed, leaving
only the desired unit of feet to describe the answer. In this regard, note
that 3.281 feet = 1 meter also implies that (1 meter)/(3.281 feet) = 1.
However, we chose not to multiply by a factor of 1 in this form, because © Andoni Canela/Age Fotostock
the units of meters would not have canceled.
A calculator gives the answer as 3212.099 feet. Standard proced-
ures for significant figures, however, indicate that the answer should be
rounded off to four significant figures, since the value of 979.0 meters is
accurate to only four significant figures. In this regard, the “1 meter” in
the denominator does not limit the significant figures of the answer, be-
cause this number is precisely one meter by definition of the conversion
factor. Appendix B contains a review of significant figures.
FIGURE 1.4 Angel Falls in Venezuela is the highest
waterfall in the world.
Problem-Solving Insight In any conversion, if the units do not combine algebraically to

give the desired result, the conversion has not been carried out properly.
With this in mind, the next example stresses the importance of writing down the units and
illustrates a typical situation in which several conversions are required.
E XAM PLE 2 Interstate Speed Limit
Express the speed limit of 65 miles/hour in terms of meters/second. miles

Speed = (65 (1) (1) =
Reasoning As in Example 1, it is important to write down the units hour )
explicitly in the calculations and treat them like any algebraic quantity. miles 5280 feet 1 hour feet
Here, we take advantage of two well-known relationships—namely, (65 hour ) ( 1 mile ) ( 3600 seconds ) = 95 second
5280 feet = 1 mile and 3600 seconds = 1 hour. As a result, (5280 feet)/
(1 mile) = 1 and (3600 seconds)/(1 hour) = 1. In our solution we will use To convert feet into meters, we use the fact that (1 meter)/(3.281 feet) = 1:
the fact that multiplying and dividing by these factors of unity does not
feet
alter an equation. Speed = (95 (1) =
second )
Solution Multiplying and dividing by factors of unity, we find the speed feet 1 meter meters
(95 second ) ( 3.281 feet )
limit in feet per second as shown below: = 29
second
In addition to their role in guiding the use of conversion factors, units serve a useful purpose
in solving problems. They can provide an internal check to eliminate errors, if they are carried
along during each step of a calculation and treated like any algebraic factor.
Problem-Solving Insight In particular, remember that only quantities with the same units
can be added or subtracted.
Thus, at one point in a calculation, if you find yourself adding 12 miles to 32 kilometers, stop and
reconsider. Either miles must be converted into kilometers or kilometers must be converted into
miles before the addition can be carried out.
A collection of useful conversion factors is given on the page facing the inside of the front
cover. The reasoning strategy that we have followed in Examples 1 and 2 for converting between
units is outlined as follows:
REASONING STRATEGY Converting Between Units

1. In all calculations, write down the units explicitly.
2. Treat all units as algebraic quantities. In particular, when identical units are divided,
they are eliminated algebraically.
3. Use the conversion factors located on the page facing the inside of the front cover. Be
guided by the fact that multiplying or dividing an equation by a factor of 1 does not alter
the equation. For instance, the conversion factor of 3.281 feet = 1 meter might be applied
in the form (3.281 feet)/(1 meter) = 1. This factor of 1 would be used to multiply an equa-
tion such as “Length = 5.00 meters” in order to convert meters to feet.
4. Check to see that your calculations are correct by verifying that the units combine algeb-
raically to give the desired unit for the answer. Only quantities with the same units can
be added or subtracted.
Sometimes an equation is expressed in a way that requires specific units to be used for the
variables in the equation. In such cases it is important to understand why only certain units can
be used in the equation, as the following example illustrates.
E XAM PLE 3 BIO The Physics of the Body Mass Index
The body mass index (BMI) takes into account your mass in kilograms However, the BMI is often computed using the weight* of a person in
(kg) and your height in meters (m) and is defined as follows: pounds (lb) and his or her height in inches (in.). Thus, the expression for
the BMI incorporates these quantities, rather than the mass in kilograms
Mass in kg and the height in meters. Starting with the definition above, determine the
BMI =
(Height in m) 2 expression for the BMI that uses pounds and inches.
*Weight and mass are different concepts, and the relationship between them will be discussed in Section 4.7.
Reasoning We will begin with the BMI definition and work separately 1 kg 12 in. 2 3.281 ft 2 (Weight in lb)
=(
with the numerator and the denominator. We will determine the mass in 2.205 lb )( 1 ft ) ( 1 m ) (Height in in.) 2
kilograms that appears in the numerator from the weight in pounds by using
the fact that 1 kg corresponds to 2.205 lb. Then, we will determine the height kg · in.2 (Weight in lb)
BMI = (703.0
in meters that appears in the denominator from the height in inches with the lb · m2 ) (Height in in.) 2
aid of the facts that 1 m = 3.281 ft and 1 ft = 12 in. These conversion factors
are located on the page facing the inside of the front cover of the text. For example, if your weight and height are 180 lb and 71 in., your body
Solution Since 1 kg corresponds to 2.205 lb, the mass in kilograms can mass index is 25 kg/m2. The BMI can be used to assess approximately
be determined from the weight in pounds in the following way: whether your weight is normal for your height (see Table 1.3).
1 kg
Mass in kg = (Weight in lb) (
2.205 lb )
Since 1 ft = 12 in. and 1 m = 3.281 ft, we have TA B L E 1. 3 The Body Mass Index
1 ft 1m BMI (kg/m2) Evaluation
Height in m = (Height in in.) (
12 in. ) ( 3.281 ft )
Below 18.5 Underweight
Substituting these results into the numerator and denominator of the BMI
definition gives 18.5–24.9 Normal
1 kg 25.0–29.9 Overweight
(Weight in lb) (
Mass in kg 2.205 lb )
BMI = = 30.0–39.9 Obese
2
(Height in m) 1 ft 2 1m 2
(Height in in.) 2 ( 40 and above Morbidly obese
12 in. ) ( 3.281 ft )
Dimensional Analysis
We have seen that many quantities are denoted by specifying both a number and a unit. For
example, the distance to the nearest telephone may be 8 meters, or the speed of a car might be
25 meters/second. Each quantity, according to its physical nature, requires a certain type of unit.
Distance must be measured in a length unit such as meters, feet, or miles, and a time unit will not
do. Likewise, the speed of an object must be specified as a length unit divided by a time unit. In
physics, the term dimension is used to refer to the physical nature of a quantity and the type of
unit used to specify it. Distance has the dimension of length, which is symbolized as [L], while
speed has the dimensions of length [L] divided by time [T], or [L/T]. Many physical quantities
can be expressed in terms of a combination of fundamental dimensions such as length [L], time
[T], and mass [M]. Later on, we will encounter certain other quantities, such as temperature,
which are also fundamental. A fundamental quantity like temperature cannot be expressed as a
combination of the dimensions of length, time, mass, or any other fundamental dimension.
Dimensional analysis is used to check mathematical relations for the consistency of their
dimensions. As an illustration, consider a car that starts from rest and accelerates to a speed υ in
a time t. Suppose we wish to calculate the distance x traveled by the car but are not sure whether
1 1
the correct relation is x = 2 𝜐t 2 or x = 2 𝜐t. We can decide by checking the quantities on both sides
of the equals sign to see whether they have the same dimensions. If the dimensions are not the
1
same, the relation is incorrect. For x = 2 𝜐t 2, we use the dimensions for distance [L], time [T], and
speed [L/T] in the following way:
1
x = 2 𝜐t 2
L
Dimensions [L] ≟ [ ] [T] 2 = [L][T]
T
1
Dimensions cancel just like algebraic quantities, and pure numerical factors like 2 have no dimen-
sions, so they can be ignored. The dimension on the left of the equals sign does not match those
1
on the right, so the relation x = 2 𝜐t 2 cannot be correct. On the other hand, applying dimensional
1
analysis to x = 2 𝜐t, we find that
1
x = 2 𝜐t 2
L
Dimensions [L] ≟ [ ] [T] = [L]
T
Problem-Solving Insight You can check for errors that may have arisen during algebraic
manipulations by performing a dimensional analysis on the final expression.
The dimension on the left of the equals sign matches that on the right, so this relation is dimen-
1
sionally correct. If we know that one of our two choices is the right one, then x = 2 𝜐t is it. In the
absence of such knowledge, however, dimensional analysis cannot identify the correct relation.
It can only identify which choices may be correct, since it does not account for numerical factors
1
like 2 or for the manner in which an equation was derived from physics principles.
Check Your Understanding

(The answers are given at the end of the book.)
1. (a) Is it possible for two quantities to have the same dimensions but different units?
(b) Is it possible for two quantities to have the same units but different dimensions?
2. You can always add two numbers that have the same units (such as 6 meters + 3 meters). Can you always add
two numbers that have the same dimensions, such as two numbers that have the dimensions of length [L]?
3. The following table lists four variables, along with their units:
Variable Units
x Meters (m)
υ Meters per second (m/s)
t Seconds (s)
a Meters per second squared (m/s2)
These variables appear in the following equations, along with a few numbers that have no units. In which
of the equations are the units on the left side of the equals sign consistent with the units on the right side?
1
(a) x = 𝜐t (d) 𝜐 = at + 2 at 3
1
(b) x = 𝜐t + 2 at 2 (e) 𝜐 3 = 2ax 2
2x
(c) 𝜐 = at (f) t = √
a
4. In the equation y = cnat2 you wish to determine the integer value (1, 2, etc.) of the exponent n. The di-
mensions of y, a, and t are known. It is also known that c has no dimensions. Can dimensional analysis
be used to determine n?
h = hypotenuse
ho = length of side
1.4 Trigonometry
opposite the
90° angle θ Scientists use mathematics to help them describe how the physical universe works, and tri-
θ
gonometry is an important branch of mathematics. Three trigonometric functions are utilized
ha = length of side throughout this text. They are the sine, the cosine, and the tangent of the angle θ (Greek theta),
adjacent to the angle θ
abbreviated as sin θ, cos θ, and tan θ, respectively. These functions are defined below in terms
INTERACTIVE FIGURE 1.5 A right triangle. of the symbols given along with the right triangle in Interactive Figure 1.5.
DEFINITION OF SIN θ, COS θ, AND TAN θ
ho
sin θ = (1.1)
h
ha
cos θ = (1.2)
h
ho
tan θ = (1.3)
ha
h = length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle
ho = length of the side opposite the angle θ
ha = length of the side adjacent to the angle θ
1.4 Trigonometry 7
The sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle are numbers without units, because each is the ratio of the
lengths of two sides of a right triangle. Example 4 illustrates a typical application of Equation 1.3.
E XAMPLE 4 Using Trigonometric Functions
On a sunny day, a tall building casts a shadow that is 67.2 m long. The
angle between the sun’s rays and the ground is θ = 50.0°, as Figure 1.6
shows. Determine the height of the building.
Reasoning We want to find the height of the building. Therefore, we

begin with the colored right triangle in Figure 1.6 and identify the height
as the length ho of the side opposite the angle θ. The length of the shadow
is the length ha of the side that is adjacent to the angle θ. The ratio of the
length of the opposite side to the length of the adjacent side is the tangent
of the angle θ, which can be used to find the height of the building. ho
Solution We use the tangent function in the following way, with θ =

50.0° and ha = 67.2 m:
θ = 50.0°
ho
tan θ = (1.3)
ha
ha = 67.2 m
ho = ha tan θ = (67.2 m) (tan 50.0°) = (67.2 m) (1.19) = 80.0 m
FIGURE 1.6 From a value for the angle θ and the length ha of the
The value of tan 50.0° is found by using a calculator. shadow, the height ho of the building can be found using trigonometry.
The sine, cosine, or tangent may be used in calculations such as that in Example 4, depend-
ing on which side of the triangle has a known value and which side is asked for.
Problem-Solving Insight However, the choice of which side of the triangle to label ho
(opposite) and which to label ha (adjacent) can be made only after the angle θ is identified.
Often the values for two sides of the right triangle in Interactive Figure 1.5 are available,
and the value of the angle θ is unknown. The concept of inverse trigonometric functions plays
an important role in such situations. Equations 1.4–1.6 give the inverse sine, inverse cosine, and
inverse tangent in terms of the symbols used in the drawing. For instance, Equation 1.4 is read as
“θ equals the angle whose sine is ho/h.”
ho
θ = sin−1 (1.4)
(h)
ha
θ = cos−1 (1.5)
(h)
ho
θ = tan−1 (1.6)
( ha )
The use of −1 as an exponent in Equations 1.4–1.6 does not mean “take the reciprocal.” For
instance, tan−1 (ho /ha) does not equal 1/tan (ho /ha). Another way to express the inverse trigono-
metric functions is to use arc sin, arc cos, and arc tan instead of sin−1, cos−1, and tan−1. Example 5
illustrates the use of an inverse trigonometric function.
E XAMPLE 5 Using Inverse Trigonometric Functions
A lakefront drops off gradually at an angle θ, as Figure 1.7 indicates. and drops a weighted fishing line. By measuring the length of the line,
For safety reasons, it is necessary to know how deep the lake is at vari- the lifeguard determines the depth to be 2.25 m. (a) What is the value
ous distances from the shore. To provide some information about the of θ? (b) What would be the depth d of the lake at a distance of 22.0 m
depth, a lifeguard rows straight out from the shore a distance of 14.0 m from the shore?
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Emperor T’ung-Chih, in accordance with precedent and the laws of
the Dynasty. The text of this remarkable document is as follows:—
“I, your worthless servant, have heard that the fact of a

nation being well governed does not necessarily preclude all
possibility of anarchy, nor does a nation at peace dismiss
altogether from mind the chances of violent disturbance;
should anarchy and rebellion be regarded as possibilities too
remote to merit a thought, it were idle and superfluous to
advise the Sovereign of so perfect a State. To ask the
Imperial wisdom to see danger where no real peril exists
would be simply inviting evil omens.
“On a former occasion I, your guilty servant, wittingly
incurred danger of death or imprisonment, because, in the
heat of indignation, I dared to remonstrate with the Throne. At
that time the Princes and Ministers about your Throne asked
permission to subject me to a criminal enquiry, but His late
Majesty T’ung-Chih was pleased to spare me, so that I neither
suffered death by the headsman’s sword nor imprisonment,
nor did I run the risk of further exciting the Imperial wrath by
my evidence before a criminal court. Thrice have I deserved,
without receiving, the penalty of death. Without desiring my
forfeit life, it was granted me, so that my last few years have
been, as it were, a boon at the hands of His late Majesty.
“But on the 5th day of the 12th Moon of the 13th year of
T’ung-Chih the earth was rent and heaven itself was shaken
by the great catastrophe, and on that day their Majesties the
Empresses Dowager issued the following Decree: ‘The
departed Emperor has mounted the Dragon and is become a
guest on high, leaving no heir to the Throne. We are
compelled to appoint Tsai T’ien, son of Prince Ch’un, to be
heir to His Majesty Hsien-Feng, to enter on the great
inheritance as the new Emperor. When to him an heir shall be
born, he shall become son by adoption to the late Emperor
T’ung-Chih.’
“I, your unworthy servant, wept bitterly as, reverently
kneeling, I read this Decree. I cannot but feel, after most
careful consideration, that the Empresses Dowager have
doubly erred in appointing an heir to the Emperor Hsien-Feng
and not to His late Majesty. For thus the new Emperor, being
heir to His Majesty Hsien-Feng, enters upon the great
heritage not, as he should, by mandate of His late Majesty
T’ung-Chih, but by mandate of the Empresses. Hence the
future succession must, as a matter of course, revert to the
heir of the new Emperor, even though there should be no
explicit instructions to that effect. But, as this Decree
expressly ordains that this shall be so, it follows that a
precedent will be established, whereby the great inheritance
may pass by adoption.
“I, your unworthy servant, realise that it is no light matter for
a loyal subject to refer to the future death of a Sovereign while
that Sovereign is still alive, entitled to all his reverence and
devotion. But, for more than two centuries, the ancestral
tradition of our House-law has been observed that the Throne
shall pass from father to son, and this law should be
steadfastly maintained for ten thousand generations amongst
those of us who recognise a common descent. Moreover,
Prince Ch’un is a loyal statesman, justly revered by all as a
virtuous Prince. His Memorial has inspired every one of us
with fresh feelings of enthusiastic loyalty. His words are but
the mirror of his mind; how could any falseness find therein a
place? When I perused his Memorial, tears of joy irrepressible
fell from my eyes. If ever the Prince should learn of this my
humble Memorial, he may perchance be wroth at my
perversity or pity my folly; at all events he will never blame me
for endeavouring to stir up vain strife by my words.
“The new Emperor is of gentle disposition; from the
Empress Dowager he had received the ‘precious inheritance’
and until his dying day he will naturally be of one mind with
the Empresses in this matter. But in the Palace there are
sycophants as well as honest men, and many conflicting
opinions. To take examples from history: at the beginning of
the Sung Dynasty, even that great and good man the Grand
Secretary Chao P’u, led the way in obeying the orders of the
Empress Dowager Tu. Again, under the Ming Dynasty, a
venerable servant of the State, the Grand Secretary Wang
Chih, was ashamed that it should be left to a barbarian like
Huang Kung (native of an aboriginal tribe in Kuangsi) to
memorialise urging the lawful Heir Apparent’s succession to
the Emperor Ching-T’ai, when no Chinese official dared to do
so. If even virtuous men could act thus, what need to enquire
about disloyal subjects? If such be the conduct of old
servants, how shall we blame upstarts? To set aside settled
ordinances may be bad, but how much worse is our case
where no ordinances exist? We should therefore seek if
perchance we may find some way out of this double error,
whereby we may return to the right way. I therefore beg that
the Empresses may be pleased to issue a second Decree
explicitly stating that the great inheritance shall hereafter
revert to the adopted son of His late Majesty T’ung-Chih, and
that no Minister shall be allowed to upset this Decree, even
though the new Emperor be blessed with a hundred sons. If,
in this way, the succession be rectified and the situation
defined, so that further confusion be hereafter impossible, the
House-law of the present Dynasty will be observed, which
requires that the Throne be handed down from father to son.
Thus, to the late Emperor, now childless, an heir will be
provided and the Empresses Dowager will no longer be
without a grandson. And, for all time, the orderly maintenance
of the succession will be ascribed to the Empresses, whose
fame will be changeless and unending. This is what I, your
guilty servant, mean, when I say that the double error which
has been committed may yet serve to bring us back to the
right way.
“I, your most unworthy slave, had intended to memorialise
on this matter when His Majesty died, and to present the
Memorial through the Censorate. But it occurred to me that,
since I had lost my post, I was debarred from addressing the
Throne. Besides, how grave a matter is this! If advice in such
a matter be given by a Prince or a Minister, it is called the
sage and far-reaching counsel of a statesman; but if it comes
from a small and insignificant official it is called the idle
utterance of a wanton babbler. Never could I have believed
that the many wise and loyal statesmen of your Court could
one and all regard this as a matter of no immediate urgency,
dismissing it as a question unprofitable for discussion. I
waited, therefore, and the precious moments passed, but
none of them have moved in the matter.
“Afterwards, having received renewed marks of the Imperial
favour, and being again summoned to audience, I was
granted the position of a Board Secretary, and placed on the
Board of Appointments. This was more than four years ago;
yet all this time apparently not one of all the Ministers of your
Court has even given this grave matter a moment’s
consideration. The day for His late Majesty’s entombment has
now arrived, and I fear that what has happened will gradually
pass from the minds of men. The time, therefore, is short, and
the reasons which led me to delay hold good no longer.
Looking upward, as the divine soul of His Majesty soars
heavenward on the Dragon, wistfully I turn my eyes upon the
Palace enclosure. Beholding the bows and arrows left behind
on the Bridge Mountain,[36] my thoughts turn to the cherished
mementoes of my Sovereign. Humbly I offer up these years of
life that have been added unto me by His Majesty’s clemency;
humbly I lay them down in propitiation of the Empresses
Dowager, to implore from them a brief Decree on behalf of the
late Emperor.
“But, on the point of leaving this world, I feel that my mind is
confused. The text of this, my Memorial, lacks clearness;
there are manifold omissions in it. It has ever been my custom
to revise a draft twice before handing in a Memorial, but on
this occasion I have not been able to make such careful
revision. I, your unworthy servant, am no scholar like to the
men of old; how, then, could I be calm and collected as they
were wont to be? Once there went a man to his death, and he
could not walk erect. A bystander said to him ‘Are you afraid,
sir?’ He replied, ‘I am.’ ‘If you are afraid, why not turn back?’
He replied, ‘My fear is a private weakness; my death is a
public duty.’ This is the condition in which I find myself to-day.
‘When a bird is dying its song is sad. When a man is dying his
words are good.’[37] How could I, your worthless servant, dare
to compare myself with the sage Tseng Tzu? Though I am
about to die, yet may my words not be good; but I trust that
the Empresses and the Emperor will pity my last sad
utterance, regarding it neither as an evil omen nor the idle
plaint of one who has no real cause for grief. Thus shall I die
without regret. A statesman of the Sung Dynasty has
remarked: ‘To discuss an event before it occurs is foolhardy.
But if one waits until it has occurred, speech is then too late,
and, therefore, superfluous.’ Foolhardiness notwithstanding, it
is well that the Throne should be warned before events occur;
no Minister should ever have to reproach himself with having
spoken too late. Heartily do I wish that my words may prove
untrue, so that posterity may laugh at my folly. I do not desire
that my words may be verified, for posterity to acclaim my
wisdom. May it be my fate to resemble Tu Mu,[38] even
though to imitate him be a transgression of duty. May I be
likened, rather, to Shih Ch’iu, the sight of whose dead body
proved, as he had hoped, an effective rebuke to his erring
Prince. Thus may my foolish but loyal words be justified in the
end.
“I pray the Empresses and Emperor to remember the
example of Their Majesties Shun-Chih and K’ang-Hsi, in
tempering justice with mercy: that they may promote peace
and prosperity, by appointing only worthy men to public
offices; that they may refrain from striving for those objects
which foreigners hold dear, for by such striving they will surely
jeopardise the future of our Middle Kingdom; that they may
never initiate any of the innovations disdained by their
ancestors, which would assuredly leave to posterity a heritage
of woe. These are my last words, my last prayer, the end and
crown of my life.
Postscript.
“Having been a Censor, I venture thus to memorialise the
Throne. But as my present official position does not permit of
my forwarding this direct, I request the high officials of my
Board to present it for me. As my name did not figure
originally in the list of officials to represent my Board at the
ceremonies preparatory to His late Majesty’s burial, I begged
the Grand Secretary Pao Yün to allow me to be included in
the list. Pao Yün could not have foretold my suicide, so that
no blame can attach to him for being my sponsor. Under our
enlightened Dynasty, how could anyone imagine a return to
the ancient and happily obsolete practice of being buried alive
with one’s Sovereign? But my grief is too great and cannot be
restrained; for to-day my Sovereign returns, dragon-borne, to
Heaven, and all the world weeps with me in woe unutterable.
“I have respectfully but fully explained my feelings in this
question of the lawful succession to the Throne, and now,
under the title of your guilty servant, I present this my
Memorial.”
X
TZŬ HSI BECOMES SOLE REGENT
The days of mourning for T’ung-Chih being done, his remains

disposed of as auspiciously as the Court of Astronomers could
desire, and his ghost placated, thanks to Wu K’o-tu, by solemn
promises on the part of his mother to provide him with a suitable and
legitimate heir in due season, life in the Forbidden City settled down
once more into the old grooves under the joint Regency of the
Empresses of the Eastern and Western Palaces.
But before long the new Emperor, a nervous and delicate boy,
became, all unconsciously, a thorn in the side of the woman who put
him on the Throne. As he passed from infancy to boyhood, it was a
matter of common knowledge and report in the Palace that he
showed a marked preference for the Empress Tzŭ An, who, by her
kind and sympathetic treatment, had won the child’s heart. In the
innocence of his lonely youth he frequented therefore the Eastern
Palace, while Tzŭ Hsi, whose pride could brook no rivals, even in the
heart of a child, was compelled to look on, and to realise that the
forming of the future ruler’s mind was in the hands of another
woman. There were not lacking those who told her that her
colleague, secretly and with ulterior motives, encouraged the boy to
oppose and displease her. Under these conditions, it was inevitable
that the young Emperor should gradually become a cause of
increasing jealousy and friction between the two women.
Interior of the I Kun Kung.
Tzŭ Hsi lived in these Apartments for some time after the death of T’ung-Chih.
Photo, Ogawa, Tokio.
Tzŭ Hsi undoubtedly resented the boy’s predilection as much as

her colleague’s action in encouraging it. At Court, where everyone
and everything is a potential instrument for intrigue and party faction,
the young Emperor’s attitude could not fail to cause her grave
concern. She was well aware that Tzŭ An could never become, of
herself, a formidable rival, but should she hereafter enjoy the
Emperor’s confidence and support, and instigate him to become the
centre of a faction against her (which he did), there might be danger
in the situation for herself. As the Emperor’s minority approached its
end, it therefore became the more necessary for her to take all
possible precautions. She had no intention of sharing the fate of that
Empress Consort of Ch’ien Lung who was banished to the “Cold
Palace” and whose honours and titles were taken from her on
charges of “wild extravagance, love of the theatre and
insubordination to the Emperor’s mother.”
A further cause of friction occurred between the two Empresses
Regent on the occasion of the Imperial progress to the Eastern
tombs, in 1880, when the boy Emperor was nine years old. On this
occasion, Tzŭ An, evidently prompted by Prince Kung to assert
herself and her rights, insisted on taking precedence in all the
ceremonies of the ancestral sacrifices at the Imperial Mausolea and
at the prostrations which custom decrees shall be made before each
of the “Jewelled Cities,” as the mounds are called which cover the
Imperial grave chambers. When their Majesties arrived at the grave
of Hsien-Feng, there was serious friction. Tzŭ An, as the senior
Consort of the deceased monarch, claimed as her right the central
position, at the same time relegating her colleague to the place on
her right, leaving the place of honour on the left unoccupied. Not
content with this, Tzŭ An went on to remind her Co-Regent that,
where sacrifices to Hsien-Feng were in question, Tzŭ Hsi was
entitled only to claim precedence as a senior concubine, her
elevation to the position of Empress Mother having taken place after
his decease. As a concubine, etiquette required her, during the
sacrifice, to take a position on one side and slightly in the rear, while
the vacant place of honour to Tzŭ An’s left belonged to the shade of
Hsien-Feng’s first consort, who had died before his accession, but
had been posthumously raised to the rank of senior Empress. Tzŭ
Hsi, realising that this indignity was put upon her at the instigation of
Prince Kung and the Princes of the Imperial family, had no intention
of submitting, and peremptorily insisted upon taking the position to
which her actual rank and authority entitled her. The quarrel was
sharp but short. Tzŭ Hsi, as might have been expected, carried the
day, but she felt that such a scene before the ancestral tombs,
witnessed by a large entourage, was semi-sacrilegious and from
every point of view unseemly. She had been made to lose face by
the incident—clearly premeditated—and the fact had immediate
effect upon her subsequent actions and her relations with her
colleague.[39]
At the time of this progress to the tombs, Jung Lu was in
command of the Metropolitan Gendarmerie, entrusted with the duty
of escorting their Majesties. Shortly after their return to Peking,
however, he incurred her sharp displeasure by reason of conduct
which Tzŭ Hsi was not likely to overlook, even in her chief favourite.
Ever since the Jehol days of the Tsai Yüan conspiracy, and
particularly during the crisis that followed the death of T’ung-Chih,
this powerful Manchu had enjoyed her favour and confidence in an
unusual degree, and as Comptroller of her Household, he had the
right of entrée to the Forbidden City at all times. But in 1880,
suffering no doubt from ennui induced by the inactivity of Court life,
he committed the indiscretion of an intrigue with one of the ladies of
the late Emperor’s seraglio. Information of the scandal was laid
before Her Majesty by the Imperial tutor Weng T’ung-ho, between
whom and Jung Lu there was never love lost. It was commonly
rumoured at Court, after the event, that Tzŭ Hsi, leaving nothing to
chance, had herself discovered the culprit in the women’s quarters of
the Palace, a heinous offence. Be this as it may, Jung Lu was
summarily, though quietly, deprived of all his posts, and for the next
seven years he lived in retirement. In this case Tzŭ Hsi vindicated
her pride at the expense of her own comfort and sense of security,
and it was not long before she had reason to regret the absence of
her most loyal and trusty adviser. Amongst her courtiers she found
none to replace him; she missed his wise counsel, courage and
fidelity. But having once committed herself to the step of dismissing
him, she was unwilling to lose face with him and with her Court by
changing her mind. His removal, however, undoubtedly led to
increased friction between herself and Tzŭ An, whom she suspected
of being a party to Jung Lu’s liaison.
Finally, in March 1881, a serious quarrel took place between the
two Empresses, on the subject of the influence which the Chief
Eunuch Li Lien-ying had come to exercise, and the arrogance of his
manner. Tzŭ An complained that this favourite and confidential
servant of her colleague ignored her, setting her authority at nought,
so that she was mocked even by her own subordinates. She
deplored and denounced the existing state of affairs, commenting
unpleasantly on the notorious fact that the eunuch was openly
known by the title of “Lord of nine thousand years,” a title which
implied that he was but one degree lower than the Emperor (Lord of
ten thousand years) and entitled to something approximating to
Imperial honours.[40]
The quarrel on this occasion was exceedingly bitter, nor was any
reconciliation subsequently effected between the Empresses. It is
very generally believed, and was freely stated at the time that,
incensed beyond measure and impatient of any further interference
with her authority, Tzŭ Hsi brought about the death of her colleague,
which was commonly attributed to poison. In the atmosphere of an
Oriental Court such charges are as inevitable as they are incapable
of proof or disproof, and were it not for the unfortunate fact that those
who stood in the way of Tzŭ Hsi’s ambitions, or who incurred her
displeasure, frequently failed to survive it, we should be justified in
refusing to attach importance to the imputations of foul play raised
on this and other occasions. But these occasions are too numerous
to be entirely overlooked or regarded as simple coincidences. In the
present instance, the Empress Tzŭ An fell ill of a sudden and
mysterious sickness, and in the words of the Imperial Decree, she
“ascended the fairy chariot for her distant journey” on the evening of
the 10th day of the 3rd Moon. In accordance with prescribed custom,
she drafted just before her decease a valedictory Decree which, as
will be observed, touches hardly at all on the political questions of
the day. These, even at the moment of her death, she appeared to
leave, as by established right, to her strong-minded colleague. After
referring to her position as Senior Consort of the Emperor Hsien-
Feng and recording the fact that during his minority the young
Emperor had done justice to his education (in which she had always
been much interested), the Edict proceeds as follows:—
“In spite of the arduous duties of the State, which have fully
occupied my time, I was naturally of robust constitution and
had therefore fully expected to attain to a good old age and to
enjoy the Emperor’s dutiful ministrations. Yesterday, however,
I was suddenly stricken with a slight illness and His Majesty
thereupon commanded his physician to attend me; later His
Majesty came in person to enquire as to my health. And now,
most unexpectedly, I have had a most dangerous relapse. At
7 p.m. this evening I became completely confused in mind and
now all hope of my recovery appears to be vain. I am forty-
five years of age and for close on twenty years have held the
high position of a Regent of the Empire. Many honorific titles
and ceremonies of congratulation have been bestowed upon
me: what cause have I therefore for regret?”
At her request, and with that modesty which custom prescribes,

the period of Imperial mourning was reduced from twenty-seven
months to twenty-seven days. There is a human touch in the
conclusion of this Decree which seems to preclude the conclusion
that Tzŭ Hsi had any hand in its drafting, for it describes Tzŭ An as
having been careful to “set a good example of thrift and sobriety in
the Palace and to have steadily discountenanced all pomp and vain
display in her share of the Court ceremonies.” As most of the
charges levelled for many years against Tzŭ Hsi by Censors and
other high officials referred to her notorious extravagance, this, and
Tzŭ An’s last request for a modest funeral as the fitting conclusion to
a modest life, were a palpable hit.
Tzŭ An was dead. The playmate of her youth, the girl who had
faced with her the solemn mysteries of the Forbidden City, the
woman who later, because of her failure to provide an heir to the
Throne, had effaced herself in favour of the Empress Mother, her
poor-spirited rival of many years—Tzŭ An would trouble her no
more. Henceforth, without usurpation of authority, Tzŭ Hsi was free
to direct the ship of State alone, sole Regent of the Empire.
And with the death of her colleague came the desire to be free
from the restraints of advice given by prescriptive right of long-
standing authority, the ambition to be the only and undisputed
controller of the nation’s destinies, and acknowledged Head of the
State. For many years—in fact, since the decapitation of her
favourite eunuch, An Te-hai, by Prince Kung[41] and her Co-Regent
—she had been on bad terms with that Prince, and jealous of his
influence and well-earned reputation for statesmanship. The manner
in which, years before, she had taken from him his title of Adviser to
the Government has already been described. Unable to dispense
with his services, desirous of profiting by his ripe experience,
especially in foreign affairs, she had borne with her Prime Minister
grudgingly and of necessity. In 1884, however, she felt strong
enough to stand alone, and the war with France (caused by the
dispute as to China’s claims to suzerainty over Tongking) gave her
an opportunity and an excuse for getting rid at one stroke of Prince
Kung and his colleagues of the Grand Council.
The immediate pretext for their dismissal was the destruction of
the Chinese fleet of junks by the French in the Min River, but Her
Majesty’s real reason was that she believed that the Prince was
intriguing against her with the young Emperor, and that he was to
some extent responsible for a recent Memorial, in which several
Censors had roundly denounced her for depraved morals and
boundless extravagance.
The Decree in which she dismissed this able adviser of the Throne
is in her best manner, displaying many of the qualities which explain
this remarkable woman’s long and successful rule. The facts to
which she refers have a direct and interesting connection with much
subsequent history:—
“Our country has not yet returned to its wonted stability, and
its affairs are still in a critical state. There is chaos in the
Government and a feeling of insecurity amongst the people. It
is, therefore, of the utmost importance that there should be
competent statesmen at the head of affairs, and that our
Grand Council should be an efficient pivot and centre of
administration.
“Prince Kung, at the outset of his career, was wont to
render us most zealous assistance; but this attitude became
modified, as time went by, to one of self-confident and callous
contentment with the sweets of office, and of late he has
become unduly inflated with his pride of place, displaying
nepotism and slothful inefficiency. On occasions when we
have urged the Grand Council to display zeal and single-
hearted devotion to the State, he and his colleagues have
ruthlessly stuck to their preconceived ideas, and have failed
to carry out our orders, for which reason they have more than
once been impeached, either on grounds of obstructiveness
or general uselessness. It has even been said of them that
their private lives are disreputable, and that they have dared
to recommend persons for high office from improper and
corrupt motives.
“The House-laws of our Dynasty are most severe, and if
there were any truth in the accusations of treason that have
been made against Prince Kung, we should not hesitate for a
single moment to inflict upon him the extreme penalty of the
law. We do not believe, however, that he can have dared to
act in the manner suggested. We set these aside, therefore,
and will deal only with the other charges to which we have
referred, and for which there would appear to be good
foundation. They are in themselves more than sufficient to
cause the gravest injury to the State, and if we continue to
treat the Prince with leniency, how shall we justify ourselves
hereafter in the eyes of our glorious ancestors? We shall incur
no small blame in the eyes of posterity, and when the day
comes for the Emperor to take over charge of the
Government there can be no doubt that he would be likely to
fail, under such conditions, to shed lustre, by his reign, on the
Dynasty.
“If we were to make public even one or two of the accusing
Memorials that have reached us, it would be impossible for
us, on grounds of privilege, to extenuate the Prince’s faults,
and we should be forced to cashier several of our senior
advisers. In the magnanimity of our heart we shrink, however,
from any such drastic steps, being moved to deep
compassion at the thought that Prince Kung and his
colleague, the Grand Secretary, Pao Yün, should have served
us so long and now have come to deserve our stern censure
and severe punishment. We are prompted to leniency by
remembrance of the fact that Prince Kung suffers from a
complication of diseases, while Pao Yün has reached an
advanced old age. In recognition of their past merits we have,
therefore, decided that their good fame may be left to them,
and remain unsullied for the rest of their days. As a mark of
our Imperial clemency we have decided to permit Prince Kung
to retain his hereditary Princedom, together with all the
emoluments thereof, but he is hereby deprived of all his
offices, and the double salary which he has hitherto enjoyed
is withdrawn. He is permitted to retire into private life and
attend to the care of his health.
“As regards the Grand Secretary, Pao Yün, he also is
allowed to retire from public life, retaining his present rank
and titles. As for Li Hung-tsao,[42] who has been a member of
the Council for many years, his narrow views and lack of
practical experience have caused him to fail completely in his
duties. Finally, Ching Lien, the President of the Board of War,
seems to think that his duties are satisfactorily performed by
adherence to a routine of procrastination, the man being
devoid of the first elements of knowledge. Both these officials
are hereby relieved of their posts, to be employed in lower
positions hereafter. Weng T’ung-ho, the President of the
Board of Works, has only recently been appointed a member
of the Council, at a time of serious complications, and has, so
far, taken no active part in its proceedings. He therefore
escapes censure or penalty. As a mark of our consideration
we hereby remove him from his post on the Grand Council,
but permit him to retain his position on the Board of Works,
and he will continue his services as Tutor to the Emperor.”
“For a long time past we have been quietly observing the
behaviour and general tendencies of Prince Kung and his
colleagues, and we are quite convinced in our mind that it is
useless to look to them for any activity or awakening of their
petrified energies. If they were retained in office, we firmly
believe that they would end by incurring severe punishment
by causing some really serious disaster to the State. For this
reason we now content ourselves with mild censure from a
sense of pity, as a measure of precaution. It is not because of
any trivial misdemeanour, or because of the impeachment by
Censors that we thus dismiss from office a Prince of the
Blood and these high Ministers of our Government, nor is our
action taken on any sudden impulse and without full
consideration.”
As the result of this Decree, Prince Kung retired from the scene, to
remain in unemployed obscurity until 1894, when, after the first
disasters of the war with Japan, Tzŭ Hsi, older and wiser, turned to
him once more for assistance. He never completely regained the
influence with the Empress which he had enjoyed in the earlier days
of the first Regency, but after his return to office until his death in
1898, his prestige, especially among foreigners, was great. Tzŭ Hsi,
though she loved him not, was forced to admit that he had accepted
and borne his degradation with dignity.
After the issue of the above Decree, Prince Kung was succeeded
in office by Prince Li, the head of the eight Princely families and a
descendant of a younger son of Nurhachu. With him were
associated on the Grand Council, amongst others, the elder brother
of Chang Chih-tung and Sun Yu-wen.[43] The latter was a bitter
enemy of the Imperial Tutor, Weng T’ung-ho. In appointing him to the
Council, Tzŭ Hsi followed her favourite tactics of creating dissension
among her advisers and maintaining the equilibrium of her own
authority as the resultant of their conflicting forces.
Her Majesty’s next step aroused a storm of opposition and
criticism. She decreed that in all matters of urgency, the Grand
Council, before advising the Throne, should confer with the
Emperor’s father, Prince Ch’un, but added that upon the Emperor’s
attaining his majority, she would issue further instructions on this
subject. This was not only an entirely new and irregular departure,
since it made the Emperor’s father de facto head of the executive,
but it implied the possibility of violation of the solemn pledges given
to the nation in 1875, as to the provision of an heir to the Emperor
T’ung-Chih. Fears were once more aroused in an acute form that
Prince Ch’un might hereafter persuade his son to ignore the
ancestral claims of the late Emperor, and thus constitute the house
of Ch’un founders of a new line. The Prince would have great
inducement to adopt this policy, as it would confer upon him and
upon his wife (Tzŭ Hsi’s sister) Imperial rank during their lives and
Imperial honours after their death. The reign of T’ung-Chih would in
that case be practically expunged, going down to posterity
dishonoured as the ignominious end of the senior branch of the Ta
Ching Dynasty, and the Yehonala clan would become of paramount
influence. A wide field would thus be left for future dissensions,
treasons, stratagems and Court intrigues. In fact the position thus
created would be somewhat similar to that which arose from the
rivalry of the Houses of York and Lancaster in English history.
An Imperial Clansman, named Sheng Yü, and other scholars,
memorialised in the most urgent terms praying the Empress to
cancel this appointment and suggesting that if Prince Ch’un’s advice
were really needed, it should be given to herself direct and not to the
Grand Council. The writers advanced numerous arguments, all
calculated to save the face of Prince Ch’un while preventing him
from accepting the position. They doubted whether his health would
stand the strain, and whether the duties of the post were consistent
with his high calling; at the same time they foresaw that a post which
practically conferred the powers of a Dictator must undoubtedly
make him unpopular, a result which Her Majesty herself would be the
first to deplore.
Besides, had not the Emperor Chia-Ch’ing declared (in 1799) that
Princes of the Blood were not eligible for service on the Grand
Council, except in cases of urgent and exceptional emergency?
“The truth is,” they concluded, “that a Prince of the Blood,

by virtue of his position, cannot be liable to the same
punishments as ordinary subjects, and for this reason he
should not hold a Government office. Prince Kung has held
this high post, it is true, but this was merely temporary, and in
any case, the power conferred upon him was much less than
that which it is now proposed to confer upon Prince Ch’un.
We therefore respectfully invite Your Majesty reverently to
conform to the laws of the Dynasty, and to cancel the Decree
conferring these functions upon Prince Ch’un.”
As final objections, the Memorialists observed that the Prince

could not be expected to attend every morning at the Palace, nor
could he usurp the Imperial prerogative by expecting the Grand
Council to meet at his residence; and it would be irregular for the
Censors to denounce any errors committed by a Prince of the Blood
as head of the Council.
The Censor Chao Erh-hsün (an upright official who has since held
office as Viceroy in Manchuria and in Ssŭ-Ch’uan) memorialised in
the same sense, observing that the Grand Council would be
superfluous if everything had to be referred to Prince Ch’un, whose
position as father of the Emperor made him impossible for this post.
“Why,” said he, “could not Her Majesty command the Prince to
attend before her, whenever she needed his advice, and let him
expound his views to her in person? There could be no objections to
this course.”
To these remonstrances Tzŭ Hsi replied:
“There is no doubt that the sage decisions of former

Emperors deserve to be treated with every consideration and
respect, but it is to be observed that, ever since I assumed
the Regency, I have been by circumstances compelled to
confer regularly on confidential business with a Prince of the
Blood. You must all be aware that this situation has been
forced upon me owing to the exigencies of the times, and was
none of my seeking. The Decree in which, some days ago, I
appointed Prince Ch’un to be Adviser to the Council, had no
reference to ordinary routine business, with which he has no
concern, but only to urgent matters of State. I had not, and
have not, any intention of giving him a definite appointment,
and he himself was most reluctant to accept at my hands
even this advisory position; it was because of his repeated
entreaties that I promised to issue further instructions in the
matter upon the Emperor’s reaching his majority. The present
arrangement is of a purely temporary nature. You cannot
possibly realise how great and numerous are the problems
with which I have to deal single-handed. As to the Grand
Council, let them beware of making Prince Ch’un’s position an
excuse for shirking their responsibilities. In conclusion, I wish
that my Ministers would for the future pay more respect to the
motives with actuate their Sovereign’s actions, and abstain
from troubling me with their querulous criticisms. The
Memorialists’ requests are hereby refused.”
Rescripts of this kind are curiously suggestive of Queen Elizabeth,

and her manner of dealing with similar petitions from her loyal and
dutiful subjects.
XI
TZŬ HSI “EN RETRAITE”
In 1887 Kuang-Hsü completed his seventeenth year, and Tzŭ Hsi

saw herself confronted by the necessity of surrendering to him the
outward and visible signs of sovereignty. The change was naturally
viewed with apprehension by those of her courtiers and kinsmen
who for the last ten years had basked in the sunshine of her
unfettered authority and patronage, whose places and privileges
might well be endangered by a new régime. When, therefore, as in
duty bound, she expressed a desire to retire from public life, it was
not surprising that urgent petitions and remonstrances poured in,
begging her to continue yet a little while in control of affairs, nor that
she should finally allow herself to be persuaded. It was not until
February 1889 that she definitely handed over the reins of
government to the Emperor, on the occasion of his marriage to the
daughter of her brother, Duke Kuei Hsiang.
Tzŭ Hsi was now fifty-five years of age. For nearly thirty years she
had been de facto ruler of the Celestial Empire. She had tasted the
sweets of autocracy, had satisfied all her instincts of dominion, and it
seemed as if she were not unwilling to enjoy the fruit of her labours
and to exchange the formal routine of the Forbidden City for the
pleasures and comparative freedom of life at the Summer Palace,
which was now in course of reconstruction. Always avid of
movement and change, weary of the increasing toil of audiences and
Rescripts, apprehensive, too, of the steadily increasing pressure of
the earth-hungry Powers on China’s frontiers, she could not fail to be
attracted by the prospect of a life of gilded leisure and recreation.
Nor could she have remained on the Throne, Kuang-Hsü being alive,
without an overt and flagrant act of usurpation for which, until he had
been tried and found wanting, there was no possible justification.
Certain writers, foreign and Chinese, have imputed to her at this

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10.1 The Ideal Spring and Simple Harmonic Motion 257

18.7 Electric Field Lines 505 21 Magnetic Forces and Magnetic

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Problems 729 28.1 Events and Inertial Reference Frames 808

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“There is no doubt that the sage decisions of former

Rescripts of this kind are curiously suggestive of Queen Elizabeth,

In 1887 Kuang-Hsü completed his seventeenth year, and Tzŭ Hsi

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