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 Contents  vii

Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: The AIDS Aggression 490

­Epidemic in Russia 417 Prosocial Behavior 494
Chapter Summary 417 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Peeking Inside the
Test Yourself 419 Social Brain499
Chapter Summary 500
11 Stress and Health 420 Test Yourself 502
Stress and Stressors 422
The Relationship between Stress and Stressors 422 13 Theories of Personality 504
Environmental Stressors: Life’s Ups and Downs 423 Psychodynamic Perspectives 506
Psychological Stressors: What, Me Worry? 427 Freud’s Conception of Personality 506
Physiological Factors: Stress and Health 432 Stages of Personality Development 509
The General Adaptation Syndrome 432 The Neo-Freudians 511
The Immune System and Stress 433 Current Thoughts on Freud and the
Health Psychology 437 Psychodynamic Perspective 512
Cognitive Factors in Stress 438 The Behavioral and Social Cognitive View of Personality 515
Personality Factors in Stress 440 Learning Theories 515
Social and Cultural Factors in Stress: People Current Thoughts on the Behavioral and
Who Need People 443 Social Cognitive Learning Views 517
APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: The Third Force: Humanism and Personality 518
Homeopathy: An Illusion of Healing 447 Carl Rogers and the Humanistic Perspective 518
Coping with Stress 448 Current Thoughts on the Humanistic View of Personality 520
Coping Strategies 449 Trait Theories: Who Are You? 521
How Social Support Affects Coping 451 Allport and Cattell: Early Attempts to List
How Culture Affects Coping 452 and Describe Traits 521
How Religion Affects Coping 452 Modern Trait Theories: The Big Five 523
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Coping with Stress Current Thoughts on the Trait Perspective 524
Through Mindfulness Meditation 454 Personality: Genetics and Culture 526
Chapter Summary 455 The Biology of Personality: Behavioral Genetics 526
Test Yourself 456 Current Findings on the Heritability of Personality 528
Classic Studies in Psychology: Geert Hofstede’s Four
12 Social Psychology 458 ­Dimensions of Cultural Personality 528
APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking:
Social Influence 460
Personality, Family, and Culture 530
Conformity 460
Assessment of Personality 531
Group Behavior 462
Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and
Compliance 464
Personality Inventories 531
Obedience 466
Projective Tests 535
APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Cults
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Biological Bases
and the Failure of Critical Thinking 470
of Personality 537
Social Cognition 471
Chapter Summary 539
Attitudes 471
Test Yourself 541
Attitude Change: The Art of Persuasion 474
Cognitive Dissonance: When Attitudes and Behavior Clash
Impression Formation
475
477
14 Psychological Disorders 542
Attribution 478 What Is Abnormality? 544
Social Interaction 482 Changing Conceptions of Abnormality 544
Prejudice and Discrimination 482 Models of Abnormality 546
How People Learn and Overcome Prejudice 484 Diagnosing and Classifying Disorders 548
Classic Studies in Psychology: Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes 484 Disorders of Anxiety, Trauma, and Stress: What, Me Worry? 553
Interpersonal Attraction 487 Anxiety Disorders 553
Love Is a Triangle—Robert Sternberg’s Other Disorders Related to Anxiety 555
Triangular Theory of Love 489 Causes of Anxiety, Trauma, and Stress Disorders 557
viii  Contents

Dissociative Disorders: Altered Identities 560 Behavior Therapies: Learning One’s Way
Types of Dissociative Disorders 560 To Better Behavior 596
Causes of Dissociative Disorders 561 Cognitive Therapies: Thinking Is Believing 601
Disorders of Mood: The Effect of Affect 563 Group Therapies: Not Just for the Shy 605
Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorders 563 Types of Group Therapies 605
Causes of Disordered Mood 565 Evaluation of Group Therapy 606
Eating Disorders and Sexual Dysfunction 567 Does Psychotherapy Really Work? 607
Eating Disorders 567 Studies of Effectiveness 608
Sexual Dysfunctions and Problems 570 Characteristics of Effective Therapy 609
Schizophrenia: Altered Reality 572 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking:
Symptoms of Schizophrenia 572 Does It Work? Psychological Treatment 613
Causes of Schizophrenia 574 Biomedical Therapies 615
Personality Disorders: I’m Okay, It’s Everyone Psychopharmacology 615
Else Who’s Weird 577 Ect and Psychosurgery 619
Categories of Personality Disorders 577 Emerging Techniques 621
Causes of Personality Disorders 578 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Virtual
APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Reality Therapies 623
Learning More: Psychological Disorders 579 Chapter Summary 624
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Taking the Test Yourself 626
Worry Out of Exams 580
Chapter Summary 582 Appendix A Statistics in Psychology A-1
Test Yourself 584
Appendix B Applied Psychology
15 Psychological Therapies 586 and Psychology Careers B-1
Treatment of Psychological Disorders: Past to Present 588 GlossaryG-1
Insight Therapies: Psychodynamic and ReferencesR-1
Humanistic Approaches 590
CreditsC-1
Psychotherapy Begins: Freud’s Psychoanalysis 590
Humanistic Therapy: To Err Is Human 592 Name Index NI-1
Action Therapies: Behavior Therapies and Subject Index SI-1
Cognitive Therapies 596
 Preface  ix

Learner-Centered Approach
Curiosity and Dialogue
Our goal is to awaken students’ curiosity and energize their desire to learn by having them read
and engage with the material. In the last edition, we extended that experience with the new REVEL format.
Fully digital and highly engaging, REVEL offers an immersive learning experience designed for the way today’s
students read, think, and learn. Enlivening course content with media interactives and assessments, REVEL
empowers educators to increase engagement with the course and to better connect with students. See
pearsonhighered.com/revel.
The fifth edition builds upon the REVEL experience. This edition was written with digital learning materials
clearly in mind. With the dynamic learning aids of previous editions as a foundation, the digital materials are
interactive, allowing students to experience figures, graphs, and tables in an active learning process. Instead of
simply looking and reading, the student is doing things with the digital materials. This format will truly help stu-
dents engage in the learning process and will also help instructors make classroom presentations more vivid and
attention grabbing.

Chapter-Opening Journal Prompts and

5 Learning Student Voice Videos

Chapters open with videos in which
­psychology students share personal ­stories
THINKING CRITICALLY
about how the chapter theme directly
How have you used the promise of a pleasurable consequence or reward to modify your own behavior or the behavior of others?
After you have answered the question, watch the video to compare the answers of other students to yours.
applies to their lives. For the fifth ­edition,
The response entered here will be saved to your notes and may be collected by your
instructor if he/she requires it.
we’ve added the ability for students to
answer these questions for themselves
before watching the video responses.

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Watch the Video

Why study learning?

If we had not been able to learn, we would have died out as a species long ago. Learning is the process that allows
us to adapt to the changing conditions of the world around us. We can alter our actions until we find the behavior
that leads us to survival and rewards, and we can eliminate actions that have been unsuccessful in the past. With-
out learning, there would be no buildings, no agriculture, no lifesaving medicines, and no human civilization.

176
 The group that is exposed to the independent variable (the violent cartoon in the
example) is called the experimental group, because it is the group that receives the
experimental manipulation. The other group that gets either no treatment or some kind
of treatment that should have no effect (like the group that watches the nonviolent car-
x  Preface
toon in the example) is called the control group because it is used to control for the possi-
bility that other factors might be causing the effect that is being examined. If researchers
were to find that both the group that watched the violent cartoon and the group that
watched the nonviolent cartoon were equally aggressive, they would have to assume
that the violent content did not influence their behavior at all.

New Introduction to Psychology Video Series

More than twenty new videos have been filmed for
this edition. These videos cover a variety of key topics
in introductory psychology, from careers in psychology
to experiments to diagnosing and classifying disorders.

CC The Biological Perspective 57

Watch the Video Experiments: Experimental Group versus Control Group

would seem gray. That’s because the outer section is composed mainly of myelinated axons
nt who are and nerves, which appear white, whereas the inner section is mainly composed of cell bodies
THE IMPORTANCE OF RANDOMIZATION As mentioned previously, random selection is
ndent variable. of neurons, which appear gray. The purpose of the outer section is to carry messages from the
the best way to choose the participants for any study. Participants must then be assigned
body up to the brain and from the brain down to the body. It is simply a message “pipeline.”
to either the experimental group or the control group. Not surprisingly, random assign-
ment of participants to one or the other condition is the best way to ensure control over
nt who are Information to
other interfering, or extraneous, variables. Random assignment means that each partici-
the brain
ependent vari-
pant has an equal chance of being assigned to each condition. If researchers simply looked
ve a placebo
at the children and put all of the children from one day care center or one pediatrician’s
recommendations into the experimental group and the same for the control group, they
would run the risk of biasing their research. Some day care centers may have more natu-
New Biological Artwork and Animations
jects to the
groups ran-
rally aggressive children, for example, or some pediatricians may have a particular client
base in which the children are very passive. So researchers want to take the entire par-
Interneuron A new art program designed for REVEL
ect has an
either group.
ticipant group and assign each person randomly to one or the other of the groups in the
Sensory neurons
study. Sometimes this is as simple as picking names out of a hat.
takes into account all of the visual media
that students now interact with; the
artwork is designed in a contemporary
Motor neurons
Cross-section
of spinal cord aesthetic that matches the graphical quality
users see in other digital experiences such
as video games.
Skin receptors

CC

Figure 2.6 The Spinal Cord Reflex

The pain from the burning heat of the candle flame stimulates the afferent nerve fibers, which carry the
message up to the interneurons in the middle of the spinal cord. The interneurons then send a message
out by means of the efferent nerve fibers, causing the hand to jerk away from the flame. afferent (sensory) neuron
a neuron that carries informa-
The inside section, which is made up of cell bodies separated by glial cells, is actually tion from the senses to the central
a primitive sort of “brain.” This part of the spinal cord is responsible for certain reflexes— nervous system.
very fast, lifesaving reflexes. To understand how the spinal cord reflexes work, it is import-
efferent (motor) neuron

Emphasis on APA Learning Goals

We have used the APA goals and assessment recommendations as guidelines for
­structuring our content. For the fifth edition, we have placed even greater aemphasis
these goals.
ant to know there are three basic types of neurons: afferent (sensory) neurons that carry
messages from the senses to the spinal cord, efferent (motor) neurons that carry messages a neuron that carries messages from
from the spinal cord to the muscles and glands, and interneurons that connect the afferent the central nervous system to the
muscles of the body.
neurons to the efferent neurons (and make up the inside of the spinal cord and much of the
brain itself). (See Figure 2.6.) Touch a flame or a hot stove with your finger, for example,
interneuron
onof the spi-
and an afferent neuron will send the pain message up to the spinal column, where it enters
neuron found in the center
into the central area of the spinal cord. The interneuron in that central area will then receive
nal cord that receives information from
the afferent neurons
the message and send out a response along an efferent neuron, causing your finger to pull
and sends com-
back. This all happens very quickly. If the pain message had to go all the way up to the
mands to the muscles through the effer-
brain before a response could be made, the response time would be greatly increased and ent neurons. Interneurons also make up
more damage would be done to your finger. So having this kind of reflex arc controlled by the bulk of the neurons in the brain.
the spinal cord alone allows for very fast response times. (A good way to avoid mixing up
the terms afferent and efferent is to remember “afferent neurons access the spinal cord, effer- reflex
ent neurons exit.” The pain message does eventually get to the brain, where other motor an involuntary response, one that is
responses may be triggered, like saying “Ouch!” and putting the finger in your mouth.
Updated Psychology in Action Chapter
not under personal control or choice.

Psychology in Action
Secrets for Surviving College and Improving Your Grades
This chapter has been restructured around
THINKING CRITICALLY eight modules, which address many of the
Based on what you know now, what advice would you share with a student just starting out in college?
After you have answered the question, watch the video to compare the answers of other students to yours.

The response entered here will be saved to your notes and may be collected by your
instructor if he/she requires it.
APA learning goals for the undergraduate
psychology major. Each module is
accompanied by a study tip video: study
skills, managing time, reading textbooks,
getting the most out of lectures, studying
for exams, writing papers, improving your
memory, and your ethical responsibility.

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Watch the Video

Why Study How to Study?

Many students entering college have developed a system of taking notes, reading the textbook, and reviewing for exams that
may have worked pretty well in the past; but what worked in grade school and high school may not work in college, where
the expectations from teachers are higher and the workload is far greater. Students should develop skills in the following areas
in order to do their absolute best in any college course: study methods, time management, effective reading of course materi-
als, active listening and note taking, studying for exams, memory strategies, and writing papers. One final aspect of being a
successful student involves being an ethical student—exactly how can you use the materials you find for your research paper, for
example, without committing the sin of plagiarism (claiming the work of someone else as your own)?
PIA-2
 shape constancy c. figure–ground relationships it took a long time. But later when she helped install a ceiling fan
expectancy d. depth perception in her best friend’s home, she completed the job very quickly. Her
at monocular depth cue can best explain why railroad tracks improved speed and skill can partially be attributed to
pear to come together in the distance? a. bottom-up processing. c. perceptual expectancy.
convergence c. overlap b. top-down processing. d. perceptual set.
inear perspective d. texture gradient Preface  xi
Müller-Lyer illusion occurs more frequently in
children than adults. c. people living in a Western culture.
men than women. d. individuals living in poverty.

butterfly is poisonous to birds, but the moth isn’t. The moth’s mimicry causes birds to
APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry New Chapter Feature on APA Goal 2: Scientific
avoid eating it, even though it is quite edible. Researchers have found that some asso-
and Critical Reasoning and Critical Thinking
ciations between certainThinking
stimuli and responses are far easier to form than others and
that this is true in both
Perceptual animals and
Influences people. This is called biological preparedness.
on Metacognition Each chapter of the text now includes a special
While mammals are biologically prepared to associate taste with illness, birds are bio-
Addresses APA Learning Objective 2.3 Engage in innovative and feature that reinforces scientific inquiry and
logically prepared to associate visual characteristics with illness (Shapiro et al., 1980).
integrative thinking and problem-solving.
As for phobias, fear is a natural emotional response that has ties to survival—we need critical thinking skills. Students are introduced to a
As you can see, pun intended, what we perceive as being real does not always match the
to remember what the fear-inducing stimuli are so we can safely avoid them in the future.
actual visual stimulus we are presented with. Perceptual information can also influence how psychological topic and then encouraged to practice
Nausea we and fearaare givenboth
object.examples of involuntary
of us assume thatreactions that
largerhelp organisms survive
to reproduce
think about
weigh more andthanpass
thingson
For example, many
thattheir genetic
are smaller. material,
The color so can
of an object
things that are
thealso
innate tendency
have an influ- to make quick and
their skills using a hands-on interactive example.
ence (De Camp, 1917). Darker objects are often appraised to be heavier than comparable
ions in nature. This strongobjects
associations between stimuli and these reactions has evolutionary importance.
that are lighter in color (Walker et al., 2010). Both of these are examples of stimulus
o birds, but the
Biological preparedness
influences on perceptual expectations. for
But whatfear ofstimulus
about objects that onare
influences dangerous makes sense for
expectations
e coloring the moth for a cognitive task, like assessing how well we will be able to remember something?
survival, but when objects are not typically dangerous, it turns out to be very difficult
ous. Birds find their Metacognition is thinking about thinking. It includes being aware of our own thought
ot eat anything that to condition
processes,asuch fear as of thosehow
evaluating objects. In one
well we actually study,something
understand monkeys easily
or how well learned to be afraid
. of a toy
we snake
will rememberor crocodile
something. Forby watching
example, videos
the font size ofword
of a given other monkeys
appears to have reacting fearfully to
an effect. In one study, words that were printed in a larger font were rated as being more
these memorable
stimuli (a good example of vicarious classical conditioning). But the monkeys
than words appearing in a smaller font (Rhodes & Castel, 2008). In other
never words,
learned to fearasflowers
when evaluated or a toy
part of a sequential rabbit by
list, Psychology the
might be same means ( Cook & Mineka,
rated as being
1989). more
Snakes memorable than macroeconomics. At least it was for one of your authors during college.
and crocodiles are predators; flowers and rabbits are not.
Despite the initial ratings on memorability, when tested later, word font size did not yield Critical Thinking Journal Prompts
DRUG significant
DEPENDENCY effects on recallThe
(Rhodes & Castel,
“high” of2008 ).
drug use, whether it comes from an opiate deriva-
Research also suggests that students often report using study strategies, such as Journal Prompts allow students to write short
tive, a focusing
stimulant, oronabold
primarily depressant suchin as
or italicized terms alcohol,
a textbook often
(Gurung, takes
2003 , 2004place in certain surroundings,
), or over-
with certain other
reliance on people,
strategies such as and perhaps
highlighting. These even using
are methods thatcertain
have less objects,
of an overallsuch as the tiny spoons critical thinking–based journal entries about the
positive impact on retention of material, especially when compared to more robust study
used by cocaine addicts. These people, settings, and objects can become conditioned stim- chapter content. By reinforcing critical thinking,
and memory strategies. to PIA.6 and Learning Objectives 6.5, 6.6.
uli that are associated with the drug high and can produce a conditioned "high" response.
The presence of these cues can make it even harder to resist using the drug because the the prompts offer another way to expose students
body and mind have become classically conditioned to associate drug use with the cues. to the skills covered in APA Goal 2: Scientific
THINKING CRITICALLY Reasoning and Critical Thinking.
dness
Do you think that humans are as controlled by their biology as other animals? Why or why not?
ency of animals
ciations, such as The response entered here will be saved to your notes and may be
collected by your instructor if he/she requires it.
th only one or few
urvival value of
Submit
New Shared Writing Prompts Focused
on APA Goal 3: Ethical and Social
Map L.O. 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 Responsibility in a Diverse World
ion of Learning Shared Writing prompts in each chapter foster
ly permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice) collaboration and critical thinking skills by
“relatively permanent” aspect of learning although physical changes may be providing students the opportunity to write
refers to learning being associated present we may not always be able
with physical changes in the brain to “get” to the information a brief response to a chapter-specific question
and engage in peer-to-peer feedback on a
discovered by Ivan Pavlov focused on observable, measurable behavior discussion board. In this edition, Shared
worked with salivating dogs
unconditioned stimulus (UCS): original, naturally occurring Writing Prompts focus on topics related to
stimulus that ordinarily leads to an involuntary response
unconditioned response (UCR): involuntary response
APA Goal 3: Ethical and Social Responsibility
several key elements
must be present
to the unconditioned stimulus
in a Diverse World.
conditioned stimulus (CS): previously neutral stimulus that begins
and experienced
Embedded Interactive Content
to cause the same kind of involuntary response when paired
repeatedly with the UCS
conditioned response (CR): response that is given to the CS
Interactive content has been fully incorporated into all aspects of the text, allowing stu-
cal Conditioningdents a more direct way to access and engage with the material.
PTER 5
o make an involuntary response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces it)

CS must come before the UCS

CS and UCS must come very close together in time (< 5 sec)
basic principles for
classical conditioning
to occur
CS must be paired with the UCS many times
Watch Videos of topics as they are
CS must be distinct from other competing stimuli
explained.
stimulus generalization: response to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS
stimulus discrimination: response to different stimuli in different ways
key features
extinction: presentation of the CS in the absence of the UCS leads to reduction in the CR
spontaneous recovery: reappearance of a previously extinguished CR
higher-order conditioning: occurs when strong CS is paired with new neutral
stimulus; new previously neutral stimulus becomes a second CS

conditioned emotional responses: emotional responses that have some associations are
become classically conditioned to occur in response to learned stimuli; relatively quick and easy
based on work of John B. Watson; helps explain development of phobias to learn due to survival
CC
value for organism
conditioned taste aversion is one situation where classical conditioning
(biological preparedness)
can occur quickly without repeated pairings
other Figure 5.12 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment
features In Albert Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment, the doll was used to demonstrate the impact of observ-
vicarious conditioning
ing an adultcan occur
model by simply
performing watching
aggressive someone
behavior else
on the later respond
aggressive to a stimulus
behavior of children.

Pavlov—stimulus substitution occurs where the CS comes to activate

does it work? the same part of the brain that was originally activated by the UCS
what
cognitive the model in the film did,
perspective—organism each child
consciously duplicated the model’s actions. Both groups
expects
had to
something learned
occur;from watching
CS provides the model,about
information but only the children watching the successful
 time at all. But when Pavlov took the metronome back out and set it ticking, the dogs all
began to salivate, although it was a fairly weak response and didn’t last very long. This
brief recovery of the conditioned response proves that the CR is “still in there” somewhere
(remember, learning is relatively permanent). It is just suppressed or inhibited by the lack of
an association with the unconditioned stimulus of food (which is no longer reinforcing or
xii  Preface strengthening the CR). As time passes, this inhibition weakens, especially if the original
conditioned stimulus has not been present for a while. In spontaneous recovery the condi-
tioned response can briefly reappear when the original CS returns, although the response is
usually weak and short lived. See Figure 5.3 for a graph showing both extinction and spon-
taneous recovery.

Interactive Figures and Tables walk

students through some of the more
complex processes in psychology and
offer students the ability to evaluate their
knowledge of key topics.

Figure 5.3 Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

This graph shows the acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, and reacquisition of a conditioned
APTER 2
spontaneous recovery salivary response. Typically, the measure of conditioning is the number of drops of saliva elicited by the CS
the reappearance of a learned on each trial. Note that on the day following extinction, the first presentation of the CS elicits quite a large
response after extinction has occurred. response. This response is due to spontaneous recovery.

Interactive versions of brain-based ­figures

Pineal Hypothalamus
allow students to rotate the brain 360
Pineal
gland
degrees and isolate regions.
gland
Pituitary
gland

Parathyroid The Biological Perspective 61

glands
terms: The sympathetic division is in sympathy with one’s emotions. In fact, the sympa-
Thyroid thetic division is usually called the “fight-or-flight system” because it allows people and
gland animals to deal with all kinds of stressful events. to Learning Objective 11.4.
Emotions during these events might be anger (hence the term fight) or fear (that’s the
“flight” part, obviously) or even extreme joy or excitement. Yes, even joy can be stress-
ful. The sympathetic division’s job is to get the body ready to deal with the stress. Many
Pancreas of us have experienced a fight-or-flight moment at least once in our lives. Participate in
72 to
the survey Do You Fly or Fight? learn more
CHAPTER 2 about how your body responds.

Figure 2.12 Major Structures of the Human Brain Survey DO YOU FLY OR FIGHT?

INTRODUCTION Concept Map

SURVEY LO. 2.8, 2.9 RESULTS
Interactive

PONS The pons is the larger “swelling” just above the medulla. This Adrenal
term means This survey asks you about your experiences

Interactive
“bridge,” and the pons is indeed the bridge between the cerebellumglands and the upper with and reactions towards stressful events,
older
often relied on dissection
particularly those that stimulate your techniques after death
sections of the brain. As in the medulla, there is a crossover of nerves, but in this case it Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). methods
is the motor nerves carrying messages from the brain to the body. This allows the pons unable to directly
Click Next to begin the survey
observe function
to coordinate the movements of the left and right sides of the body. (It will be useful study animals or humans with brain damage; damage may be by
to remember these nerve crossovers when reading about the functions of the left and accident, injury, or in animals, deliberate; brain areas can be studied
Simulate experiments and answer surveys
lesioning studies
according to the location of lesions (injured or destroyed areas)
right sides of the brain in a later part of this chapter.) The pons also influences sleep,
dreaming, and arousal. The role that the pons plays in sleep and dreams will be dis-

right from the narrative.

welling above the medulla
information from the cor-
erebellum, and that plays a
p, dreaming, left-right body
on, and arousal.
72
ormation (RF)
neurons running through
of the medulla and the
brain areas can also be studiedthrough electrical
cussed in more detail in Chapter Four. to Learning Objective 4.7. brain stimulation studies stimulation (invasive or noninvasive)
OvariesTHE RETICULAR FORMATION The reticular formation (RF) is a network of neurons
running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond. These
neurons are responsible for people’s ability to generally attend to certain kinds of
information in their surroundings. Basically, the RF allows people to ignore constant, Previous Next
unchanging information (such as the noise of an air conditioner) and become alert to Looking Inside the Living Brain
Simulate the Experiment Do You Fly(methods
or Fight? for studying the structures and/or activity of the living brain)
changes in information (for example, if the air conditioner stopped, most people would
Testes mapping structure
notice immediately).
What are the specific ways in which this division readies the body to react? (See Fig- based on X-ray
The reticular
CHAPTER 2 formation is also the part of the brain that helps keep people alert and computed
ure 2.8.) The pupils seem to get bigger, perhaps to let in more light and, therefore,has moregood infor-
temporal but relatively technology;
aroused. One part of the RF is called the reticular activating system (RAS), and it stimulates tomography
mation. The heart starts pumping faster andmapping function
harder, drawing blood away from poornonessential
spatial resolution; records (CT)
good for
the upper part of the brain, keeping people awake and alert. When a person is driving and the the electrical imaging brain
organs such as the skin (so at first the person may turn pale) and sometimes even away fromactivity of the brain structure, especially
electroencephalogram
Concept Map LO.
someone suddenly pulls2.8, 2.9
out in front of the vehicle, it is the RAS that brings that driver
the brain itself (so the person might actually faint). Blood
through the use of scalp
(EEG) needs lots of oxygen before it goes when there is

Reinforce connections across topics with

electrodes; both spontaneous
lightly beyond that is Figure 2.9 The Endocrine Glands
to full attention. It is also the system that lets a mother hear her baby cry in the night,
to the muscles, so the lungs work overtime, too (the person may begin to breathe activityfaster).
and event-related metal in the body
even though she might often sleeprelied
through other noises. The RAS has also been suggested
Interactive

e for general attention,

older
on dissection One set of glands in particular receives special instructions. The adrenal glands potentials
will be stim- (ERP) can be studied

Thebyendocrine
brain-scanning glands
studies assecrete
a possible hormones
area involved in directly into hyperactivity
attention-deficit/ the bloodstream, which carries them to organs in the
Interactive Concept Maps.
and arousal. techniques after death superior spatial
methods ulated to release certain stress-related chemicals (members of a class of chemicals released
activity can be classified according magnetic
resolution
unable to directly by glands called hormones) into the bloodstream. These stress hormones will travel to all to frequency and morphology; resonance
body, such as the heart, pancreas, and sex organs.
observe function traditional bands include delta,
parts of the body, but they will only affect certain target organs. Just as a neurotransmitter
imaging
for structure
study animals or humans with brain damage; damage may be by theta, alpha, and beta (MRI)

Take Practice Quizzes as you read.

lesioning studies accident, injury, or in animals, deliberate; brain areas can be studied fits into a receptor site on a cell, the molecules of the stress hormones fit into receptor sites
according to the location of lesions (injured or destroyed areas) used for imaging function; involves injection of a radioactive tracer
at the various target organs—notably, the heart, muscles, and
positron lungs. This further
emission thatstimulates
binds to glucose, records activity of cells that use radioactive glucose
these organs to work harder. But not every organ or tomography
system will(PET)
be stimulated by the activa-
THE PITUITARY: brain
MASTER OF THE
stimulation studies HORMONAL
stimulation (invasive or noninvasive) UNIVERSE
brain areas can also be studiedthrough electrical
tion of the sympathetic division. Digestion of food and excretion* of waste are image
functional MRI
not necessary
brain function through tracking changes in blood oxygen levels;
functions when dealing with stressful situations, so(fMRI) these systems tend to be shut down
increase or levels associated with increased functioning
in oxygen

2.6 Explain why the pituitary gland is known as the “master gland.” inhibited. Saliva, which is part of digestion, dries right up (ever try whistling when you’re
scared?). Food that was in the stomach sits there like a lump. Usually, the urge to go to the Reset
bathroom will be suppressed, but if the person is really scared, the bladder or bowels may
The pituitary Looking Inside glandthe is Living
located Brain under the brain, just below the hypothalamus. The hypothala- actually empty (this is why people who die under extreme stress, such as hanging or electro-
cution, will release their urine and waste). The sympathetic division is also going to demand
mus controls the glandular system by influencing
(methods for studying the structures and/or activity of the living brain)
the pituitary. That is because the pituitary that the body burn a tremendous amount of fuel, or blood sugar.

gland is the master gland, the one that controls or influences

mapping structure
computed alltechnology;
of the other endocrine glands.
based on X-ray Practice Quiz
Now, all this bodily arousal is going on during a stressful How much doIf you
situation. remember?
the stress
Speaking in public is something many
mapping function
has good temporal but relatively tomography ends, the activity of the sympathetic division will be replaced by the activation of the
Pick the best answer.
people find to be particularly stressful.
good for
Part of the pituitary secretes several of the brainhormones that influence imaging brain the activity of the other
poor spatial resolution; records parasympathetic division.
the
(CT) 1.IfWhich
the stress
of the goes on techniques
following too long or is too
involves intense,
passing the person
a mild 3. Dr. Roll
Which part is
of conducting a autonomic
the speaker’s research study. She wants to measure the
the electrical activity
electroencephalogram through the use of scalp structure, especially current through the brain to activate certain structures without physical
nervous connectivity
system in the
is most likely to research participants’ brains by imaging
be working

glands. One of(EEG)these hormones is a growth hormone that controls

electrodes; both spontaneous
activity and event-related metal inand
the bodyregulates the increase in
when there is *excretion: in this sense, the act damaging
of eliminating
them?waste products from the body.
a. electroconvulsive tomography (ECT)
their
hard
a.
white
at this matter. Which of the following methods will she use?
moment?
diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
potentials (ERP) can be studied b. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) b. MRI spectroscopy
size as children grow from infancy to adulthood. There
activity can be classified according magnetic
are alsosuperiorhormones
spatial that stimulate the c. deep brain lesioning c. functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
resolution d. electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) d. computed tomography (CT)
gonads (ovaries and testes) to release
traditional female
to frequency and morphology;
bands include delta, or maleresonance sex hormones,
imaging
for structure which in turn influence 2. Which of the following techniques analyzes blood oxygen levels to 4. If you were suffering from neurological problems and your neurol-
theta, alpha, and beta (MRI) look at the functioning of the brain? ogist wanted to have a study done of your brain and its electrical
the development and functioning of the reproductive organs, development of secondary
used for imaging function; involves injection of a radioactive tracer a. EEG functioning, which of the following techniques would be most
positron emission that binds to glucose, records activity of cells that use radioactive glucose b. CT appropriate?
sex characteristics in puberty, and reproductive behavior in general.
tomography (PET)
to Learn- c. fMRI a. PTI c. PET
image brain function through tracking changes in blood oxygen levels; d. PET b. EEG d. DTI
ing Objective(fMRI) 10.1. Male and female sex hormones have also been implicated in cognitive
functional MRI
increase in oxygen levels associated with increased functioning

changes as we grow older. One study has found a correlation between Reset lower levels of the
male sex hormone androgen and cognitive decline in older men (Hsu et al., 2015), and for
females, hormonal therapy during a limited postmenopausal time window may lower the
Practice
risk of mild Quizcognitive How much do you remember?
impairment later in their lives (Scott et al., 2012). Another part of the
Pick the best answer.

pituitary
1. Which of the controls things
following techniques associated
involves passing a mild
current through the brain to activate certain structures without
with 3. Dr.pregnancy andstudy.
Roll is conducting a research levels
She wantsoftowater
measure the in the body.
physical connectivity in the research participants’ brains by imaging
damaging them? their white matter. Which of the following methods will she use?
a. electroconvulsive tomography (ECT) a. diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

THINKING CRITICALLY
b. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
c. deep brain lesioning
b. MRI spectroscopy
c. functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Writing Prompts allow students to write
d. electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) d. computed tomography (CT)
2. Which of the following techniques analyzes blood oxygen levels to
Some people think that taking human growth
look at the functioning of the brain?
4. If you were suffering from neurological problems and your neurol-
hormone (HGH) supplements will help reverse the
ogist wanted to have a study done of your brain and its electrical
about the chapter content and receive
effects
a. EEG of aging. If this were true, what would functioning, you expect tofollowing
which of the see in the news
techniques media or medical
would be most
b. CT
journals?
c. fMRI How would you expect HGH supplements
appropriate?
a. PTI to be marketed c. PET as a result? auto-feedback.
d. PET b. EEG d. DTI

one The response entered here will be saved to your notes and may be
collected by your instructor if he/she requires it.
one-

Submit
 Preface  xiii

Teaching and Learning Package

INTEGRATION AND FEEDBACK
It is increasingly true today that as valuable as a good textbook is, it is still only one
element of a comprehensive learning package. The teaching and learning package that
accompanies Psychology, 5e, is the most comprehensive and integrated on the market. We
have made every effort to provide high-quality instructor resources that will save you
preparation time and will enhance the time you spend in the classroom.

MYPSYCHLAB MyPsychLab is an online homework, tutorial, and assessment program

that truly engages students in learning. It helps students better prepare for class, quizzes,
and exams—resulting in better performance in the course—and provides educators with
a dynamic set of tools for gauging individual and class progress. MyPsychLab comes
from Pearson, your partner in providing the best digital learning experience.

LEARNING CATALYTICS Learning Catalytics is a “bring your own device” student

engagement, assessment, and classroom intelligence system. It allows instructors to
engage students in class with real-time diagnostics. Students can use any modern,
web-enabled device (smartphone, tablet, or laptop) to access it.

WRITING SPACE Better writers make great learners—who perform better in their
courses. To help you develop and assess concept mastery and critical thinking through
writing, we created the Writing Space in MyPsychLab. It’s a single place to create, track,
and grade writing assignments, provide writing resources, and exchange meaningful,
personalized feedback with students, quickly and easily, including autoscoring for prac-
tice writing prompts. Plus, Writing Space has integrated access to Turnitin, the global
leader in plagiarism prevention.

PEARSON WRITER Good writing is an important skill that opens doors for you, whether
at school or in the workplace. Pearson Writer offers writing support for anyone—regard-
less of skill level, subject, or discipline. It’s affordable, built for mobile devices, and easy
to use, so rather than spending time learning new software, you can just focus on your
ideas. Pearson Writer takes care of the labor-intensive details of writing—gathering and
citing sources, proofreading for grammar and usage, and staying organized—so you can
concentrate on what matters to you. Your grades will improve, your thoughts will be
clearer, and you will become a better writer.

CC
xiv  Preface

Presentation and Teaching Resources

The Instructor’s Resource Center (www.pearsonhighered.com/irc) provides information
on the following supplements and downloadable files:
Interactive PowerPoint Slides (ISBN 0-13-462372-X) bring the Ciccarelli/White design
into the classroom, drawing students into the lecture and providing appealing interac-
tive activities, visuals, and videos. The slides are built around the text’s learning objec-
tives and offer many direct links to interactive exercises, simulations, and activities.
Standard Lecture PowerPoint Slides (ISBN 0-13-462366-5) These ADA PowerPoint
slides provide an active format for presenting concepts from each chapter and feature
relevant figures and tables from the text.
Art PowerPoint Slides (ISBN 0-13-466664-X) These slides contain only the photos, fig-
ures, and line art from the textbook.
Instructor’s Resource Manual (ISBN 0-13-462365-7), prepared by Alan Swinkels,
St. Edward’s University, offers detailed chapter lecture outlines, chapter summaries,
learning objectives, activities, exercises, assignments, handouts, and demonstrations
for in-class use, as well as useful guidelines for integrating the many Pearson media
resources into your classroom and syllabus.
Test Item File (ISBN 0-13-462364-9) prepared by Jason Spiegelman, Community Col-
lege of Baltimore County, contains more than 3,200 questions categorized by learning
objective and question type (factual, conceptual, or applied). Rationales for each correct
answer and the key distracter in the multiple-choice questions help instructors evaluate
questions and provide more feedback to students.
Pearson MyTest (ISBN: 0-13-462371-1), a powerful assessment generation program,
helps instructors easily create and print quizzes and exams. Questions and tests can be
authored online, allowing instructors ultimate flexibility! For more information, go to
www.PearsonMyTest.com.

APA Assessment Bank

Available within MyPsychLab, a unique bank of assessment items allows instructors to

assess student progress against the American Psychological Association’s Learning Goals
and Outcomes.

Accessing All Resources

For a list of all student resources available with Ciccarelli/White, Psychology, 5e, go to
www.mypearsonstore.com and enter the text ISBN 0-13-447796-0, and check out the
“Everything That Goes With It” section under the photo of the book cover.
For access to all instructor resources for Ciccarelli/White, Psychology, 5e, simply go to
http://pearsonhighered.com/irc.
For technical support for any of your Pearson products, you and your students can con-
tact http://247.pearsoned.com.
 Preface  xv

Learning Outcomes and Assessment

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Based on APA recommendations, each chapter is structured around detailed learning
objectives. All of the instructor and student resources are also organized around these
objectives, making the text and resources a fully integrated system of study. The flexibil-
ity of these resources allows instructors to choose which learning objectives are import-
ant in their courses as well as which content they want their students to focus on.

Learning Objectives

5.1 Define the term learning. 5.9 Describe how operant conditioning
is used to change animal and human
5.2 Identify the key elements of classical behavior.
conditioning as demonstrated in
Pavlov’s classic experiment. 5.10 Explain the concept of latent
learning.
5.3 Apply classical conditioning to
examples of phobias, taste aversions, 5.11 Explain how Köhler’s studies
and drug dependency. demonstrated that animals can learn
by insight.
5.4 Identify the contributions of
Thorndike and Skinner to the 5.12 Summarize Seligman’s studies on
concept of operant conditioning. learned helplessness.

5.5 Differentiate between primary and 5.13 Describe the process of observational
secondary reinforcers and positive learning.
and negative reinforcement.
5.14 List the four elements of
5.6 Identify the four schedules of observational learning.
reinforcement.
5.15 Describe an example of conditioning
5.7 Identify the effect that punishment in the real world.
has on behavior.

5.8 Explain the concepts of discriminant

stimuli, extinction, generalization,
and spontaneous recovery as they
relate to operant conditioning.

GOALS AND STANDARDS

In recent years, many psychology departments have been focusing on core competen-
cies and how methods of assessment can better enhance students’ learning. In response,
the American Psychological Association (APA) established recommended goals for the
undergraduate psychology major beginning in 2008 with a set of 10 goals, and revised
again in 2013 with a new set of 5 goals. Specific learning outcomes were established for
each of the goals, and suggestions were made on how best to tie assessment practices to
these goals. In writing this text, we have used the APA goals and assessment recommen-
dations as guidelines for structuring content and integrating the teaching and homework
materials. For details on the APA learning goals and assessment guidelines, please see
www.apa.org/. 177
xvi  Preface

APA LEARNING OBJECTIVES CICCARELLI/WHITE TEXT LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1 Knowledge Base in Psychology

Students should demonstrate fundamental knowledge and comprehension of the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, historical trends, and empirical
findings to discuss how psychological principles apply to behavioral phenomena. Foundation students should demonstrate breadth in their knowledge and
applications of psychological ideas to simple problems; baccalaureate students should show depth in their knowledge and application of psychological con-
cepts and frameworks to problems of greater complexity.

1.1 Describe key concepts, principles, and Intro: PIA.1

overarching themes in psychology.
1.2 Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s
content domains.
1.3 Describe applications of psychology.
Ch 1: 1.1–1.5, 1.10 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking
Ch 2: 2.1–2.13 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Paying Attention to Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Ch 3: 3.1–3.11, 3.13–3.14 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Beyond “Smoke and Mirrors”—The
Psychological Science and Neuroscience of Magic
Ch 4: 4.1–4.10 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Ghosts, Aliens, and Other
Things that Go Bump in the Night
Ch 5: 5.1–5.8, 5.9–5.14 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Can You Really Toilet Train Your Cat?
Ch 6: 6.1–6.13 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Health and Memory
Ch 7: 7.1–7.4, 7.6–7.10 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Mental and Physical Exercises Combine for
Better Cognitive Health
Ch 8: 8.2–8.5, 8.7–8.11 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Cross-Cultural Views on Death
Ch 9: 9.1–9.10 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: When Motivation is Not Enough
Ch 10: 10.1–10.9 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: The AIDS Epidemic in Russia
Ch 11: 11.1–11.10 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Coping with Stress Through Mindfulness Meditation
Ch 12: 12.1–12.15 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Peeking Inside the Social Brain
Ch 13: 13.1–13.15 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Biological Bases of Personality
Ch 14: 14.1–14.15 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Taking the Worry Out of Exams
Ch 15: 15.1–15.11 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Virtual Reality Therapies
Major concepts are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experiment Simulations, MyPsychLab Video
Series, Operation ARA, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package.

2 Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking

The skills in this domain involve the development of scientific reasoning and problem solving, including effective research methods. Foundation students
should learn basic skills and concepts in interpreting behavior, studying research, and applying research design principles to drawing conclusions about
behavior; baccalaureate students should focus on theory use as well as designing and executing research plans.

2.1 Use scientific reasoning to interpret
psychological phenomena.
2.2 Demonstrate psychology information literacy.
2.3 Engage in innovative and integrative thinking
and problem solving.
2.4 Interpret, design, and conduct basic
psychological research.
2.5 Incorporate sociocultural factors in scientific
inquiry.
Ch 1: 1.6–1.12; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: A Sample Experiment; Applying Psychology to
Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking
Ch 2: 2.4, 2.8, 2.14; APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: Phineas Gage and Neuroplasticity;
Classic Studies in Psychology: Through the Looking Glass—Spatial Neglect
Ch 3: Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Beyond “Smoke and Mirrors”—The Psychological Science and
Neuroscience of Magic; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Perceptual Influences on Metacognition
Ch 4: 4.10; Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Ghosts, Aliens, and Other Things That
Go Bump in the Night; APA Goal 2: Weight Gain and Sleep
Ch 5: 5.2–5.14 and Classic Studies in Psychology: Biological Constraints of Operant Conditioning; APA Goal 2:
Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Spare the Rod, Spoil the Child?
Ch 6: Classic Studies in Psychology: Sperling’s Iconic Memory Test; Classic Studies in Psychology: Elizabeth
Loftus and Eyewitnesses; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Effects of Supplements on Memory;
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Health and Memory
Ch 7: 7.2–7.5; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: A Cognitive Advantage for Bilingual Individuals?
Classic Studies in Psychology: Terman’s Termites; Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Mental and Physical
Exercises for Better Cognitive Health
Ch 8: 8.1, 8.7, 8.10; Classic Studies in Psychology: The Visual Cliff; Classic Studies in Psychology: Harlow and
Contact Comfort; APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: The Facts About Immunizations
Ch 9: Classic Studies in Psychology: The Angry/Happy Man; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking:
Cultural Differences in the Use of Praise as a Motivator
Ch 10: 10.7; Classic Studies in Psychology: Masters and Johnson’s Observational Study of the Human Sexual
Response; APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking
Ch 12: 12.16; Classic Studies in Psychology: Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical
Thinking: Cults and the Failure of Critical Thinking
Ch 13: 13.9 and Classic Studies in Psychology: Geert Hofstede’s Four Dimensions of Cultural Personality; APA
Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Personality, Family, and Culture
Ch 14: APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Learning More: Psychological Disorders
Ch 15: APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Does It Work? Psychological Treatment
Appendix A: Statistics in Psychology
Scientific methods are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experiment Simulations, MyPsychLab Video
Series, Operation
 Preface  xvii

APA UNDERGRADUATE LEARNING GOALS AND OUTCOMES CICCARELLI/WHITE, 5E CONTENT

3 Ethical and Social Responsibility

The skills in this domain involve the development of ethically and socially responsible behaviors for professional and personal settings. Foundation students
should become familiar with the formal regulations that govern professional ethics in psychology and begin to embrace the values that will contribute to
positive outcomes in work settings and in society. Baccalaureate students should have more direct opportunities to demonstrate adherence to professional
values that will help them optimize their contributions.

3.1 Apply ethical standards to
psychological science and
practice.
3.2 Build and enhance
interpersonal relationships.
3.3 Adopt values that build
community at local, national,
and global levels.
Ch 1: 1.10; Shared Writing: The Science of Psychology
Ch 2: Shared Writing: The Biological Perspective
Ch 3: Shared Writing: Sensation and Perception
Ch 4: Shared Writing: Consciousness
Ch 5: 5.3; Shared Writing: Learning
Ch 6: Shared Writing: Memory
Ch 7: 7.9, 7.10; Classic Studies in Psychology: Terman’s “Termites”; Shared Writing: Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language
Ch 8: 8.4, 8.11; Shared Writing: Development Across the Life Span
Ch 9: 9.3, 9.5, 9.10; Classic Studies in Psychology: The Angry/Happy Man; Shared Writing: Motivation and Emotion
Ch 10: 10.5; Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: The AIDS Epidemic in Russia; Shared Writing: Sexuality and Gender
Ch 11: 11.6, 11.9; Shared Writing: Stress and Health
Ch 12: 12.4; Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Cults and the Failure of Critical Thinking; Classic Studies in Psychology:
Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes; Applying Psychology in Everyday Life: Peeking Inside the Social Brain
Ch 13: 13.12; Shared Writing: Theories of Personality
Ch 14: Shared Writing: Psychological Disorders
Ch 15: Shared Writing: Psychological Therapies
Ethics and values are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experiment Simulations, MyPsychLab Video Series,
Operation ARA, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package.

4 Communication
Students should demonstrate competence in written, oral, and interpersonal communication skills. Foundation students should be able to write a cogent scien-
tific argument, present information using a scientific approach, engage in discussion of psychological concepts, explain the ideas of others, and express their
own ideas with clarity. Baccalaureate students should produce a research study or other psychological project, explain scientific results, and present informa-
tion to a professional audience. They should also develop flexible interpersonal approaches that optimize information exchange and relationship development.

4.1 Demonstrate effective writing Intro: PIA.6

in multiple formats.
4.2 Exhibit effective presentation
skills in multiple formats.
4.3 Interact effectively with
others.
Ch 7: 7.11
Ch 8: 8.8 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Cross-Cultural Views on Death
Ch 9: 9.3
Ch 10: 10.5
Ch 12: 12.2–12.3, 12.8–12.9, 12.12 and Psychology in the News: Facing Facebook—The Social Nature of Online Networking;
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Peeking Inside the Social Brain
Communication skills are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experiment Simulations, MyPsychLab Video Series,
Operation ARA, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package.

5 Professional Development
The skills in this domain refer to abilities that sharpen student readiness for post-baccalaureate employment, graduate school, or professional school. The
emphasis in the domain involves application of psychology-specific content and skills, effective self-reflection, project management skills, teamwork skills, and
career preparation. These skills can be developed and refined both in traditional academic settings and extracurricular involvement. In addition, career profes-
sionals can be enlisted to support occupational planning and pursuit.
5.1 Apply psychological content Intro: PIA.1-PIA.7
and skills to professional work. Ch 1: 1.4, 1.12
5.2 Exhibit self-efficacy and Ch 7: Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Mental and Physical Exercises for Better Cognitive Health
self-regulation. Ch 9: 9.1, 9.3–9.4, 9.10 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: When Motivation Is Not Enough
5.3 Refine project management Ch 10: 10.5
skills. Ch 11: 11.7–11.10
5.4 Enhance teamwork capacity. Ch 12: 12.1–12.3, 12.8–12.9
5.5 Develop meaningful Appendix B: Applied Psychology and Psychology Careers
professional direction for life Professional development opportunities are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experiment Simulations, MyPsychLab
after graduation. Video Series, Operation ARA, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package.
xviii  Preface

Acknowledgments
I have to thank my husband, Joe Ciccarelli, for his love and support while I spent many
long hours writing and editing this textbook. My children, Al and Liz, also put up with
my odd working hours and frequent trips and deserve my thanks as well.
There are so many people to thank for their support! Erin Mitchell and Dickson Mus-
slewhite, of the editorial team supported and advised me—thank you all so much. Special
thanks to Maggie Waples, Debi Doyle, and Kate Stewart for a fantastic marketing campaign.
The design is the collaborative work of Lumina, Blair Brown, and Kathryn Foot.
New videos were the efforts of Kim Norbuta, Rebecca Green, and a variety of new con-
tributors appearing on camera. New bio art and animations made possible by our phe-
nomenal content producer Pamela Weldin. Thanks also to Ben Ferini and Liz Kincaid for
their permissions work and Tom Scalzo, Caroline Fenton, and Diane Lombardo for their
work on REVEL and MyPsychLab. A big, heartfelt thank you to Diana Murphy, supple-
ment manager, and my supplement authors Jason Spiegelman, Alan Swinkels, and Edi-
tors, Inc. You are fantastic!
We are grateful to all of the instructors and students who have contributed to the devel-
opment of this text and package over the last five editions. We thank the hundreds of folks
who have reviewed content, participated in focus groups, evaluated learning tools, appeared
in videos, and offered their feedback and assistance in numerous other ways. We thank you.
Special thanks to Julie Swasey, our development editor, who fits us like a glove and
made the whole process of editing this edition so much easier. We love you, Julie! We
know you are moving on to a new position and wish you all the best, and we’ll miss you.
Thanks also to Jennifer Stevenson, who took over Julie’s chores at the “back end” of the
editing process and did a great job!
And, of course, I can’t forget Noland White, my coauthor, pal, and Grand High
Expert. His expertise in neuropsychology and clinical psychology is a valuable resource,
and his revisions of half of the chapters and all of the chapter maps have once again
made this edition a real standout. Thank you from the bottom of my heart, buddy! And
give my foster “grands” a hug from Nana Sandy.
Sandy Ciccarelli
Gulf Coast State College
Panama City, Florida
sandy243@comcast.net
 Preface  xix

I would like to personally thank:

My wife and best friend, Leah, and our wonderful children, Sierra, Alexis,
and Landon, thank you for your love and patience through the long hours and many
absences. I would not be able to do any of this without you;
My lead author and collaborator, Sandy Ciccarelli, for making all of this possible—
and for your friendship, support, assistance, advice, and continuing to be the most amaz-
ing mentor and writing partner I could ever hope to work with!
My students, for your inspiration, encouragement, and for all of the things you
continue to teach me;
The student and faculty users and reviewers of this text, for your support and
ever-helpful comments and suggestions;
My friends and colleagues in the Department of Psychological Science at G ­ eorgia
College, for your encouragement, frequent discussions, and feedback, with special
thanks to Lee Gillis, John Lindsay, and Greg Jarvie for your input and support along the
way. And to Walt Isaac, Kristina Dandy, and Diana Young, thank you for your contribu-
tions and willingness to be “on call” reviewers!
Julie Swasey and Erin Mitchell, for your guidance, creativity, collaboration, and for
being so awesome!
Jen Stevenson, for tagging in and doing such an amazing job!
Pamela Weldin, Caroline Fenton, Melissa Sacco, Maggie Waples, Debi Doyle, Kate
Stewart, Dickson Musslewhite, Stephany Harrington, and all of the other Pearson and asso-
ciated staff, for your contributions and for continuing to make this such a great experience!
Noland White
Georgia College & State University
Milledgeville, Georgia
noland.white@gcsu.edu
About the Authors
SAUNDRA K. CICCARELLI is a professor emeritus of psychology at Gulf
Coast State College in Panama City, Florida. She received her Ph.D. in developmental
psychology from George Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennes-
see. She is a member of the American Psychological Association and the Association for
Psychological Science. Originally interested in a career as a researcher in the develop-
ment of language and intelligence in developmentally delayed children and adolescents,
Dr. Ciccarelli had publications in the American Journal of Mental Deficiency while still at
Peabody. However, she discovered a love of teaching early on in her career. This led her
to the position at Gulf Coast State College, where she taught Introductory Psychology
and Human Development for more than 30 years. Her students loved her enthusiasm for
the field of psychology and the many anecdotes and examples she used to bring psychol-
ogy to life for them. Before writing this text, Dr. Ciccarelli authored numerous ancillary
materials for several introductory psychology and human development texts.

J. NOLAND WHITE is a professor of psychology at Georgia College & State

University (Georgia College), Georgia’s Public Liberal Arts University, located in Milled-
geville. He received his A.A. in psychology from Macon State College and both his B.S.
and M.S. in psychology from Georgia College. After receiving his Ph.D. in counseling
psychology from the University of Tennessee, he joined the faculty of Georgia College
in 2001. He teaches Introductory Psychology, Psychology of Adjustment, Behavioral
Neuroscience, Advanced Behavioral Neuroscience, Counseling and Clinical Psychology,
Senior Seminar, and a section of Advanced Research Methods focusing on psychophys-
iology. He has an active lab and, with his students, is investigating the psychophysio-
logical characteristics and neuropsychological performance of adults with and without
ADHD. Outside of the lab, Dr. White is engaged in collaborative research examining the
effectiveness of incorporating various technologies in and out of the college classroom to
facilitate student learning. He also serves as a mentor for other faculty wanting to expand
their use of technology with their classes. In April 2008, he was a recipient of the Georgia
College Excellence in Teaching Award. Dr. White is also a licensed psychologist and has
worked with adolescents and adults in a variety of clinical and community settings.

xx
Psychology
Fifth edition
 Psychology in Action
Secrets for Surviving College and Improving Your Grades
THINKING CRITICALLY

Based on what you know now, what advice would you share with a student just starting out in college?
After you have answered the question, watch the video to compare the answers of other students to yours.

The response entered here will be saved to your notes and may be collected by your
instructor if he/she requires it.

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Watch the Video

Why Study How to Study?

Many students entering college have developed a system of taking notes, reading the textbook, and reviewing for exams that
may have worked pretty well in the past; but what worked in grade school and high school may not work in college, where
the expectations from teachers are higher and the workload is far greater. Students should develop skills in the following areas
in order to do their absolute best in any college course: study methods, time management, effective reading of course materi-
als, active listening and note taking, studying for exams, memory strategies, and writing papers. One final aspect of being a
­successful student involves being an ethical student—exactly how can you use the materials you find for your research paper, for
­example, without committing the sin of plagiarism (claiming the work of someone else as your own)?
PIA-2
 This introduction presents various techniques and information aimed at maximizing knowledge and skills in
each of these eight areas. In addition, brief videos are available on each of these topics. These topics address aspects
of the American Psychological Association’s (APA) undergraduate learning goals. APA Goal 2 (Scientific Inquiry
and Critical Thinking) is addressed in Chapter One and is the basis of a feature in every chapter.

Learning Objectives

PIA.1 Identify four methods of studying. PIA.6 Explain how using mnemonics can
help you improve your memory for
PIA.2 Describe some strategies for time facts and concepts.
management.
PIA.7 Describe the key steps in writing
PIA.3 Describe how to read a textbook so papers for college.
that you get the most out of your
reading efforts. PIA.8 Identify some of the key ethical
considerations that you’ll face as a
PIA.4 Identify the best methods for taking student.
notes and listening in class.

PIA.5 Describe how to approach studying

for exams.

PIA-3
PIA-4  INTRODUCTION

Study Skills
PIA.1 Identify four methods of studying.

I want to make better grades, but sometimes it seems that no

Some students find it helpful to hear the
content in addition to reading it. This
is especially true when learning a new
language. This woman is listening to an audio
recording from her textbook as she follows
along and looks at the figures and photos.
matter how hard I study, the test questions turn out to be hard and
confusing and I end up not doing very well. Is there some trick to
getting good grades?
Many students would probably say that their grades are not what they want them to
be. They may make the effort, but they still don’t seem to be able to achieve the higher
grades that they wish they could earn. A big part of the problem is that despite many dif-
ferent educational experiences, students are rarely taught how to study.
We learn many different kinds of things during our lives, and using only one method
of learning probably isn’t going to work for everyone. Students may have preferences for
a particular study method or may find it useful to use a combination of different methods.
Verbal study methods involve the use of words, expressed either through writing or speaking.
For instance, after you read about a topic, you might put it into your own words, or you
might write out longer, more detailed versions of the notes you took in class. Visual learning
methods involve the use of pictures or images. Students using these methods may look at or
create charts, diagrams, and figures to master the content. There are also those who prefer
to learn by hearing the information (auditory learning methods). Listening to a recording of a
lecture is a good example. Finally, there are people who use the motion of their own bodies
to help them remember key information (action learning methods). For instance, you might
construct a three-dimensional model to gain a better understanding of a topic.

THINKING CRITICALLY

Describe some other ways in which the various study methods can be put to use.

The response entered here will be saved to your notes and may be
collected by your instructor if he/she requires it.

Submit

Table PIA.1 lists just some of the ways in which you can study. All of the methods
Watch the Video Study Methods listed in this table are good for students who wish to improve both their understanding
of a subject and their grades on tests.

Table PIA.1 Multiple Study Methods

VERBAL METHODS
(involve speaking or writing)
Use flash cards to identify
main points or key terms.
Write out or recite key
information in whole
sentences or phrases in your
own words.
When looking at diagrams,
write out a description.
Use “sticky” notes to remind
yourself of key terms and
information, and put them in
the notebook text or e-text
or on a mirror that you use
frequently.
Practice spelling words
or repeating facts to be
remembered.
Rewrite things from memory.
VISUAL METHODS
(involve pictures, images)
Make flash cards with
pictures or diagrams to aid
recall of key concepts or use
the flashcards in REVEL.
Make charts and diagrams
and sum up information in
tables.
Use different colors of
highlighter for different
sections of information in text,
e-text, or notes.
Visualize charts, diagrams,
and figures.
Trace letters and words to
remember key facts.
Use the interactive figures
and tables available in
REVEL.
Redraw things from memory.
AUDITORY METHODS
(involve listening)
Join or form a study group or find a study
partner so that you can discuss concepts
and ideas.
While studying, speak out loud or into a
digital recorder that you can play back later or
to the audio recordings in REVEL.
Make speeches.
Record the lectures (with permission). Take
notes on the lecture sparingly, using the
recording to fill in parts that you might have
missed.
Read notes or text material into a digital
recorder or get study materials recorded and
play back while exercising or doing chores.
When learning something new, state or
explain the information in your own words out
loud or to a study partner.
Use musical rhythms as memory aids, or put
information to a rhyme or a tune.
ACTION METHODS
(involve physical activity)
Sit near the front of the classroom. If online, give
yourself room to walk around while studying.
Take notes by making pictures or charts to help
you remember key terms and ideas.
Read out loud or use the audio feature in REVEL
while walking around.
Study with a friend.
While exercising, listen to recordings of important
information, either your own or those in REVEL.
Write out key concepts on a large board or poster.
Make your own flash cards, using different colors
and diagrams, and lay them out in order on a large
surface.
Make a three-dimensional model.
Spend extra time in the lab.
Go to off-campus areas such as a museum or
historical site to gain information.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
work, the causes contributing to this reduction in efficiency may be
grouped about the following main factors:
(1) The physical discomfort of the mask arising from causes such
as pressure on the head and face, due to improperly fitting
facepieces and harness, the noseclip, and the mouthpiece.
(2) Abnormal conditions of vision, due to poor optical qualities in
eye pieces and restrictions of vision, both as to total field and
binocular field.
(3) Abnormal conditions of respiration, among them being (a) the
unnatural channels of respiration caused by wearing the box
respirator, (b) increase in dead air space in respiratory circuit, and (c)
the increase in resistance to both inhalation and exhalation, the last
two mentioned being present to a greater or less degree in all types
of mask.
Of these general subdivisions the various phases of the first two
are so evident that no further discussion will be given. The effects of
the changed conditions of respiration are, however, less obvious,
and it may be of interest to present in a general way the results of
the research along this line, particularly as regards the harmful
effects of increasing the resistance and dead air space in the
respiratory tract above the normal.
The function of respiration is to supply oxygen to and remove
carbon dioxide from the blood as it passes through the lungs. This
interchange of gases takes place in the alveoli, a myriad of thin-
walled air sacs at the end of the respiratory tract where the air is
separated by a very thin membrane through which the gases readily
pass. The volume and rate, or in other words, the minute-volume, of
respiration is automatically controlled by the nerve centers in such a
way that a sufficient amount of air is supplied to the lungs to maintain
by means of this interchange a uniform percentage of its various
constituents as it leaves the lungs. It will be readily seen therefore,
that anything which causes a change in the composition of the air
presented to the blood in the alveoli will bring about abnormal
conditions of respiration.
 Inasmuch as the gaseous interchange between the lungs and the
blood takes place only in the terminal air sacs it follows that, at the
end of each respiration, the rest of the respiratory tract is filled with
air low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide, which on inspiration is
drawn back into the lungs, diluting the fresh air. The volume of these
passages holding air which must be re-breathed is known as the
anatomical dead air space.
Similarly, when a mask is worn the facepiece chamber and any
other parts of the air passage common to inspiration and expiration
become additional dead air space contributing a further dilution of
oxygen content and contamination by carbon dioxide of the inspired
air in addition to that occasioned by the anatomical dead space,
which of course, is always present and is taken care of by the
functions normally controlling respiration.
Major R. G. Pearce who directed a large amount of the research
along this line, sums up the harmful effects of thus increasing the
dead air space as follows:
1. Interpretation from the physiological standpoint:
(a) A larger minute-volume of air is required when breathing
through dead air space. This, interpreted on physiological grounds,
means that the carbon dioxide content of the arterial blood is higher
than normal. The level to which the content of carbon dioxide in the
arterial blood may rise is limited. Anything which wastefully increases
the carbon dioxide level of the blood decreases the reserve so
necessary to a soldier when he is asked to respond to the demand
for exercise which is a part of his daily life.
(b) A larger minute-volume of air must be pulled through the
canister, which offers resistance proportional to the volume of air
passing through it. If resistance is a factor of harm, dead air space
increases that harm, since dead air space increases the volume of
air passing through the canister.
(c) As will be noted below, the effect of resistance is a tendency
to decrease the minute-volume of air breathed. Dead air space
increases the minute-volume. Accordingly, if breathing is
accomplished against resistance and through a large volume of dead
air space, the volume of air breathed is reduced more in proportion
to the actual needs of the body than when breathing against
resistance without the additional factor of dead space; this, again,
causes the level of carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues to be
raised to a higher level than normal, and thus again there is some
reserve power wasted.
2. Interpretation from the standpoint of the canister.
The life of the canister depends on the volume of the gas-laden
air passed through it. The dead space increases the minute-volume
of air passed through the canister and, therefore, shortens its life.
Physiologically, the reason for the harmful effects of breathing
resistance is more involved:
“The importance of resistance to breathing lies
in: (1) the effect on the circulation of the blood, and
(2) the changes in the lung tissue, which seriously
interfere with the gas exchange between the outside
air and the blood. Data have been presented to
draw attention to the seriousness of resistance to
inspiration. In these reports, it was suggested that
the deleterious effects on the body consist in
changes in the blood pressure, increased work of
the right side of the heart, and an increase in the
blood and lymph content of the lungs. Resistance
also decreases the minute-volume of air breathed
and thereby increases the percentage of carbon
dioxide in the expired air. The foregoing changes
are all deleterious.
“Although the chief problem of resistance in gas
mask design concerns inspiration, nevertheless
resistance to expiration is an important factor. The
expired air of the lungs contains carbon dioxide for
which means of escape must be provided. The
expiratory act is more passive than the inspiratory
act, and resistance to expiration is, therefore, more
keenly felt than resistance to inspiration. It is then
imperative that the exhale valve be so arranged as
to allow for the escape of the entire amount of air
during the time of expiration with the least possible
resistance. The data of the laboratory indicate that
seldom, if ever, do expiratory rates rise above a
velocity of 150 to 175 per minute. The effect of
resistance to exhalation upon the vital organs of the
body is not dissimilar to that of inspiration.”
 CHAPTER XIII
ABSORBENTS[27]

The absorbents used in both the British and American gas mask canister, which
afforded a degree of protection far superior to that of any other allied or enemy nation
except Germany, consisted of a mixture of charcoal and soda-lime, as described in the
preceding chapter. In general, a gas mask absorbent must have certain requirements.
These are: absorptive activity, absorptive capacity, versatility, mechanical strength,
chemical stability, low breathing resistance, ease of manufacture and availability of raw
materials.
Absorptive activity, or a very high rate of absorption, is one of the more important
properties of a satisfactory absorbent. A normal man when exercising violently
breathes about 60 liters of air per minute, and since inhalation occupies but slightly
more than half of the breathing cycle, the actual rate at which gas passes through the
canister during inhalation is about 100 liters per minute. Calculated on the basis of the
regular army canister, this corresponds to an average linear air velocity of about 80 cm.
per second. On the average, therefore, a given small portion of the air remains in
contact with the gas absorbent for only about 0.1 second. Besides this, the removal of
the toxic material must be surprisingly complete. Though the concentration entering the
canister may occasionally be as high as one half per cent, even the momentary
leakage of 0.001 per cent (ten parts per million) would cause serious discomfort and
the prolonged leakage of smaller amounts would have serious results in the case of
some gases. The activity of the present gas mask charcoal is shown by the fact that it
will reduce a concentration of 7000 parts per million of chloropicrin to less than 0.5 part
per million in less than 0.03 second.
Of equal importance is the absorptive capacity. That is, the absorbent must be able
to absorb and hold large amounts of gas per unit weight of absorbent. Its life must be
measured in days against ordinary concentrations of gas. It is further necessary that
the gas be held firmly and not in any loose combination which might give up minute
traces of gas when air is, for long periods of time, breathed in through a canister which
has previously been exposed to gas.
The absorbents used must be of a type which can be relied upon to give adequate
protection against practically any kind of toxic gas (versatility). The need of this is
apparent when the difficulty of having separate canisters for various gases is
considered, as well as the difficulty in rapidly and accurately identifying the gases and
the possible introduction of new and unknown gases. Fortunately, practically all of the
toxic gases are very reactive chemically or have relatively high boiling points and can
therefore be absorbed in large amounts by charcoal.
Absorbents must be mechanically strong in order to retain their structure and
porosity under conditions of transport and field use. Further, they must not be subject
to abrasion for the production of a relatively small amount of fines would tend to plug
the canister or to cause channels through which the gas would pass without being
absorbed.
Since the canister is filled several months before it is first used in the trenches, and
since the canister may be used over a period of months before it is discarded, it is
obviously the ultimate activity and capacity (not the initial efficiency) which determines
the value of an absorbent. It must therefore have a very considerable degree of
chemical stability. By this is meant that the absorbent itself is not subject to chemical
deterioration, that it does not react with carbon dioxide, that it does not disintegrate or
become deliquescent even after being used and that it has no corrosive action on the
metal container.
In a good general absorbent there must be a proper balance between its various
essential qualities, and hence the most suitable mixture will probably always be a
compromise.

Charcoal
The fact that charcoal would condense in its pores or adsorb certain gases, holding
them firmly, had been known for a long time.[28] In general, it was known that so-called
animal charcoal was the best for decolorizing sugar solutions, that wood charcoal was
the best for adsorbing gases and that coke had very little adsorbing or decolorizing
power. No one knew the reason for these facts and no one could write a specification
for charcoal. The ordinary charcoal used in the scientific laboratory was cocoanut
charcoal, since Hunter had discovered more than fifty years ago that this was the best
charcoal for adsorbing gases.

Raw Materials[29]
The first charcoal designed to offer protection against chlorine and phosgene was
made by carbonizing red cedar. Since this had little value against chloropicrin, attention
was turned to cocoanut shell as the source of raw material. This charcoal fulfilled the
above conditions for a satisfactory absorbent better than any other form tested. It must
not be supposed, however, that investigation of carbon stopped with these
experiments. In the search for the ideal carbon, practically almost every hard vegetable
substance known was tested. Next to cocoanut shells, the fruit pits, several common
varieties of nuts abundant in the United States, and several tropical nuts (especially
cohune nuts), were found to make the best carbon. Pecan nuts, and all woods ranging
in hardness from iron wood down to ordinary pine and fir, were found to be in the
second class of efficiency. Among other substances tested were almonds, Arabian
acorns, grape seeds, Brazil nut husks, balsa, osage orange, Chinese velvet bean,
synthetic carbons (from coal, lamp-black, etc.), cocoa bean shell, coffee grounds, flint
corn, corn cobs, cotton seed husks, peanut shells and oil shale. While many of these
substances might have been used in an emergency, none of them would produce
carbon as efficient, volume for volume, as that of the cocoanut shell and other hard
nuts.
Some idea of the scale of charcoal production may be seen from the requirement
for cocoanut shells. When we first began to build masks our demands for
carboniferous materials ranged from 40 to 50 tons a day of raw material; by the end of
the war, we were in need of a supply of 400 tons of cocoanut shells per day. This
demand would absorb the entire cocoanut production of tropical America five times
over. (The total production of cocoanuts in Central America, the West Indies and the
Caribbean Coast of South America amounted to 131,000,000 nuts annually, equal to a
supply of 75 tons of shells daily.) It was equal to one-tenth of the total production of the
Orient, which amounted to 7,450,200,000 nuts annually. This large demand always
made a reserve supply of charcoal material practically impossible. The “Eat More
Cocoanut” campaign started by the Gas Defense more than doubled the American
consumption of cocoanut in a brief space of time and in October, 1918, with the help of
importation of shell, we averaged about 150 tons of shells per day, exclusive of the
Orient.
The first heating of cocoanut shells to make charcoal reduces their weight 75 per
cent. It was evident, therefore, that we could more economically ship our oriental
supply in the form of charcoal produced on the other side of the Pacific Ocean. A
charcoal plant was established in the Philippine Islands and agents were sent to all
parts of the Oriental countries to purchase enormous supplies of shells. While the work
was only gaining momentum when the Armistice was signed, the plant actually shipped
300 tons of cocoanut shell carbon to the United States and had over 1000 tons on
hand November 11, 1918.
In the search for other tropical nuts, it was found that the cohune or corozo nut was
the best. These nuts are the fruit of the manaca palm tree. They grow in clusters, like
bananas or dates, one to four clusters to a tree, each cluster yielding from 60 to 75
pounds of nuts. They grow principally on the west coast of Central America in low,
swampy regions from Mexico to Panama but are also found along the Caribbean
coast. The chief virtue of the cohune nut from the charcoal point of view was its
extreme thickness of shell; this nut is 3 inches or more in length and nearly 2 inches in
diameter but the kernel is very small. Four thousand tons per month were being
imported at the time of the Armistice. A disadvantage in the use of cohune nuts was
that their husks contained a considerable amount of acid which rotted the jute bags
and also caused the heaps of nuts to heat in storage.
A third source of tropical material was in the ivory nuts used in considerable
quantities in this country by the makers of buttons. There is a waste of 400-500 tons
per month of this material, which was used after screening out the dust. This material
is rather expensive, because it is normally used in the manufacture of lactic acid.
Another great branch of activity in securing carbon supplies was concerned with the
apricot, peach and cherry pits and walnut shells of the Pacific Coast. A nation-wide
campaign on the part of the American Red Cross was started on September 13, 1918.
Between this time and the Armistice some 4,000 tons of material were collected. Thus
the slogan “Help us to give him the best gas mask” made its appeal to every person in
the United States.

A Theory of Charcoal Action

It has been pointed out that the first charcoal was made from red cedar. While this
was very satisfactory when tested against chlorine, it was of no value against
chloropicrin. In order to improve the charcoal still further it was desirable to have some
theory as to the way charcoal acted. It was generally agreed that fine pores were
essential. The functioning of charcoal depends upon its adsorptive power and this in
turn upon its porosity. The greater the ratio of its surface to its mass, that is, the more
highly developed and fine grained its porosity, the greater its value. Another factor,
however, seemed to play a rôle. As a pure hypothesis, at first, Chaney assumed that
an active charcoal could only be secured by removing the hydrocarbon which he
assumed to be present after carbonization. Being difficultly volatile, these
hydrocarbons prevent the adsorption of other gases or vapors on the active material.
To prove this, red cedar charcoal was heated in a bomb connected with a pump which
drew air through the bomb. Although the charcoal had been carbonized at 800°,
various gases and vapor began to come off at 300°, and when cooled, condensed to
crystalline plates.
This experiment not only proved the existence of components containing hydrogen
in the charcoal, but also showed that one way of removing the hydrocarbon film on the
active carbon was to treat with an oxidizing agent.
In the light of the later experimental work Chaney feels that there are two forms of
elementary carbon—“active” and “inactive”; the active form is characterized by a high
specific adsorptive capacity for gas while the inactive form lacks this property. In
general the temperature of formation of the active form is below 500-600° C. The form
is easily attacked by oxidizing agents—while the latter is relatively stable. The
combination of active carbon with an adsorbed layer or layers of hydrocarbon is known
as “primary” carbon. Anthracite and bituminous coal are native primary carbons, while
coke contains a considerable amount of inactive carbon, resulting from the
decomposition of hydrocarbon during its preparation.

Preparation of Active Charcoal

“On the basis of the above discussion, the preparation of active charcoal will
evidently involve two steps:
“First.—The formation of a porous, amorphous base carbon at a relatively low
temperature.
“Second.—The removal of the adsorbed hydrocarbons from the primary carbon,
and the increase of its porosity.
“The first step presents no very serious difficulties. It involves, in the case of woods
and similar materials, a process of destructive distillation at relatively low temperatures.
The deposition of inactive carbon, resulting from the cracking of hydrocarbons at high
temperatures, must be avoided. The material is therefore charged into the retorts in
thin layers, so that the contact of the hydrocarbon vapors with hot charcoal is avoided
as much as possible. Furthermore, most of the hydrocarbon is removed before
dangerous temperatures are reached. A slight suction is maintained to prevent outward
leaks, but no activation by oxidation is attempted, as this can be carried on under
better control and with less loss of material in a separate treatment.

Fig. 67. Dorsey Reactor

for Activating Cocoanut Charcoal with Steam.

“The second step, that is, the removal of the absorbed hydrocarbons from the
primary carbon, is a much more difficult matter. Prolonged heating, at sufficiently high
temperatures, is required to remove or break up the hydrocarbon residues. On the
other hand, volatilization and cracking of the hydrocarbons at high temperatures is
certain to produce an inactive form of carbon more or less like graphite in its visible
characteristics, which is not only inert and non-adsorbent, but is also highly resistant to
oxidation. The general method of procedure which has yielded the best results, is to
remove the adsorbed hydrocarbons by various processes of combined oxidation and
distillation, whereby the hydrocarbons of high boiling points are broken down into more
volatile substances and removed at lower temperatures, or under conditions less likely
to result in subsequent deposition of inactive carbon. Thin layers of charcoal and rapid
gas currents are used so that contact between the volatilized hydrocarbons and the hot
active charcoal may be as brief as possible. In this way cracking of the hydrocarbons
at high temperature, with consequent deposition of inactive carbon, is largely avoided.
“While the removal of the hydrocarbons by oxidation and distillation is the main
object of the activation process, another important action goes on at the same time,
namely, the oxidation of the primary carbon itself. This oxidation is doubtless
advantageous, up to a certain point, for it probably at first enlarges, at the expense of
the walls of solid carbon, cavities already present in the charcoal, thus increasing the
total surface exposed. Moreover, the outer ends of the capillary pores and fissures
must be somewhat enlarged by this action and a readier access thus provided to the
inner portions of the charcoal. However, as soon as the eating away of the carbon wall
begins to unite cavities, it decreases, rather than increases, the surface of the
charcoal, and a consequent drop in volume activity, that is in the service time, of the
charcoal, is found to result.
“It is obvious, therefore, that conditions of activation must be so chosen and
regulated as to oxidize the hydrocarbons rapidly and the primary carbon slowly. Such a
differential oxidation is not easy to secure since the hydrocarbons involved have a very
low hydrogen content, and are not much more easily oxidized than the primary carbon
itself. Furthermore, most of the hydrocarbons to be removed are shut up in the interior
of the granule. On the one hand, a high enough temperature must be maintained to
oxidize the hydrocarbons with reasonable speed; on the other hand, too high a
temperature must not be employed, else the primary carbon will be unduly consumed.
The permissible range is a relatively narrow one, only about 50 to 75°. The location of
the optimum activating temperature depends upon the oxidizing agent employed and
upon other variables as well; for air, it has been found to lie somewhere between 350
and 450°, and for steam between 800 and 1000°.
“The air activation process has the advantage of operating at a conveniently low
temperature. It has the disadvantage, that local heating and an excessive consumption
of primary carbon occur, so that a drop in volume activity results from that cause before
the hydrocarbons have been completely eliminated. As a consequence, charcoal of the
highest activity cannot be obtained by the air activation process.”
The steam activation process has the disadvantage that it operates at so high a
temperature that the regulation of temperature becomes difficult and other technical
difficulties are introduced. It has the advantage that local heating is eliminated. The
hydrocarbons can, therefore, be largely removed without a disproportionate
consumption of primary carbon. This permits the production of a very active charcoal.
It has the further advantage that it worked well with all kinds of charcoal. Inferior
material, when treated with steam, gave charcoal nearly as good as the best steam-
treated cocoanut charcoal. Because of the shortage of cocoanut, this was a very
important consideration.
 Fig. 68.—Section of Raw Cocoanut Shell.
Magnified 146½ diameters.

The air, steam and also carbon dioxide-steam activation processes have all been
employed on a large scale by the Chemical Warfare Service for the manufacture of gas
mask carbon.
Fig. 69.—Section of Carbonized Cocoanut Charcoal.
Magnified 146½ Diameters.

Fig. 70.—Two-Minute Charcoal not Activated.

Magnified 732 Diameters.

“The above considerations are illustrated fairly well by the

photo-micrographs shown in Figs. 68 to 71. Fig. 68 shows a
 section of the original untreated cocoanut shell crosswise to the
long axis of the shell. In it can be seen the closely packed, thick-
walled so-called ‘stone-cells’ characteristic of all hard and dense
nut shells. Fig. 69 is a photograph of a similar section through the
same cocoanut shell after it has been carbonized. As these
photographs are all taken with vertical illumination against a dark
background, the cavities, or voids, and depressions all appear
black, while the charcoal itself appears white. It is clear from this
photograph that much of the original grosser structure of the shell
persists in the carbonized products. Figs. 70 and 71 are more
highly magnified photographs of a carbonized charcoal before
and after activation, respectively. As before, all the dark areas
represent voids of little or no importance in the adsorptive activity
of the charcoal, while the white areas represent the charcoal
itself. In Fig. 70 (unactivated) the charcoal itself between the voids
it seen to be relatively compact, while in Fig. 71 (activated) it is
decidedly granular. This granular structure, just visible at this high
magnification (1000 diameters), probably represents the grosser
porous structure on which the adsorption really depends. These
photographs, therefore, show how the porosity is increased by
activation.”

Fig. 71.—31-Minute Steam Activated Charcoal.

Magnified 732 Diameters.

The great demand for charcoal, and the need for activating other than cocoanut
charcoal led to the development of the Dressler tunnel kiln, which seemed to offer
many advantages over the Dorsey type of treater.

Fig. 72.—Sectional View of Dressler Tunnel Kiln,

Adapted to Activation of Charcoal.

“The Dressler tunnel kiln is a type used in general ceramic

work. The furnace consists essentially of a brick kiln about 190 ft.
long, 12 ft. broad, and 9 ft. high, lined with fire brick. Charcoal is
loaded in shallow, refractory trays in small tram cars, about 120
trays to the car. The cars enter the kiln through a double door and
the charcoal remains in the hot zone at a temperature of about
850° C. for about 4 hrs., depending upon the nature of the
material charged. Water is atomized into this kiln, and a positive
pressure maintained in order to exclude entrance of air. The kiln is
gas-fired and the charcoal is activated by the steam in the
presence of the combustion gases.
“Under such treatment the charcoal is given a high degree of
activation without the usual accompanying high losses. Seemingly
the oxidizing medium used, together with the operating
conditions, produce a deep penetration of the charcoal particles
without increasing the extensive surface combustion experienced
 in the steam activators. The capacity of such a type furnace is
limited only by the size of the installation.
“The advantages of this type furnace may be tabulated as follows:

1—High quality of product.

2—Small weight and volume losses.
3—Large capacity per unit.
4—Minimum initial cost and maintenance of installation.
5—Simplicity and cheapness of operation.
6—Adaptability to activation of all carbon materials.
7—Availability of furnaces of this general type already constructed.”

Substitutes for Nut Charcoal

The first experiments were made with a special anthracite coal (non-laminated and
having conchoidal fracture). This had a life of 560 minutes as against 360 minutes for
air treated cocoanut charcoal and 800-900 minutes for steam-treated charcoal.
When the Gas Defense Service tried to activate anthracite on a large scale in
vertical gas retorts at Derby, Connecticut, the attempt was a failure. They carbonized at
900° and then turned on the steam with the result that the steam-treated coal had a
slightly greater density than the untreated, which was wrong, and had a shiny
appearance in parts with roughened deposits in other parts. When the hydrocarbons
are decomposed at high temperatures, the resulting carbon is somewhat graphitic, is
itself inactive, is not readily oxidized, and impairs or prevents the activation of the
normal carbon upon which it is deposited. This discovery made it possible to treat
anthracite successfully. The conditions must be such as to minimize high temperature
cracking, to carry off or oxidize the hydrocarbons as fast as formed, and especially to
prevent the gases from cooler portions of the treater coming in contact with carbon at a
much higher temperature. With these facts in mind, a plant was built at Springfield
which produced 10 tons a day of 150-300 minute charcoal from raw anthracite. This
was one-third of the total production at that time and was mixed with the nut charcoal
made at Astoria, thereby preventing an absolute shortage of canister-filling material in
October, 1918.
It was next shown that the cocoanut charcoal fines resulting from grinding and
screening losses and amounting to 50 per cent of the product, could be very finely
ground, mixed with a binder, and baked like ordinary carbon products. By avoiding gas-
treating in the bake, the resulting charcoal is nearly as good as that from the original
shell. A recovery plant for treating the cocoanut fines was built at Astoria. The product
was called “Coalite.”
The great advantage of cocoanut shell as a source of charcoal is that it is very
dense and consequently it is possible to convert it into a mass having a large number
of fine pores, whereas a less dense wood, like cedar, will necessarily give more larger
pores, which are of relatively little value. The cocoanut charcoal is also pretty resistant
to oxidation which seems to make selective oxidation a more simple matter. By
briquetting different woods, it is possible to make charcoal from them which is nearly
equal to that from cocoanut shell.
By heating lamp-black with sulfur and briquetting, it was possible to make a
charcoal having approximately the same service time as cocoanut charcoal. A charcoal
was made by emulsifying carbon black with soft pitch, which gave the equivalent of
400 minutes against chloropicrin before it had been steam-treated. This looked so
good that the plans were drawn for making a thousand pounds or more of this product
at Washington to give it a thorough test. This was not done on account of the cessation
of all research work. The possible advantage of this product was the more uniform
distribution of binder.
Instead of steam-treating anthracite coal direct, it was also pulverized, mixed with a
binder, and baked into rods which were then ground and activated with steam. The
resulting material, which was known as Carbonite, had somewhat less activity than the
lamp-black mixes but was very much cheaper. A plant was built to bake 40 tons a day
of this material, which would yield 10 tons a day of active carbon after allowing for
grinding losses and steam treatment. The plant was guaranteed to furnish an
absorbent having a life of 600 minutes against chloropicrin.

German Charcoal
After the Armistice was signed, Chaney took up the question of how the Germans
made their charcoal. The German charcoal was made from coniferous wood and was
reported to be as good as ours, in spite of the fact that they were using inferior
materials. Inside of a month Chaney had found out how the German charcoal was
made, had duplicated their material, and had shown that it was nothing like as good as
our charcoal. The Germans impregnated the wood with zinc chloride, carbonized at red
heat, and washed out most of the zinc chloride. When this zinc chloride was found in
the German charcoal, it was assumed that it had been added after the charcoal had
been made. It was therefore dissolved out with hydrochloric acid, thereby improving
the charcoal against chloropicrin. The German charcoal was then tested as it stood,
including the fines, against American charcoal, 8 to 14 mesh. The most serious error,
however, was in testing only against a high concentration of chloropicrin. The German
charcoal contains relatively coarse pores which condense gases at high concentrations
very well but which do not absorb gases strongly at low concentrations. The result was
that the German charcoal was rated as being four or five times as good as it really
was.
 German Charcoal. ×200.

Fig. 73.—Charcoal from Spruce Wood.

Comparison of Charcoal
The following table shows a comparison of charcoals from different sources. The
method of activation was identical and the times of treatment were those approximately
giving the highest service time. The results against chloropicrin, therefore, represent
roughly the relative excellence of the charcoal obtainable from various raw materials,
using this method of activation:

Comparison of Various Active Charcoals Activated in

Laboratory
Steam Accelerated
Apparent
Treatment Chloropicrin
Density
at 900° Test Results
Base
Weight
Material Weight Service
Primary Activated Time Loss
Absorbed Time
Carbon Carbon Min. Per
Per Cent Min.
Cent
Sycamore 0.158 0.080 18 53 41 7.3
Cedar 0.223 0.097 60 88 78 16.0
Mountain 0.420 0.236
mahogany 60 44 32 16.3

Ironwood 0.465 0.331 60 44 31 20.8

Brazil nut 0.520 0.316 120 71 46 32.2
Ivory nut 0.700 0.460 120 70 48 47.0
Cohune nut 0.659 0.502 120 48 51 53.4
Babassu 0.540 0.322
210 68 85 58.7
nut
Cocoanut 0.710 0.445 120 60 61 58.4
Cocoanut 0.710 0.417 180 75 72 64.4

Briquetted Materials
Sawdust 0.542 0.365 120 66 53 40.0
Carbon 0.769 0.444
240 64.3 53 50.5
black
Bituminous 0.789 0.430
165 61 58.3 46.8
coal
Anthracite 0.830 0.371
480 81 53 40.7
coal
 “In conclusion, it will be of interest to compare the charcoals
manufactured and used by the principal belligerent nations, both
with one another and with the above mentioned laboratory
preparations. Data on these charcoals are given in the following
table:

Comparison of Typical Production Charcoals

of the Principal Belligerent Nations
Service
Time
Country Apparent Corr.
Date Raw Material Remarks
Density to 8-
14
Mesh
Nov. Cocoanut Air
U. S. A. 0.60 10
1917 activated
June, Mixed nuts, Steam
U. S. A. 0.58 18
1918 etc. activated
Nov. Cocoanut Steam
U. S. A. 0.51 34
1918 activated
Wood Long
England 1917 0.27 6
distillation
England Aug. Peach 0.54 16
1918 stones,
etc.
France 1917-18 Wood 0.23 2
Wood Chemical
and
Germany Early ? 3
steam
treatment
Wood Chemical
June, and
Germany 0.25 33
1917 steam
treatment
 Service
Time
Country Apparent Corr.
Date Raw Material Remarks
Density to 8-
14
Mesh
Wood Chemical
June, and
Germany 0.24 42
1918 steam
treatment
“It is at once evident that the service time of most of these
charcoals is very much less than was obtained with the laboratory
samples. However, in the emergency production of this material
on a large scale, quantity and speed were far more important than
the absolute excellence of the product. It will be noted, for
instance, that the cocoanut charcoal manufactured by the United
States, even in November, 1918, was still very much inferior to
the laboratory samples made from the same raw material. This
was not because a very active charcoal could not be produced on
a large scale, for even in May, 1918, the possibility of
manufacturing a 50-min. charcoal on a large scale had been
conclusively demonstrated, but this activation would have
required two or three times as much raw material and five times
as much apparatus as was then available, due to the much longer
time of heating, and the greater losses of carbon occasioned
thereby.
“It should furthermore be pointed out that the increase in the
chloropicrin service time of charcoal from 18 to 50 min. does not
represent anything like a proportionate increase in its value under
field service conditions. This is partly due to the fact that the
increased absorption on the high concentration tests is in reality
due to condensation in the capillaries, which, as has been pointed
out, is not of much real value. More important than this, however,
is the fact that most of the important gases used in warfare are
not held by adsorption only, but by combined adsorption and
chemical reaction, for which purpose an 18-min. charcoal is, in
general, almost as good as a 50-min. charcoal.”

Typical Absorptive Values of Different Charcoals

Against Various Gases