Original PDF Technical Writing For Success 4th Edition PDF

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Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
vi
An Applied
Approach to
W elcome to the Fourth Edition of Technical Writing
for Success. This text is lively and relevant for
students, and easy to use and effective for instructors.
Workplace Using a learn-by-doing approach, skills are introduced
and applied so that mastering technical writing is
Writing! relevant and exciting.
GETTING STARTED
48
GOALS are
3 Tec h n ic a l R e seaRch
WRITE TO
LEARN activities
prepare students for
clearly defined the chapter’s detailed
learning n instruction.
Write to Lear anted or need
ed to know g
more ab t
ou
objectives to Goals a tim e when you w se arch? What di
d researchin
ou t ur re ch?
T hink ab on fo r yo re se ar
guide learning. ◾◾ Distinguis
h the difference a topic. Wha
t was the re as
did you cond
uc t th e
survey,
words, how ch include a
between resea
rching at lve? In other d your resear search
the topic invo ith an online search? Di fro m yo ur re
school and at
work nw d you learn
Did you begi iew? What di process?
d locate t, or an interv the research
◾◾ Identify an an experimen id at ed by
secondary so
urces ere you intim
activities? W
cu me nt se condary FOCUS ON . . .
l Res ea rc h
◾◾ Do
sources on Te ch ni ca these
provides questions to
◾◾ Evaluate so
urces and answer
3.1 on the next page help students analyze
◾◾ Take notes
from sources Read Figure
◾◾ Colle ct pr im ary data questions: the sample document

Why?
tries placed? on the facing page.
der are the en de a date of access?
• In what or searchers fin
d online?
TERMS are Terms • Why do so
me entries
lis te
in clu
d, which on
es did the re
urce s
highlighted and 53 • Of the so
archives, p. in print? recent?
defined in the citations, p.
62 urce is most
questions, p.
74 • Which so
close-ended
Document Design and Graphics 155
chapter. dir ec t qu ota tion, p. 70

documentati
d
on, p. 58
questions, p.
75 What If? ge if . . .
op en -en de
e model chan wspaper
How would th work in a ne
pa rap hr as e, p. 69
an ni ng to publish their
p. 55 chers were pl ce?
periodicals, the
• The resear focus on scien most recent findings on
p. 58 n without a ly in the
plagiarism, or publicatio te re ste d on
population,
p. 72 ce were in
ces, p. 52 • The audien
primary sour topic?
iab le da ta, p. 83
WHAT IF? questions rel
respondents,
p. 72
relating to the sample sample, p. 72

urces, p. 52
secondary so
documents provide su mm ar ize , p. 69
82
students with critical- valid data, p.
thinking opportunities.
4 AM
08/09/17 10:0
Real-world SAMPLE DOCUMENTS add

relevance to the chapter.
ndd 48
tg01_048-087.i
48822_ch03_p
Figure 6.1 Sample Document with Graphics
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
48822_ch06_ptg01_154-187.indd 155 08/09/17 11:08 AM
vii
A LOOK INTO THE

6 Chapter 1
rba y manages marke

ting
Mark relies hea
its lim
vily on e-mail.
itations and ster s
“E-mail, for
ility, is invaluab
le in
it allow for
REAL WORLD OF
M
Ove all y doe
TECHNICAL WRITING
ark al life. Not onl
tions for my profession instant
and communica ham , com mu nication and
Coffee, a Dur
structured wri
tten t record of
Counter Culture s a permanen
Writing
ty coffee it also provide
a–based special delivery, but
North Carolin ny resp onsibilities nve rsat ion.” ters to
His ma eve ry e-co cal wri
organization. y, white aspiring techni
@Work
ing product cop Mark advises work ethic to
include produc particular: (1)
adv erti sem ents, packaging , hon e three skills in ting ; (2) pre paration
papers,
tent, thematic
signage rove their wri ery word
copy, online con constantly imp nt because “ev
displays. each assignme ators take
and tradeshow and care for Suc ces sful communic
a form of ail matter s. roughly”;
“Ma rke ting is and det ir sub ject s tho
believes earch the nicators
storytelling,”
says Mark, who the time to res ssful commu
Overbay
copy must be
“short and because “succe down—and to
that marketing and (3) clarity —not dumbed
words or
only have a few p things simple con fident in
Courtesy of Mark
et.” “Yo u r kee cise , and

swe s, whethe clear, con
k’ your reader the point. Be
phrases to ‘hoo
WRITING@WORK addresses the
press
lists reading a your message.
”
they are journa glancing
or gro cery shoppers
rele ase
s on a shelf. Good Th ink Cr iti cally
at the coff
marketing cop
ee bag
y must tell an
interesting,
ry, but it 1. Search for
ture Coffee
the Counter Cul the writing. Does
of
16 Career Clusters and demonstrates
es eve n romantic sto site and sample some claims? Do
Source: The Cente
r to Adva nce CTE
som etim
should nev er be lon g-w inded.”
challenge
web
the wri ting tell
hear a distinc
sto ries, as Mark
tive “voice” in
the writing? various career options while
est technical writing a you
showcasing people who use technical
Ma rk’s bigg pin g
tati on and style: “Develo lly Exp lain . origin
involves presen that authentica Research the
Coffee ‘voice’ white paper? about
Counter Culture t we do is the 2. What is a some topics
represe nts our com pany and all tha
aspect of my
profession al wri ting .
or blog, I can
of thi s
which Mark
ter m. What are
might
writing in their careers.
most difficult news section
for our online fessional write papers
?
When I write most of my pro
te as Ma rk Overbay; but ture Cof fee, n of Mark Overbay
wri
the voic e of Counter Cul 40 staf f Printed with
perm issio
writing is in n
, but more tha
nts not just me farmers.”
which represe tnering coffee
hundreds of par
members and
engage in
servationists
In addition, con practical to
scie ntis ts wo rk to
kin ds of wri ting—from the for land
onservation other otiate terms
C
preserve our
natural resour
ces,
the political.
They may neg
and ass ist in wri ting contracts
grants,
NEW: WRITING IN THE DISCIPLINES
lan d, rive rs, nag em ent te
Writing in
ma ts wri
such as our farm use
ners. Conserva
tionis
ewable
and forests. with land ow nt from the Ren
Agriculture, As sci ent ists , con servationists
rigor impose
d by suc h as the $300,000 gra
ension Act to
res tor e Str ent zel
immediately follows each chapter’s “Writing@Work”
Food, & understand the
me thod and thu
s the Resources Ext
ado w, part of the
John Muir Na
tional
iro nmental
Natural the sci ent
necessity for
ific
objective rep
orting and
the tools
Me
Historic Site
. They also arg
with new rec
ue for env
ycling or tree feature and is tied to the same career cluster that is
Resources a entry using ts
responsibility e Wallin sugges
accurate dat
of forestry. A for est er, for example,
using
con ser vat ion initiatives. Luk
structure for
such scientific featured in the related “Writing @ Work” profile.
tree growth a three-part ish a bond
may estimate e hei ght s icles sho uld est abl
t
to measure tre journalism: Art values, presen
clinometers remote through shared
sity by using with the reader an action—a
re forest den ping then call for
or may measu y. Acc ura te record kee new info rmation, and to a sen ator for
log a lett er
sensing techno ionists to make informed t for money or
enables conser
vat ctices reques t (124).
sustainable pra political suppor
tions such as s also ensure
recommenda . The rec ord
g timber
for harvestin regulations. 50
h government Chapter 3
compliance wit
Writing S
PM
07/09/17 1:47 onya Parrish
is a teaching
associate and Different kinds
doctoral studen of sites—such
in literature at t sites—deliver as .org and .ed
@Work
Miami Unive different kinds u
Oxford, Ohio. rsity in different aud of informatio
tg01_002-025.i
ndd 6 She has taught iences in diff n to
48822_ch01_p year college com first- erent ways.
position course When schola
for three yea s rly research respon
rs. She resear thoughtfully ds
primary and sec ches to other schola
ondary source a dialogue tha rs’ work, it cre
t req ates
regularly for
her roles as gra
s “Writers should uires proper documentatio
acknowledge n.
Sonya Parrish
student and Eng duate provided the others who hav

lish teacher and m with inform e
incorporates topic,” accord ation on a giv
technical wri ing to Sonya. en
the syllabus for ting in “Th
thin k abo ey sho uld
Courtesy of Mark
her compositio ut their audien also

courses. n accuracy and ce’s expectatio
CAREER CLUSTERS Sonya’s schola
includes hun
rly research
ting through
navigation ins
pro per citations
honesty in wri
tructions as a
ting.” She use
me tap
ns of
s GPS
hor for what
archives, essays digital should do: sho
, and books by what “path” the w the reader
The U.S. Department of Education Source: The Cente
r to Advance
CTE
other scholars
and
literature in her through the
field. “I rely hea
his or her arg
credible. Anoth
author took in
ument and pro
constructing
ve that the pat
er scholar or h is
has grouped careers into 16 different can write not
quotes, and ma
on using prin
es, underline
t sources in wh
important poi
ich I
vily can then pick
the bibliograp
up the hunt for
teacher, like Son
information usi
ya,
nts hic al tra il left by other ng
clusters based on similar job I also compile
documents tha
ke comments
notes from tex
in the margin
ts into Word
s.
or
Th ink Critically
authors.
t present the
characteristics. more unified
and organized
Sonya teache
information in
manner.”
a
1. If Sonya we
in biology or
re getting an
advanced deg
s her students architecture, ree
sources using to evaluate as heavily on would she rely
five criteria: aut printed source
The value of using these clusters is that objectivity, kno
When evalua
wledge, accura
horship,
cy, and relevan
Why or why not
2. Suppose Son
?
material?
ting websites ce. ya is
they: students see
on the Web is
the way in wh
authored and
, Sonya helps
ich informatio
her
n
about Maya An teaching a section
an example of
gelou’s poetry
. Give
constructed. a primary sou
secondary sou rce
rce that Sonya and a
◾◾ Show the importance of writing in Printed with
permission of
Sony
a Parrish
mig ht use.
all careers Writing in People who wo

rk in
and training usu education a clear messa
ally need stro
Education communicatio
n skills. One of ng and training pro
ge. Another role
of education
◾◾ Allow students to explore a wide and
roles is to sha
learners, wheth
re their skills
with
their
the
fes
the body of kno sionals is to advance
wledge in the
ir fields. Thus,
er those learne se pro
Training fessionals wri
range of career opportunities from are young peo
secondary sch
ple in primary
ools, adults in
or
rs articles as we
accepted by pro
te reports and
ll as books usi journal
ng the style ma
nual
colleges dis fessio
and universiti seminate resear nals in the given field to
entry level through management workplace or
es, or adults in
in other areas
of
the interpretation
ch find ings and new
s. For instance, ideas and
society. Wheth wh o a bio log
wants to pub
and professional levels grade or an eng
training on a
er a student in
ineer who req
second rec
uires
ent research
lish an article
results could
y professor
on her most
use CBE (Counc
drafting (CAD) new computer-a of Biology Edi
ssisted the tors) style, the il
program, eve Council of Sci ma nual issued by
receive clear, ry student sho
◾◾ Provide an easy solution to instruction in
accurate, det
a form which
ailed, and com
he or she can
uld
plete
professor wantin
pub lication might
ence Editors.
g to submit a
An art or histor
ma nuscript for
y
understand. In easily use the Unive
implementing careers into any class must engage
ability to use
addition, edu
their audiences
cators and tra
, so they need
iners
Chicago Manu
Am eric
al of Style, wh
an literature ile
rsity of Chica
a Spa nish or
go’s
technology effe the use the Moder researcher wo
ctively to con n Language Ass uld likely
vey Handbook for ociation’s ML
Writers of Res A
earch Papers
.
48822_ch03_p
tg01_048-087.i
ndd 50
08/09/17 10:04
AM
have an easy time finding or card. Group your items into similar categories, considering the importance
information on this site? of each idea to your users. Place your notes on a white board or bulletin
Why or why not? board so you can move them around until you have an outline that works—
with topics and subtopics. Your sticky notes become a story board, a visual
organizer to help settle on a logical order for your topics. Common ways
to organize information on a website are by category, task, product, date/
viii time, or department.
Once you have an outline, you can figure out how to structure your
website. A simple site may move forward in a linear fashion from one page
to the next, similar to a flowchart. Other sites organize pages in a hierarchy,
SPECIAL FEATURES ENHANCE LEARNING

similar to an organizational chart or a hub-and-spokes configuration. In
the hierarchy, information flows progressively from top to bottom from the
home page to a second or third tier in increasing levels of detail. With the
hub, information flows outward from a central point.
However you organize your pages, you will need a system of navigation.
Hyperlinks, also called links, are a word, phrase, or graphic used to link,
Employment Communication 293

Claudia is setting up a website for her finds her misplaced pictures or takes
ASCII Text Resume floral business, Claudia’s Creations. new ones.
She is in a hurry to get the site up and
If Technical
your company
Reading 437does not use a job listing service or a government posting
running. She wants to show some of
agency, you need other strategies for sending Think Critically
theyour resume
sprays, weddingelectronically.
bouquets, and
dish gardens she has created, but she What might happen if Claudia’s
Discriminating readers use their A text file
editorial guidelines—for is versatile. It can be sent a variety
example, of ways and can be read by customers discover that she used
cannot find the pictures she took of
critical-thinking skills to look out for some articles onpeople andand
the Internet machines. While the text file is them.
not asSopretty as a formatted
she searches the Web andWord flower designs from other sites?
information that is inaccurate, biased, document,
stories in tabloids—cannot be you can show off your resourcefulness by making
finds designs that she the
likes most
on twoof
sensationalized, or lacking in pertinent trusted. the options available to you. This way, if thewebsites: printedFloral
textFantasia
file makes its way
and Flowers
details.
Focus on
The next time youto find
your an employer,
Internet by Chenda. Claudia decides
the document will be more attractive. You can format to use to a
When you use material from your article that promises the fountain of some of the designs from those
limited degree by using the following suggestions:
reading, you have an ethical obligation
to double-check its accuracy, looking
youth or hands you a get-rich-quick
◾◾ Use
scheme, be skeptical andplain Ethics sites on her own website until she
fonts (for example, large, open, “no tails” fonts such as Arial or
remember:
for other sources that report the same You cannot believeCalibri)
everythingoryouconsider Courier, a fixed font with each character taking up the
findings. Publications that must be read. same amount of space.
produced quickly—such as newspapers,
magazines, and books on the latest Think Critically
◾◾ Use 10- to 14-point font size.
technology—are prone to errors. What might motivate people
Information published with few, if any, Useare
◾◾ that
to publish articles onenotcolumn, flush with the left margin; do not use side headings or tables.
Communication completely factual?

◾◾ Consider using a series of + + + or *** or = = = or ^^^ to divide the major
Focus on Ethics provides
sections of your resume (between Education and Experience, for example).
Dilemma ◾◾ Use capital letters for heading titles and other important information.
examples and scenarios of
48822_ch07_ptg01_188-213.indd 194 08/09/17 2:14 am
◾◾ Avoid boldface, italics, underlining, and other characters not on the keyboard.
real-world ethical dilemmas
◾◾ Use the space bar instead of tab keys.
16.3 aS YOU Read WaRm Up
for students to consider.
◾◾ Use asterisks, dashes, or hyphens instead of regular bullets.
Because technical reading is different from other kinds of reading, you must What strategies
◾◾ Use widedomargins
you set for 60 characters (1” left, 2.5” right).
Communication
approach technical reading with a plan. Good readers pace themselves and
interact with the text by activating background knowledge, annotating the
currently use for reading
Use commas to indicate small breaks, semicolons to indicate
◾◾ studying?
and breaks in a
Dilemma provides
passage, repeating information aloud, understanding the vocabulary, paying
attention to numbers, studying graphics, and adjusting to online media.
longer list, colons to set up a list, and periods to end sections.
real-world communication
Pace Yourself
situations.
Runners pace themselves, proceeding slowly and regularly, to expend their
energy evenly throughout a race. You, too, should pace yourself when you
read by following these suggestions: Communication
◾◾ Read slowly. Technical reading is packed with details. Make sure you take
them all in.
Technologies
◾◾ Read small amounts of information for short periods of time (perhaps 10 to
Want to shore up your interview skills while you With The SimuGator, an iTunes app with over 50
Communication
15 minutes). Then take a break, summarizing information and taking notes.
walk the dog? Help is available for both Android questions, users can experience various interviewing
Technologies contains
◾◾ Read the selection twice. During the second reading, you can see what
you missed the first time. Also, a second reading allows you to see the
and Apple devices with Job Interview Questions and styles from different interviewers.
Answers from Career Confidential. It’s an interactive
helpful information
transitions that denote how the parts of the passage fit together.
video app to give you practice with “tough interview Think Critically
about current
Activate Yourworkplace
Background Knowledge questions in an easy-to-use mock interview format.” What is the benefit to using an app to help you
You can practice and compare your answers to practice your interview skills? Is there some way
technologies.
Use the preview to activate your background knowledge, what you already
know about the subject, to gain more meaning from the passage. The more suggestions supplied by a professional coach. Play the app could hurt your performance during an
you read in your technical subject, the better reader you will become in Store also offers 101 HR Interview Questions from interview?
Programmerworld with 16 categories of questions.
210 Chapter 7
204• Chapter
Use an 7 informal style. The speaker(s) are talking to the viewer, not
48822_ch16_ptg01_430-449.indd 437 lecturing. Write directly to your audience, using the pronoun you and
07/09/17 1:51 PM
keeping
Warm Up sentences
7.4 relatively
SPeCiALshort.
Web Content
• Motivate
Describe your The
your experiences reader witha positive
Web offers new medium comments about
for established her
ways of ability to The
communicating.
Warm Up activities complete
with two of these the video
type of task.
writing Interject humor
is not altogether new, when
but whenappropriate.
the audience and medium
situations: (1) choosing a
provide scenarios and change, good writers adapt. The result? New avenues of writing for existing
• Let
48822_ch11_ptg01_280-315.indd
theme athe
for293 prom,video
a dance, do theSix
genres. “talking” when possible.
of these adaptations are outlinedSometimes
next: home page,tooblog,
many
FAQ, 08/09/17 10:25 AM
questions to encourage a reunion, or a holiday

spoken words wiki, social media, and video sharing.
can detract from the action in the film.
event; (2) keeping a
students to start thinking (3) answering the Home Page
◾ journal;
Consider adding closed captioning to address WAI guidelines.
ahead for each section same questions over and Think of your website as a theme park. Your park may have many areas—
over; (4) collaborating on a rides, a petting zoo, edutainment, restaurants, and more, or only a single
of the text. Add orproduction
◾ project; information, such as who produced the video, what
(5) writing posts nature trail. The home page of your website is like the entrance to the park.
sources
on Facebook. were used, whoyou
Because is want
in themanyvideo,
visitors,how long an
you design it inviting
lasts, and theone
entrance, date
thatof
production. reflects the theme and offers basic information to help people navigate the
site. Like a home page, there may be several ways to get from one area to
the next inside the park. The following tips can help you develop text for
a home page:
Stop and Think allows STOp aND THINK
◾ Create 7.4 and slogan or subheading. Get the reader’s attention
a headline
students to check and announce your purpose. How can a visitor benefit from your product
Name five types of writing assignments adapted especially for the Web.
or service? A meaningful title and catchy slogan can brand the site,
comprehension before Choose two and describe
establishing themandincompany
product detail. recognition at a glance. For example,
moving to the next section. a website devoted to video production replaced its title and slogan with
something more appealing, as follows:
Original: Title “Videographer” with slogan “We offer expert video
productions.”
Revision: Title “Keepsake Video” with slogan “Keeping your memories
alive.”
◾ Write
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning a short
reserves the rightintroduction and
to remove additional conclusion.
content The introduction
at any time if subsequent explains
rights restrictions require it.
ix
Abundant End-of-Chapter Assessment

The assessments found at the end of every chapter give students the opportunity to
test their knowledge.
Web 211
Writing for the
e v ie W
7 ChAPter r
Summary reviews the key

concepts of the chapter.
Summary and interact
with
w users read e, and find ou
t the
ge, know ho your audienc
en cre ati ng a web pa se, de fin e
1. Wh mi ne yo ur purpo
material, deter tions of your audience. of
technology lim
ita oose a system
web page, ch that are easy
to
designing a tive web pages
anizing and create attrac
2. When org he ad ing s, de sig n.
navigation, ass
ign
t an d acc essible
ten
intain a consis es, write to yo
ur
use, and ma ique page titl tual content,
ges, create un id, compile fac scannable
iting web pa erted pyram
3. When wr ng an inv con str uc t
audience, org
anize usi English, and ation under
ite standard organize inform
language, wr d sentences,
use original paragraphs an rds.
Wr ite sho rt
text. d keywo posts,
d use lists an social media
headings, an kis, FAQs, or
ges, blogs, wi
4. Wh en wr iting home pa
lished protoc
ols . Checklist encourages students to
follow estab
be responsible for their own success.
Checklist
m?
fined my au
dience? ders read the
◾ Have I de usual way rea
just to the un
itten web pages that ad audience? the customer,
◾ Have I wr
◾ Ha ve I con sid ered the tec hnolo
186 Cha r 6 ita
gyptelim
d
tions of my
included it in a slogan on the
website? two phone nu
ite your initia
mbers from
ls on the che Build Your Foundation
ck, and call
check.
and Your Turn include
rpo se an wr rov e the
ter mi ne d my pu ma nag er to app
◾ Have I de the physics
support my
t and graphics Build Yourrka
purpose?
Fobleun dation ernal links? must show her
e. Alessandra structure of a hydrogen
atom
system of int
◾ Do my tex
anize d my we bsi te using a wo
tbo
ocate
r tex
youo-l oks
inf for
orm des
ati ignfor
on ins tru
and the
cto r
loc
the
ati on of protons, neu practice exercises, applications, and
trons, and
◾ Have I org gessev wiera of y-t
th leas ign. Which bo
ok
◾ Have I de
signed attrac
tive1.we Exa pane
b mi
features. Descr
ibe each des
? Why?
electrons.
f. Patrick is
designing a
opportunities for writing to reinforce
travel brochu
re for
wants
my sit e? bes t des ign volunteers. He learn
Peace Corps
visitors to
ly?
has the
ges load quick 2. Create a slidegepre
sentation
is wr
or scr apb ook of
ineect
n dir
ittegaz or to my
s, ly
fut ure
to show how
eager stu den ts weand assess learning.
re to
lage last sum
mer.
◾ Do my pa pam new titles,
spaper s, ma avo ids
er Philippine vil
t usesgra unphiquicse fro is fac
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tua eth English in a tation on
itten text tha cheid,
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ve I wr in an tesinv
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Ha ial bsi effectiv g. Sas ha her
anizes mater we gra sent the data fish farms in
◾
audience, org En
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that orm not be adings, the growth of farms; four
uses standard graphics
es of rag inf vewh heich there were 120 rs ago, 250
clichés, and differth ent typrt
sho pa in
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o Five years ago ms ; three yea
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itten scannab firs
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48822_ch06_p
x
SPECIAL FEATURES ENHANCE LEARNING

s 117
Writing Proces
Community
Connection encourages
topic of
Connection
Community
ragraph on a
essay or a pa
3. Write an
Aft er yo u complete on
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450
TECH
WRITING
the inside track The Inside Track, which is
TIPS located at the end of the book, contains
24 pages of suggestions and tips for
PM
07/09/17 1:44
improving technical writing style.

.indd 117
tg01_088-117
48822_ch04_p
You attitude
With the exception of the science lab report, most technical writing should be reader-centered rather
than writer-centered. A reader-centered approach, or you attitude, attempts to look at situations from
the reader’s perspective instead of the writer’s perspective. The you attitude points out advantages to
the reader and makes him or her more likely to accept what the writer says.
Use the you attitude to persuade your audience to think or act in a certain way. For example, you
might send an e-mail to your supervisor asking for time off, a letter to a newspaper editor opposing
a proposed city curfew, or a message to a dry cleaner asking for a reduction in your bill because your
clothes were not clean when you picked them up.
Notice the difference between the I or we attitude and the you attitude in the following example. The
you attitude sounds friendlier and more positive. The you attitude stresses how a customer can benefit
from buying a home from Mountain View Homes. Using the you approach is psychologically smart as a
motivator, and it makes a good sales pitch.
Manufactured Home Dealer

I or we attitude:
Do we, at Mountain View Homes, have deals! Our 14 3 70 single-wides have been marked down 20%. And our 14 3 80s
can be purchased with a rebate of $1,000!
You attitude:
You can find a real deal at Mountain View Homes. You can purchase our 14 3 70 single-wides at 20% off the regular
price. And you can receive a rebate of $1,000 on a brand new 14 3 80.
To use the you attitude, simply consider the situation from your reader’s viewpoint. What is the
advantage to him or her? Then, where appropriate, add more you’s and your’s to your message and
take out some of the I’s, we’s, or company names. Point out the benefit of your message to your reader.
the inside track: Your Turn
1. Rewrite these sentences to reflect a stronger you attitude. Remember, you cannot eliminate uses
of I, we, and company names, but you can slant the writing to be more reader-centered. Add any
information that will help the reader see the advantages.
a. We will ship the rest of your order next week.
b. Powell Insurance Company is reliable. We have been in business at the same location for more than 50 years.
48822_app_ptg01_450-470.indd 450 09/09/17 1:55 AM
xi
About
the
Authors
D arlene Smith-Worthington is currently enjoying retirement after

30-plus years of teaching at Pitt Community College. Having served as
Interim Director of the Developmental Studies Department, Coordinator of
Developmental Reading and English, and Director of PCC Abroad, Darlene
misses her colleagues and students. However, she is finding new challenges
in building a house and supporting other family projects. Darlene has
enjoyed diverse employment experiences, including managing a poultry
farm and editing a weekly newspaper, and recreation opportunities,
including world travel, scuba diving, and gardening/farming. In retirement,
she hopes to cook more, travel more, and enjoy times with friends and
family more. And she may even decide to teach some more!
Sue Jefferson currently chairs the English and Humanities Department at
Pitt Community College, where she teaches composition, critical thinking,
mythology, and literature. Early in her teaching career, she taught grades
7–12 and more recently spent seven months teaching English at the Wuxi
Institute of Technology in China. In addition to teaching, Sue has managed
a restaurant, edited a weekly newspaper, and directed a choir. Traveling,
yoga, t’ai chi, and swimming provide balance for her busy life. Sue’s best
writing is done on her porch overlooking the Pamlico River.
REVIEWERS
Julie Book Lisa J. G. Karney Rochelle Morris
Oklahoma Panhandle Fortis Institute Bethune Cookman
State University (Pennsylvania) University (Florida)
Michael P. Collins Joseph McCallus James W. Savage
Arizona State University Columbus State University Ivy Tech Community
(Georgia) College (Indiana)
xii
New
to This
Edition
New Features
Writing in the Disciplines
A new feature, “Writing in the Disciplines,” immediately follows each
chapter’s “Writing@Work” feature and is tied to the same career cluster
discipline that is featured in the related “Writing@Work” profile.
Explore the Net

A new end-of-chapter activity, Explore the Net (based on previous-
edition Net Bookmarks), focuses on students using the Internet to research
information.
Chapter Updates
Chapter 1: What Is Technical Writing?
• Restructured chapter to include a variety of technical writing models up
front
• Added new topic: following standard conventions of the genre
• Updated models and discussion to differentiate academic, technical, and
imaginative writing
Chapter 2: Audience and Purpose

• Included brief segments on rhetorical situation, need for rhetorical
sensitivity, and appeals to ethos, pathos, kairos, and logos
• Included segments illustrating context for traditional media (print, TV, radio)
and online media (social media, web presence); new graphic illustrating how
traditional and nontraditional media can complement each other
• Updated terms in the exercises
Chapter 3: Technical Research

• Updated opening Working Bibliography, including recent research on the
topic, and used ACS style, appropriate to the topic of the research
• Included sections on Write the Survey Results, Write the Interview
Results, Write the Observation Results, and Write the Experiment Results
• Added references, tips, and uses of newer electronic devices for research
• Updated information on research resources, such as WorldCat and
Deep Web
• Updated reference materials and Communication Technologies
• Revised Communication Dilemma
• Included information on APA, CSE, and Chicago Manual of Style
• Included notetaking software and survey-generating sites
• Revised model survey for electronic delivery
New to This Edition xiii
• Added enhanced interviewing guides

• Updated instructions in “Build Your Foundation” to use any style guide
instructor requires
Chapter 4: Writing Process

• Added new topic: analysis of rhetorical situation
• Added new topic: using Collaboration Tools section with technology focus
(wikis, coauthoring software, online meetings)
• Added concept map
• Updated Communication Technologies and Communication Dilemma
Chapter 5: Brief Correspondence

• Updated opening models and added an e-mail message as a third sample
• Included electronic correspondence, such as instant messages, blogs,
and e-mail
• Updated Communication Dilemma
Chapter 6: Document Design and Graphics

• Added new visual aids including horizontal bar graph, divided column
graph, histogram, information graphic (infographic), and poster board
presentations
• Updated bar and line graphs in Theresa’s story to be more realistic
• Updated Communication Technologies and Communication Dilemma
• Updated exercises and technology discussion
Chapter 7: Writing for the Web

• Updated webpage screen shots
• Added new topic: writing script for an informative video
• Updated Communication Technologies
Chapter 8: Informative Reports

• Added a scientific technical process description and revised the
mechanical technical process description
• Changed Example of a Mechanism description
Chapter 9: Investigative Reports

• Updated Example of Trip Report
• Revised Communication Dilemma and end-of-chapter activities
Chapter 10: Instructions

• Changed opening model, Sample Instructions
• Changed Instructions Using Images (Pictures) Only
• Revised Communication Technologies
• Revised and expanded information on online instructions
Chapter 11: Employment Communication

• Updated models
• Added new topic: video resume
• Added new topic: creating a web presence using ePortfolio and social media
• Added new models: About Me example and ePortfolio home page
xiv New to This Edition
Chapter 12: Presentations

• Changed opening model, Sample Presentation Graphics
• Updated to discuss recent presentation software
Chapter 13: Recommendation Reports

• Revised opening model, Sample Recommendation Report, to use real 2016
hybrid vehicles
• Added a brief section to include references in recommendation reports
• Revised Communication Technologies
Chapter 14: Proposals

• Updated opening model, Sample Internal Proposal, for dates and costs
• Added a brief section on collaboration
• Revised the Formal Proposal model to suggest replacing metal halide lamps
with LED bulbs and fixtures (a more current and realistic discussion)
Chapter 15: Ethics in the Workplace

• Updated most accounts of unethical practice to include more current
examples
• Added new topic: healthy work environment including Title VII of the
Civil Rights Act
• Added new topic: ethical challenges of emerging technology, including
discussions of gene therapy, electronic surveillance, and artificial intelligence
Chapter 16: Technical Reading

• Updated most reading excerpts and graphics
• Added new topic: how to read online including how to evaluate a website
Added new topic: how to “read” a video
xv
Supplemental Teaching and Learning Materials
Supplemental Teaching and

Learning Materials
MindTap: Empower Your Students
MindTap is a platform that propels students from memorization to mastery. It
gives you complete control of your course, so you can provide engaging content,
challenge every learner, and build student confidence. Customize interactive
syllabi to emphasize priority topics, then add your own material or notes to the
eBook as desired. This outcomes-driven application gives you the tools needed
to empower students and boost both understanding and performance.
Access Everything You Need in One Place
Cut down on prep with the preloaded and organized MindTap course
materials. Teach more efficiently with interactive assignments, quizzes,
and more. Give your students the power to read, listen, and study on their
phones, so they can learn on their terms.
Empower Students to Reach Their Potential
Twelve distinct metrics give you actionable insights into student engagement.
Identify topics troubling your entire class and instantly communicate with
those struggling. Students can track their scores to stay motivated towards
their goals. Together, you can be unstoppable.
Control Your Course—and Your Content
Get the flexibility to reorder textbook chapters, add your own notes, and
embed a variety of content including Open Educational Resources (OER).
Personalize course content to your students’ needs. They can even read your
notes, add their own, and highlight key text to aid their learning.
Get a Dedicated Team Whenever You Need Them
MindTap isn’t just a tool, it’s backed by a personalized team eager to support
you. We can help set up your course and tailor it to your specific objectives,
so you’ll be ready to make an impact from day one. Know we’ll be standing
by to help you and your students until the final day of the term.
Instructor Companion Website

Spend less time planning and more time teaching. The instructor companion
website to accompany Technical Writing allows you “anywhere, anytime”
access to all of your resources.
• The online Instructor’s Manual contains various resources for each chapter
of the book, including lesson plans and solutions to core text activities.
• The Computerized Testbank makes generating tests and quizzes a snap,
with many questions and different styles to choose from.
• Customizable PowerPoint® presentations focus on key points for each
chapter.
To access the instructor companion site materials, go to login.cengage. com,
then use your SSO (single sign on) login to access the materials.
2
1 What Is Technical
Writing?
Goals Write to Learn

◾◾ Define technical writing
and its importance in the
workplace
T hink about the different types of writing you engage in at school, at
work, at home, or online. With what kind of writing are you most
comfortable? What kind of writing do you find most difficult? Explain
◾◾ Identify the the differences in your reactions. Do you think any of your pieces could
characteristics of be described as technical writing? How would you define the term
technical writing technical writing?
◾◾ Compare and contrast
technical writing to other
types of writing on Technical Writing
Read Figures 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 on the following pages and
Terms answer these questions about each document:
academic writing, p. 17 • What is the subject and purpose of each document?

ambiguous, p. 20 • For whom was the document likely produced?
expository, p. 17 • How difficult is it to follow the organization of material?
field research, p. 10 • How would you describe the style of writing? Which documents are
imaginative writing, p. 20 easier to read?
inferences, p. 20 • Are there differences in tone in any of the documents? What role
jargon, p. 12 does the writer seem to adopt in each?
persuasive writing, p. 17 • Which kinds of design features does the document use (for example,
standard conventions, p. 15 boldfacing, numbering, color, visual aids)?
style, p. 12 • Where did these documents most likely first appear?
technical communication, • Are any of these types of documents familiar to you?
p. 7
technical writing, p. 7
tone, p. 13
What Is Technical Writing? 3
Figure 1.1 Heart Truth Webpage Source: National Institutes of Health, https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/educational/hearttruth/about/
4 Chapter 1
Million Hearts: Prevalence of Leading Cardiovascular Disease

Risk Factors — United States, 2005–2012
Matthew D. Ritchey, DPT1, Hilary K. Wall, MPH1, Cathleen Gillespie, MS1, Mary G. George, MD1,
Ahmed Jamal, MBBS2
Each year, approximately 1.5 million U.S. adults have a heart attack or stroke, resulting in approximately 30 deaths
every hour and, for nonfatal events, often leading to long-term disability (1). Overall, an estimated 14 million
survivors of heart attacks and strokes are living in the United States (1). In 2011, the U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, in collaboration with nonprofit and private organizations, launched Million Hearts (http://
www.millionhearts.hhs.gov ), an initiative focused on implementing clinical and community-level evidence-based
strategies to reduce cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors and prevent a total of 1 million heart attacks and
strokes during the 5-year period 2012–2016 (2,3). . . .
ABCS [for aspirin, blood pressure, cholesterol, smoking] Clinical Measures
In 2009–2010, prevalence of recommended aspirin use was greater among men (58.5%) than women (48.0%) and
greater among non-Hispanic whites (55.7%) compared with Hispanics (43.6%) (Table 1). The prevalence of blood
pressure control improved from 43.4% in 2005–2006 to 51.9% in 2011–2012 (Figure 1); in 2011–2012, the prevalence
was greater among women (54.6%) than men (48.9%) and greater among adults aged 45–64 years (56.3%) compared
with those aged 18–44 (42.2%) and ≥75 years (41.7%).
The prevalence of cholesterol management increased from 33.0% in 2009–2010 to 42.8% in 2011–2012
(Figure 1); in 2011–2012, the prevalence was greater among adults aged 65–74 years (59.6%) and lower among those
aged 20–44 (11.6%) compared with those aged 45–64 years (44.1%) (Table 1). . . .
Community-Level Risk Factor Measures
Current tobacco product (cigarettes, cigars, or a pipe) smoking prevalence decreased from 28.2% in 2005–2006 to
25.1% in 2011–2012 (Figure 2). This 11% decline corresponded with a decrease of 11% in current cigarette smoking
prevalence from 20.9% in 2005–2006 to 18.5% in 2011–2012, measured using National Health Interview Survey
data.††† In 2011–2012, current tobacco product smoking was greater among men (30.3%) than women (20.4%),
adults aged 18–44 years (30.5%) compared with those aged 45–64 (24.6%) or ≥65 years (11.4%), and non-Hispanic
whites (27.1%) compared with non-Hispanic blacks (26.2%) and Hispanics (18.1%) (Table 2). . . .
References
1. Go AS, Mozaffarian D, Roger VL, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2014 update: a report from the
American Heart Association. Circulation 2014;129:e28–292.
2. Frieden TR, Berwick DM. The “Million Hearts” initiative—preventing heart attacks and strokes. N Engl J Med
2011;365:e27.
3. CDC. CDC Grand Rounds: the Million Hearts initiative. MMWR 2012;61:1017–21. . . .
Figure 1.2 Million Hearts Medical Report Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview
/mmwrhtml/mm6321a3.htm
Figure 1.3 Heart Truth Web Page Source: https://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/images/quiz_4.jpg
6 Chapter 1
M
ark Overbay manages marketing
and communications for
Mark relies heavily on e-mail. “E-mail, for
all its limitations and sterility, is invaluable in
Writing Counter Culture Coffee, a Durham,

North Carolina–based specialty coffee
my professional life. Not only does it allow for
structured written communication and instant
@Work organization. His many responsibilities

include producing product copy, white
papers, advertisements, packaging
delivery, but it also provides a permanent record of
every e-conversation.”
Mark advises aspiring technical writers to
copy, online content, thematic signage, hone three skills in particular: (1) work ethic to
and tradeshow displays. constantly improve their writing; (2) preparation
“Marketing is a form of and care for each assignment because “every word
Courtesy of Mark Overbay
storytelling,” says Mark, who believes and detail matters. Successful communicators take
that marketing copy must be “short and the time to research their subjects thoroughly”;
sweet.” “You only have a few words or and (3) clarity because “successful communicators
phrases to ‘hook’ your readers, whether keep things simple—not dumbed down—and to
they are journalists reading a press the point. Be clear, concise, and confident in
release or grocery shoppers glancing your message.”
at the coffee bags on a shelf. Good
marketing copy must tell an interesting, Think Critically
sometimes even romantic story, but it
Source: The Center to Advance CTE
1. Search for the Counter Culture Coffee
should never be long-winded.”
website and sample some of the writing. Does
Mark’s biggest technical writing challenge
the writing tell stories, as Mark claims? Do
involves presentation and style: “Developing a
you hear a distinctive “voice” in the writing?
Counter Culture Coffee ‘voice’ that authentically
Explain.
represents our company and all that we do is the
most difficult aspect of my professional writing. 2. What is a white paper? Research the origin
When I write for our online news section or blog, I can of this term. What are some topics about
write as Mark Overbay; but most of my professional which Mark might
writing is in the voice of Counter Culture Coffee, write papers?
which represents not just me, but more than 40 staff Printed with permission of Mark Overbay
members and hundreds of partnering coffee farmers.”
Writing in
C
onservation scientists work to
preserve our natural resources,
such as our farmland, rivers,
In addition, conservationists engage in
other kinds of writing—from the practical to
the political. They may negotiate terms for land
Agriculture, and forests. use management and assist in writing contracts
As scientists, conservationists with land owners. Conservationists write grants,
Food, & understand the rigor imposed by such as the $300,000 grant from the Renewable
Natural the scientific method and thus the Resources Extension Act to restore Strentzel
Resources necessity for objective reporting and Meadow, part of the John Muir National
accurate data entry using the tools Historic Site. They also argue for environmental
of forestry. A forester, for example, responsibility with new recycling or tree
may estimate tree growth using conservation initiatives. Luke Wallin suggests
clinometers to measure tree heights a three-part structure for such scientific
or may measure forest density by using remote journalism: Articles should establish a bond
sensing technology. Accurate record keeping with the reader through shared values, present
enables conservationists to make informed new information, and then call for an action—a
recommendations such as sustainable practices request for money or a letter to a senator for
for harvesting timber. The records also ensure political support (124).
compliance with government regulations.
1.1 YOU ARE A TECHNICAL WRITER! Warm Up

Have you ever given someone written directions or drawn a map to your Think about a profession in
home? Have you ever set up an event on Facebook or told someone how which you are interested.
to make French toast? If you answered yes to any of those questions or What kinds of documents
have had similar experiences, you have already engaged in technical would you write in this
communication or technical writing. profession?
In today’s business environment, readers can easily be overwhelmed
by information overload, with information competing for their attention
from every direction—print and electronic news sources and books, not to
mention e-mail, social media, podcasts, and television, all clamoring for
attention. To navigate through the maze of information, readers must be
able to read documents quickly and efficiently, understand them the first
time they read them, and know the reports are accurate. Writers help readers
sort through information overload by assimilating material from a variety
of places and then presenting what readers need—often reframing and
repurposing (but never misrepresenting) that data to be of use to a different
audience. Up-to-date information provides companies with a competitive
edge, speeding critical decision making and allowing job specialization.
Definition of Technical Writing

Candace, a saxophonist in her high school band, began
teaching saxophone lessons to sixth graders to earn some
extra money. For the first lesson, she drew a diagram of an
alto sax and created a step-by-step guide explaining how to
take the instrument apart and reassemble it. When she saw
how easily students could follow her instructions, she was
© ksalt/iStockphoto.com
pleased to know her words were helping them do something

she enjoyed. Candace might have been surprised to learn
she was using technical communication, or communication
associated with the workplace.
Technical communication, used in technical, scientific, or
business fields, has a clear purpose and specific audience.
Candace’s purpose was to teach, to offer her students information that would
enable them to do something—to play the saxophone. When she referred to
the diagram and explained the procedure aloud to her students, answering
their questions, she was using technical communication. When she wrote
the instructions to accompany her diagram, she was using technical writing.
The better Candace did her job, the better the students did theirs. Respect for
Candace’s teaching skills in the community grew, giving her credibility as a
teacher—and, consequently, more students.
A form of technical communication, technical writing is also associated
with the workplace, whether the workplace is an office, a construction site,
or a kitchen table. Like Candace’s diagram and step-by-step instructions,
the writing is functional, practical, and written carefully for an identified
audience for a particular purpose. Technical documents can range from a
half-page memo announcing the winner of a sales competition to a 500-page
research grant proposal requesting money to test a new drug for treating
obesity. The term technical writing describes a variety of documents produced
in areas such as business, science, social science, engineering, and education.
8 Chapter 1
Sales catalogs, business letters, financial reports, standard operating

procedures, medical research studies, lab reports—all of these and more are
examples of technical writing. Technical documents are not only written but
also designed to integrate visual elements to enhance the message.
Today, technical writers work at the helm of a creative, robust technological
environment with many media outlets for their messages. Kurstin used
paper and text to start a neighborhood fundraiser to help struggling pet
owners obtain pet food. In a few weeks, some of that text was inserted into
a desktop publishing template, and newsletters and flyers were circulated
in the small town. Public response was positive. As a result, in a few
months text from the flyer was used in a slide presentation with art and
video and presented to the Chamber of Commerce. As the fundraiser gained
momentum, Kurstin researched turning her charitable effort into a nonprofit
and moved online with her text, photos, and video. She refined her online
presence with a slogan, pet-adoption blog, pet health hyperlinks, and
donation forms. Soon her website had a following and was linked to social
media sites. As Kurstin’s experience shows, the many possible combinations
of text and media enable writers to reach an ever-widening audience.
Technical Writing Is Essential in the Workplace

Written communication is essential in the workplace. It allows readers
to read and study at their convenience, pass along information to others,
contribute to a body of shared knowledge, keep a permanent record for
future reference, and, if done well, establish healthy working relationships.
Different careers generate different kinds of reports. Figure 1.4 shows some
possibilities. Perhaps one of your career choices is represented here.
Professionals Write this For this purpose

Nurses Patient charts To continue patient care
Police officers Accident reports To use as evidence
Chemists/ engineers Document procedures To comply with government regulations
Accountants Financial reports To assist decision making
Sales representatives Sales proposals To compete in a market economy
Professors Grant proposals To secure funding for a research project
Claims adjusters Incident reports To determine fair payment
Public relations officers Brochures, letters, speeches To market an idea or product
Figure 1.4 Writing in Careers
When you write, you demonstrate your credibility as an employee with your
ability to analyze, solve problems, and understand technical processes. For
example, Matheus Cardoso, personnel director for Osgood Textile Industries,
impresses his supervisor and earns his colleagues’ respect when his proposal
for tax-deferred retirement plans is approved. On the other hand, the drafting
crew at Stillman Manufacturing is frustrated with Jeff Danelli’s instructions for
installing wireless computing at the industrial site. The crew must take extra
time to redraft plans because Jeff’s instructions are vague and incomplete. When
writing is not clear, the thinking behind the writing may not be clear either.
Regardless of the career you choose, you will write in the workplace. According
to “Writing: A Ticket to Work . . . Or a Ticket Out,” writing is a “threshold
skill,” necessary to get over the “threshold,” through the door, and into gainful
employment. Applicants submitting poorly written letters of application do not
get interviews. Employees lacking writing skills are not promoted. According to
the National Commission on Writing, in corporate America,
◾◾ two-thirds of salaried employees are required to write
◾◾ over half of companies surveyed require employees to write technical
or formal reports, and “communication through e-mail and PowerPoint
presentations is almost universal.”
◾◾ Eighty percent of companies in service industries—finance, insurance, and
real estate—evaluate writing ability as part of the hiring process. (3–4)
As you can see, writing is truly your “ticket” to meaningful employment and
advancement.
All careers rely on technical communication to get the job done. Technical
writing is the written link—connecting technology to user, professional to client,
colleague to colleague, supervisor to employee, and individual to community.
No matter what career you choose, you can expect to read and compose e-mail,
send accompanying attachments, explain procedures, and write short reports.
In addition to work-related writing, the responsibilities of being a community
and family member require technical communication. Figure 1.5 shows how
Sergeant Thomas Hardy of the Palmer City Police Department, father of two
and concerned citizen, uses technical communication on the job and at home.
Reader Type of Communication

Colleagues e-mail, collaborative incident reports
Boy Scout parents fundraiser announcements, directions to jamboree, ad for bake sale
Victims incident reports, investigative reports
Legislators letter and e-mail in favor of clean-air regulations
Court officials, lawyers depositions, testimonies, statements (possibly televised)
State FBI office letter of application and resume
Community safety presentation at the local high school
Employees performance evaluations, letters of reference, training procedures
Newspaper editor letter thanking community for help with jamboree, press release announcing
purchase of state-of-the-art police car
Figure 1.5 Technical Writing on the Job and at Home
STOP AND THINK 1.1

How important is technical writing in the workplace? How can writing
affect your chances for advancement? How is workplace writing
impacted by technology?
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As a rule the larvae bring the respiratory filaments into contact with
the water by moving the abdomen, but Fritz Müller found[402] that
those of a Macronema move the gills themselves—after the manner
of Ephemeridae—with much rapidity. Many kinds of larvae of
Phryganeids possess at the posterior extremity of the body exsertile
pouches in the form of finger-like, or even branched, processes into
which tracheae do not enter. Müller observed that in the Macronema
alluded to these pouches were generally not exserted; when,
however, the larva ceased to move the tracheal gills, then these
pouches were protruded. He is inclined to consider them blood-gills.
Similar structures are found in Eristalis and some other Dipterous
larvae that have to breathe under difficulties.
The imagines of certain species possess filaments—or something of

the sort—on the abdomen. Palmén, who has examined these organs
in Hydropsyche, thinks that they are the remains of gills that existed
in the larva and pupa, and that they are functionless in the imaginal
instar. M‘Lachlan thinks that in Diplectrona, where the filaments are
elongate, they may be functionally active even in the imago.[403]
The skin of the nymph is at first very soft, but it soon hardens, and
when about fifteen or twenty days have elapsed the nymph opens its
case by means of the mandibular processes, and swims through the
water with its back downwards till it reaches some solid object by
which it can ascend to the air; the nymph skin then swells and splits,
and the thorax of the imago protrudes; this is soon followed by the
disengagement of the head and other parts, and the imago having
thus escaped, the nymph skin remains a complete model of the
external structure of the nymph, and contains a considerable number
of tracheae. This sketch of the metamorphosis of a caddis-fly does
not apply in all its details to all the forms of caddis-flies, there being
exceptions, as we shall mention hereafter.
Dewitz has described[404] the first appearance and development of

the wings in larvae of Phryganeidae. Each one appears at first in the
form of a small thickening of the hypodermis, accompanied
outwardly by a minute depression of the chitin (Fig. 324, A). He
compares the structure in the earliest stage to the entothoracic
projections into the interior of the body. The rudiment grows as the
larva increases in size, the chitinous portion being duly shed at the
ecdyses. When the rudiment is larger and more complex, a
mesoderm layer appears in it (Fig. 324, B); this is derived from a
nerve-sheath near the rudiment. During the resting state of the larva
—after its case has been closed, but before the pupal form has
appeared—the wing assumes the form and position shown in C, Fig.
324. Dewitz's description of the process leaves much to be desired,
and it is doubtful whether in C the position of the wing on the exterior
of the body is due to the stripping off of the chitinous integument, or
to a process of eversion, or to both.
Fig. 324.—Development of wings of Phryganeidae. (After Dewitz.) A,

Portion of body-wall of young larva of Trichostegia; ch, chitin,
forming at r a projection into the hypodermis m; r and d forming
thus the first rudiment of the wing. B, The parts in a largely grown
larva; a, c, d, b, the much grown hypodermis separated into two
parts by r, the penetrating extension of the chitin; v, mesoderm. C,
Wing-pad of another Phryganeid freed from its case at its change
to the pupa; b, d, outer layer of the hypodermis, m, of the body-
wall; v, inner layer without nuclei.
Fig. 325.—Cases of British Trichoptera. A, Of Odontocerum albicorne;

A1, its termination; B, quadrangular case of Crunoecia irrorata;
B1, mouth of case.
There are about 500 species of this family of Insects known as

inhabiting the European region, and about 150 of this number occur
in Britain. These are arranged by M‘Lachlan[405]—whose zealous
and persevering work at this neglected family of Insects is beyond
praise—in eight sub-families, on a system in which the structure of
the maxillary palpi plays a principal part; they are called
Phryganeides, Limnophilides, Sericostomatides, Leptocerides,
Oestropsides, Hydropsychides, Rhyacophilides, Hydroptilides. The
first three of these form the division "Inaequipalpia."
Phryganeides.—This group includes the largest forms of the family,

and appears to be almost confined to the temperate regions of the
northern hemisphere, though a few species are already known from
the corresponding districts of the southern hemisphere. This feature
in their geographical distribution is, however, by no means peculiar
to them, for a similar discontinuity of distribution exists in numerous
other groups of Insects, and even in other divisions of the
Phryganeidae.
The Phryganeides almost without exception inhabit still waters, and it

is more specially to them that the brief sketch of metamorphosis
given in the preceding pages will be found to apply. The larva always
has the respiratory filaments simple and thread-like, though
elongate, and lives in a case that it carries about; this case is open at
both ends, and the larva is said to occasionally cut off the end having
the least diameter and increase the other end, thus accommodating
the habitation to its own growth.
Limnophilides.—These Insects have only three, instead of four,

joints in the maxillary palpi, but in most other respects agree with the
Phryganeides. There is, however, greater variety in the habits of the
larvae, though all live in free cases. In the genus Enoicyla (Fig. 326)
we meet with the anomaly of a Trichopterous Insect that lives
amongst moss and dead leaves, far away, it may be, from water. The
cases of the Limnophilides are constructed of a great variety of
materials, and are often decorated with shells containing living
inmates.
In the genus Apatania the phenomenon of parthenogenesis is

thought to occur, there being at least two species in which no male
specimen has ever been discovered, though M‘Lachlan has made
special efforts to discover the sex of A. muliebris. It should, however,
be stated that these species have not been extensively investigated;
A. arctica has been detected in the Arctic regions, and A. muliebris
has occurred in several localities in Europe, in Britain chiefly near
Arundel in a lake of intensely cold water.
Fig. 326.—Metamorphoses of Enoicyla pusilla. (After Ritsema.) A,

Case of full-grown larva; B, larva and case magnified; C, larva
extracted; D, wingless adult female; E, male.
Sericostomatides, like the Limnophilides, is a group rich in species;

the larvae are chiefly found in streams. They form portable cases out
of sand and stones (Fig. 325, B, case of Crunoecia irrorata) in
preference to vegetable matter. It is here that the genus
Helicopsyche, which for long was an enigma to naturalists, is now
placed. This genus consists of Insects whose larvae form spiral
cases, similar to small snail shells, of sand or minute stones. These
objects occur in various parts of the world. Fritz Müller[406] has
informed us that the larva inhabiting one of them, when it withdraws
entirely within its abode to repose, takes the precaution of anchoring
its snail-like habitation, fixing it to a rock or stone by spinning some
temporary silken threads. The respiratory filaments in this group are
filiform.
Fig. 327.—Cases of Helicopsyche shuttleworthi. (After von Siebold.) A,
Natural size; B, C, magnified.
Leptocerides.—The first group of the division Aequipalpia; so that

there are five-jointed maxillary palpi in both sexes; these organs are
frequently developed in a remarkable manner. The antennae are
usually extremely long and slender. The case of the larva is portable
(Fig. 325, A, case of Odontocerum); the respiratory filaments are not
very conspicuous; they form short tufts placed on various parts of the
abdomen. Müller[406] has called attention to a species whose larva
lives in Brazil between the leaves of Bromeliae on trees.
The Oestropsides is a small group, and has recently been reduced

by M‘Lachlan to the rank of an inferior division.
Hydropsychides.—An extensive group, in which the larvae are

believed to be chiefly of carnivorous habits. They vary, according to
species, as to the nature of the respiratory filaments, and live in fixed
abodes; these are less tubular than is the rule with the portable
cases, and are formed from pieces of sand and stone spun together
and fixed to larger stones under water. Sometimes several larvae
live together in loosely compacted structures of this kind, and only
form true cases when about to undergo their metamorphosis. Müller
describes[406] a Brazilian species of Rhyacophylax as forming a
case in which the mouth-end has a large funnel-shaped verandah,
covered by a beautiful silken net. This larva lives in the rapids of
various rivulets, and the entrance to the verandah is invariably
directed towards the upper part of the rivulet, so as to intercept any
edible material brought down by the water. Several of these larvae,
moreover, build their cases so that they form a transverse row on the
upper side of a stone; as many as thirty cases may be placed in one
of these rows, and sometimes several rows are placed parallel with
one another. This same larva has the habit of coming out of its case
when necessary, and suspending itself in the water—as some
caterpillars do in the air—by means of a silken thread. Other
members of the Hydropsychides form tubes or covered ways of silk,
earth and mud attached to stones, and in which they can move freely
about. Some of the Hydropsychidae have been ascertained with
certainty to be carnivorous in the larval state. A species of the genus
Hydropsyche has been found by Howard[407] to help itself in the task
of procuring food by spreading a net in the water in connexion with
the mouth of its case. This net is woven in wide meshes with
extremely strong silk, and supported at the sides and top by bits of
twigs and small portions of the stems of water-plants. Small larvae
brought down by the current are arrested by this net for the
advantage of the larva that lurks in the tube. The breathing organs of
the larvae of Hydropsychides are apparently of a varied character,
and would well repay a careful study. Mr. Morton informs the writer
that some of our British species of Philopotamus and Tinodes have
no gills either in the larval or pupal state, and probably respire by
means of modified tracts in the integument. In some of the allied
genera, e.g. Polycentropus, the larvae are destitute of gills, but the
pupae possess them.
Fig. 328.—Case, with head of larva and snare of North American

Hydropsychid. (After Riley and Howard.)
The Rhyacophilides is another group in which the larval habitations

are fixed. Some of these larvae have no respiratory filaments,
breathing only by means of the stigmata, but others have tufts of
filaments. These Insects have a peculiarity in their metamorphosis
inasmuch as the larva, instead of lying free, constructs a cocoon in
its case or other habitation in which to change to a nymph. In the
larvae that do not make use of a portable case the abdominal hooks
are not essential, and are replaced by other organs differing much in
structure, being sometimes apparently of a sensitive nature, in other
forms possibly respiratory. Müller tells us of a carnivorous larva of
this group in which the anterior legs are armed with powerful forceps
for predatory purposes.
The Hydroptilides comprise the most minute of the Phryganeidae,

and their species will probably prove to be very numerous in well-
watered tropical regions, though few have yet been described from
there. The perfect Insects (Fig. 320) bear an extreme resemblance
to small moths of the group Tineidae. The larvae (Fig. 329) are
destitute of respiratory filaments, and construct portable cases of a
variety of forms, some resembling seeds. Müller has given
particulars of a curious nature as to the cases of some Brazilian
Hydroptilides; one species moors its dwelling to a stone by means of
a long silken cable, by this artifice combining safety with the power of
ranging over a considerable extent of water. In Diaulus there is only
a narrow slit at each end of the case, but one side of it is provided
with two chimneys to permit the flow of water for respiratory
purposes.
Fig. 329.—Hydroptila maclachlani. B, Case with larva magnified; A,

larva more magnified. (After Klapálek.)
The larva of Oxyethira (Fig. 330) is a curious form, possessing

comparatively long legs, and a head and thorax slender in
comparison with the distended hind body. The cases are fastened,
for the purposes of pupation, to a leaf of a water-lily.
Some very curious anomalies as regards the development of the

wings exist in the Phryganeidae; Anomalopteryx, for instance, has
the wings quite short and useless for flight in the male, while in the
other sex they are ample; in Enoicyla—the curious Insect figured on
p. 481, in which the larvae are of terrestrial habits—we find the
females with only rudiments of wings, while in Thamastes the
posterior wings are absent in both sexes. These anomalies are at
present quite inexplicable; and we may here mention that we are in
complete ignorance as to the functional importance of many of the
peculiarities of the Phryganeidae. We do not know why the mouth is
reduced from the normal state, the maxillary palpi being, on the other
hand, extraordinarily developed; we do not know the importance of
the numerous spines and of the spurs on the legs, nor of the hairs on
the wings, although these are amongst the most characteristic of the
special features of this group of Insects.
Fig. 330.—Oxyethira costalis. A, Larva in case; B, cases fastened to

leaf for pupation. (After Klapálek.)
Fossils.—Abundant remains of Phryganeidae belonging to the

Tertiary epoch have been discovered. They are common in amber,
and it is a remarkable fact that a larval case has been found in
amber. This seems almost inexplicable, except on the assumption
that such larvae were of arboreal habits, a condition that, at the
present time, must be excessively rare, though the terrestrial habits
of Enoicyla warrant us in believing it may occur. In the Tertiary Lake
Basin at Colorado the remains of Phryganeidae in the imago state
are extremely abundant, so that it is curious that but few such
remains have been found in Europe. In Auvergne the so-called
indusial limestone, which is two or three yards thick over a wide
area, is considered to be composed chiefly of the cases of larvae of
this family.
In the Mesozoic epoch some wings found in the lower Purbeck strata
are considered to be those of Phryganeidae; similar wings have
been found in the Lias, but this is the only evidence of the existence
of the family at that period except a tube, supposed to be a larval
case, detected in the Cretaceous of Bohemia. Earlier than this
nothing has been discovered that can be connected with the family,
so that at present the palaeontological evidence appears
unfavourable to the view held by some that the Phryganeidae may
be considered forms allied to the early conditions of the Lepidoptera.
It should be noted that the head in Phryganeidae is the most
important part from a systematic point of view, and that fossils have
been chiefly identified from the wings; this is a much more doubtful
character, as the wings of the Phryganeidae have a simple system of
neuration, and in shape have nothing very characteristic.
Extinct Order Palaeodictyoptera.
This seems to be the fittest place to notice the existence of some

fossil remains from the Palaeozoic rocks that cannot be fitly, or
certainly, assigned to any of our existing Orders, and to which the
above name has consequently been given. These remains consist
chiefly of wings in a more or less imperfect state of preservation, and
it is therefore quite doubtful whether the course of assigning them to
a separate Order supposed to be extinct be correct. This is all the
more doubtful when we recollect that an Insect fossil, Eugereon
bockingi, having the head with mouth-parts of a Hemipterous or
Dipterous nature, has been found, the wings attached to it being
such as, had they been found separate, would have been
considered to be Neuropterous, or at any rate allied thereto. About
forty-two forms of Palaeodictyoptera are assigned by Scudder to a
section called Neuropteroidea, and may therefore be considered to
have a special resemblance to our Neuroptera. These
Neuropteroidea comprise numerous genera and no less than six
families. Scudder's view is at the best tentative, and is not very
favourably received by some entomologists. Brauer has, indeed,
objected altogether to the formation of this Order Palaeodictyoptera,
and Brongniart has published a list of the Palaeozoic Insects in
which a system of arrangement different to that of Scudder is
adopted. In his most recent work[408] Brongniart assigns some of
these Neuropteroidea to the families Platypterides and
Protodonates, which we have previously discussed. The whole
subject of these Palaeozoic Insect remains is still in its infancy, and it
would not be proper to accept any view as final that has yet been
stated, nor would it be fair to dismiss the subject as unimportant
because of the great divergence of opinion amongst the authorities
who have investigated it.
CHAPTER XXII
HYMENOPTERA—HYMENOPTERA SESSILIVENTRES—CEPHIDAE—
ORYSSIDAE—SIRICIDAE—TENTHREDINIDAE OR SAWFLIES
Order IV. Hymenoptera.
Wings four, membranous, without scales, usually transparent,

never very large, the posterior pair smaller than the anterior; the
cells formed by the nervures irregular in size and form, never
very numerous (less than twenty on the front, than fifteen on the
hind, wing). Mandibles conspicuous even when the other parts
of the mouth form a proboscis. The side-pieces of the prothorax
are disconnected from the pronotum and overlap the
prosternum, usually entirely concealing it. The females are
furnished at the extremity of the body with either saw, sting, or
ovipositor; these parts may either be withdrawn into the body or
be permanently protruded. The metamorphosis is great and
abrupt, the chief changes being revealed in the pupa disclosed
at the last moult of the larva; this moult is frequently delayed till
long after growth has been completed. In the pupa the parts of
the perfect Insect are seen nearly free, each covered in a very
delicate skin.
The term Hymenoptera includes ants, bees, wasps, sawflies, and the
tribes of innumerable Ichneumon-flies. The Order is of enormous
extent, consisting even at present of tens of thousands of described
and named species, and yet these are but few in comparison with
those that remain unknown. It has good claims to be considered the
"highest" Order of Insects. Sir John Lubbock says: "If we judge
animals by their intelligence as evinced in their actions, it is not the
gorilla and the chimpanzee, but the bee, and above all the ant, which
approach nearest to man."[409] The mechanical perfection of the
structures of the individuals, and the rapid and efficient manner in
which their functions are discharged, are very remarkable. In many
species of Hymenoptera the individuals have the habit of living
together in great societies, in which the efforts of the members are
combined for the support of the whole society and for the benefit of a
younger generation. To fit them for this social life the bodies of the
larger number of the individuals are more or less changed in
structure, so that they become workers. These workers are in all
cases imperfect females; besides carrying on the ordinary work of
the society, they tend and feed the young. The duty of reproduction
is restricted to a single female, called a queen, or to a small number
of such individuals in each society. The males occupy an
unimportant position in the society, and are usually much shorter-
lived than the workers and queens. The social Hymenoptera do not
form a single zoological group, but are of three different kinds—
wasps, bees, and ants. There are numerous non-social, or solitary,
wasps and bees.
Fig. 331.—Bombus lucorum. A, Adult larva; B, pupa; C, imago, female.
Britain.
In the Order Hymenoptera—especially in the higher forms—the

males and females are often different in appearance and structure.
In the ants, one of the social groups, the workers, or imperfect
females, are quite wingless. There are numerous other groups in
which species, not social, are found, having the females wingless
while the males have wings. In a few species there is an apterous
condition of the male, perhaps usually only as a dimorphic form. In
the parasitic division there are species that are apterous in both
sexes. The structure of the outer skeleton, or external part of the
body, exhibits some peculiarities, the chief of which is the
detachment of the side-pieces of the prothorax and their great
development. Not less remarkable is the abstraction of a segment
from the abdomen to become, as it were, part of the thorax; while
between the first and second true segments of the abdomen there
exists a joint, or articulation, of the utmost mechanical perfection,
enabling the operations of stinging and piercing to be executed with
an accuracy that cannot be surpassed.
As a result of the detachment of the thoracic side-pieces, the front

legs and the structures connected with them are disjoined from the
notum, as shown in Fig. 332, and act in connexion with the head,
while the dorsal portion of the segment remains attached to the great
thoracic mass. The head is quite free from the thorax and very
mobile; the upper organs of the mouth—the labrum and the
mandibles—are not subject to modifications equal to those exhibited
by the maxillae and lower lip, which parts in the bees are prolonged
to form a suctorial apparatus that may exceed in length the whole
body of the Insect. The mandibles remain cutting or crushing
implements even when the maxillae and lower lip are modified to
form a suctorial apparatus of the kind we have mentioned; so that in
the higher forms—ants, bees, and wasps—the mouth-pieces are
completely differentiated for two sets of functions, one industrial, the
other nutritive.
Fig. 332.—Tenthredo, with head fully extended: a, pleuron; b,

pronotum; c, membrane; d, mesonotum.
Behind the head there is a large consolidated mass representing the

thorax of other Insects, but made up, as we have already indicated,
in an unusual manner, and which therefore may be called by a
special name, the alitrunk (Fig. 333). The pronotum forms the
anterior part of the alitrunk, with which it is usually very closely
connected, being indeed frequently immovably soldered thereto. It
exhibits, however, considerable variety, and is seen in its simplest
and least soldered state in Cephus. In the higher bees the pronotum
takes on a form not seen in any other Insects, being one of the most
beautiful sclerites to be found in the class (Fig. 334, pronotum of
Xylocopa). We have already remarked that in Hymenoptera the
lower portions of the prothoracic segment are detached from the
upper, so that the pronotum is not supported beneath by a sternum
as usual. In the bees in question the pronotum makes up for the
removal of the corresponding side-pieces and sternum, by becoming
itself a complete ring, its sides being prolonged and meeting in the
middle line of the under surface of the body. At the same time a large
lobe is developed laterally on each side, overlying and protecting the
first breathing orifice. The intermediate stages of this remarkable
modification may be observed by dissecting a small series of genera
of bees.
Fig. 333.—Alitrunk of Sphex chrysis. A, Dorsal aspect: a, pronotum; b,

mesonotum; c, tegula; d, base of anterior, e, of posterior, wing; f,
g, divisions of metanotum; h, median (true first abdominal)
segment; i, its spiracle; k, second abdominal segment, usually
called the petiole or first abdominal segment. B, Posterior aspect
of the median segment: a, upper part; b, superior, c, inferior
abdominal foramen; d, ventral plate of median segment; e, coxa.
Fig. 334.—Pronotum of a carpenter bee, Xylocopa sp. East India.
Although the prosternum of a Hymenopterous Insect is not usually

visible owing to its being overwrapped by the side-pieces, it is really,
as shown in Fig. 335, B, of complicated form. In Cimbex and some
other sawflies the side-pieces are not so large as usual, but the
prosternum is larger and is exposed. The prothoracic spiracle is
rarely visible externally, but its position is remarkably constant, and is
usually indicated by a peculiar lobe or angle of the pronotum
projecting backwards just below the insertion of the front wing. This
stigmatic lobe is frequently fringed with short hairs.
The mesothorax is the largest of the three divisions of the thorax

proper; its notum is large, and usually divided into two parts by a
transverse suture. The side-pieces are so placed that the epimeron
is rather behind than below the episternum. The mesosternum forms
the larger part of the under-surface of the alitrunk. A very large
phragma projects from the mesothorax into the interior of the body.
The mesothoracic spiracle is usually not visible; its existence was
unknown to the older entomotomists, who were in consequence led
to consider the spiracle of the median segment as belonging to the
thorax. The mesothoracic spiracle is, however, easily seen in
Cimbex, placed in the suture between the mesothoracic epimeron
and the metathoracic episternum, a little below the insertion of the
front wing; close to this spot the mesophragma, just spoken of,
comes, in Cimbex, to the surface. The mesothoracic spiracle is
generally conspicuous in the worker ant. The parts of the metathorax
are usually small, but so much variety prevails in this respect that no
general description can be given.
Fig. 335.—Articulation of front legs of the hornet (Vespa crabro, ♀). A:

a, side-piece of prothorax overlying the prosternum; b, coxa; c,
trochanter. B, prosternum proper, as seen from front when
extracted.
The structure of the posterior part of the alitrunk has given rise to an
anatomical discussion that has extended over three-quarters of a
century,[410] with the result that it is now clear that the posterior part
of what appears to be thorax in Hymenoptera is composed of an
abdominal segment. This part has been called "Latreille's segment,"
the "median segment," and the "propodeum." The latter term was
proposed by Newman, under the form of propodeon,[411] and
appears to be on the whole the most suitable term for this part,
which is of great importance in systematic entomology, owing to the
extreme variety of characters it affords. Although it is clear that the
propodeum is, in large part, an abdominal segment, yet its
morphology is still uncertain; what parts are pleural, what tergal, and
what may be chitinised spiracular area, or portions of the
metathorax, being undetermined. The ventral portion of the
propodeum affords a strong contrast to the dorsal part, being so
small that it has frequently been described as absent; it is, however,
not difficult to detect it in the position shown at d, Fig. 333, B.
Although the true first segment of the abdomen is detached from its
normal position and added to the thorax, yet the term abdomen is
conventionally restricted to the part that commences with the true
second segment, which, in counting the number of abdominal
segments, is reckoned as being the first. There are two modes of
articulation of the Hymenopterous abdomen with the alitrunk; in one
(Fig. 336, A) the base of the abdomen remains of the calibre usual in
Insects, while in the other (Fig. 336, B) it is greatly contracted, so
that the two parts are connected only by a slender stalk, the petiole.
The petiole, besides articulating in a very perfect manner with the
propodeum by means of certain prominences and notches, is also
connected therewith by means of a slender ligament placed on its
dorsal aspect and called the funiculus, shown in Fig. 333, A, just at
the extremity of the pointing line k. This mode of articulation gives
great freedom of motion, so that in some Petiolata (Ampulex) the
abdomen can be doubled under the body and the sting brought to
the head. It is worthy of note that even in the Sessiliventres—as the
sub-Order with broad-based abdomen is called—some amount of
movement exists at the corresponding spot; while, as shown in Fig.
336, A, between a and b, there exists an exposed membrane, the
homologue of the funiculus.
Fig. 336.—Articulation of abdomen and alitrunk of, A, Cimbex, B,

Vespa. a, Propodeum or median segment; b, dorsal plate of first
(second true) abdominal segment or petiole; c, spiracle of the
propodeum; d, hind coxa; e, ventral plate of first (second true)
abdominal segment.
The number of abdominal segments that can be seen in the perfect

Insect varies greatly. In Tenthredinidae nine can be distinguished,
while in some of the Chrysididae it is difficult to detect more than
three behind the petiole. These distinctions are, however, superficial
or secondary, being due to changes in the later life in connexion with
the stings or borers; in the larvae that have been examined thirteen
segments behind the head have usually been detected.
Nothing is more remarkable in the Hymenoptera than the great

differences that exist in the form of the petiole. This may be very
short, as in the bees, so that the abdomen when not deflexed does
not appear to be separated from the thorax (Fig. 331, C); in this
condition it is said to be sessile, a term which it would be well to
replace by that of pseudosessile. In many of the solitary wasps the
petiole is very long. In ants it is replaced by one or two curiously-
shaped small segments called nodes (Fig. 60, B, 2, 3), and in many
ants these are provided with structures for the production of sound.
The abdomen is formed by a system of double imbrications; each
dorsal plate overlaps each ventral plate, and the hind margin of each
segment embraces the front part of the one following; thus this part
of the body has not only great mobility, but is also capable of much
distension and extension. The pleura are apparently absent, but
each one has really become a part of the dorsal plate of the segment
to which it belongs. This is shown to be the case by Cimbex, where
the division between pleuron and dorsal plate exists on each
segment except the basal one. Owing to this arrangement, the
abdominal stigmata in Hymenoptera appear to be placed on the
dorsal plates.
The organs for mechanical purposes existing at the extremity of the

body in Hymenoptera exhibit a great diversity of form; they are saws,
borers, piercers, or stings. Notwithstanding their great differences
they are all, in their origin, essentially similar, and consist of six parts
developed from limb-like prolongations on the penultimate and
antepenultimate segments of the larva, as described by Packard and
Dewitz.[412] These processes have by some been thought to be not
essentially different from abdominal legs, and Cholodkovsky has
recently advocated this opinion.[413]
The legs of bees exhibit modifications for industrial purposes. In the

stinging Hymenoptera the trochanters are usually of a single piece,
and these Insects are called monotrochous; but in most of the other
forms the trochanters are more or less distinctly divided into two
parts (Fig. 345, b). The usual number of joints in the tarsus is five,
but is subject to diminution in many cases. In the bees and ants the
first joint is altered in form; in the bees to act as an instrument for
gathering or carrying pollen; in the ants to act, as it were, as a
second tibia. Between the claws there is a very perfect pad, already
described and figured on p. 106.
The wings are remarkable for the beautiful manner in which the
hinder one is united to the anterior, so that the two act in flight as a
single organ. The hind wing is furnished with a series of hooks, and
the hind margin of the front wing is curled over so that the hooks
catch on to it. In some of the parasitic forms the wings are almost
destitute of nervures, and have no hooks. The powers of flight in
these cases are probably but small, the wings merely serving to float
the Insect in the air. In some Hymenoptera, especially in Pompilides
and Xylocopa, the wings may be deeply pigmented or even metallic;
and in some forms of Tenthredinidae, Ichneumonidae, and
Braconidae the pigmentation assumes the form of definite patterns.
Fig. 337.—Wings of a carpenter bee. A, The pair of wings separated;
a, position of the hooks: B, the same wings when united by the
hooks. C, Portions of the two wings: a, the series of hooks; b,
marginal hairs; c, portion of edge of front wing, of which the other
part has been broken away in order to show the hooks.
The studies of the internal anatomy of Hymenoptera are at present

by no means numerous or extensive. The alimentary canal (Fig. 69)
possesses a crop, gizzard, and chylific stomach in addition to the
oesophagus and intestine. The social Hymenoptera have the power
of disgorging matter from the alimentary canal for the purpose of
supplying food for their young.
Fig. 338.—Central nervous system (supra-oesophageal ganglion and

ventral chain) of a worker ant, Camponotus ligniperdus. (After
Forel.) a, Cerebral hemisphere; b, primordial cerebral lobe or
pedunculate body (depressed so as to show other parts); c,
olfactory lobe (raised from natural position); d, nerve to labrum; e,
antennary nerve; f, scape of antenna; g, eye; h, optic nerve; i,
longitudinal commissures connecting the hidden sub-oesophageal
ganglion with k, the prothoracic ganglion; l, mesothoracic, m,
metathoracic ganglion; s, ganglion of the petiole; n, nerve from
petiole to other part of abdomen; r, q, o, 2nd, 3rd, 4th abdominal
ganglia; p, terminal nerve to cloaca; t, bases of legs.
The crop—which is situated in the anterior part of the abdomen—is

the reservoir that contains this matter. The mode of disgorgement is
believed to be pressure exerted on the crop by contraction of the
abdomen. Salivary glands are present in remarkable variety. The
tracheal system possesses, in the higher winged forms, large
saccular dilatations situated at the side of the abdomen. The nervous
system is of peculiar interest on account of the high intelligence of
many of the members of this Order; and on this point of the anatomy,
Brandt[414] has made rather extensive investigations, having
examined it in the adult of seventy-eight species, and in the larva of
twenty-two. In the adult there are two cephalic—the supra- and the
sub-oesophageal—two or three thoracic, and from three to seven
abdominal ganglia. The bees, wasps, and some other of the
Aculeata have only two thoracic ganglia, while some ants have
three. The supra-oesophageal ganglion is very large. The most
remarkable fact revealed by Brandt's investigations is the great
difference that exists between the sexes and the worker caste in the
same species. The pedunculate bodies of the supra-oesophageal
ganglion are considered to be in their development correlative with
that of the intelligence or instinct. In the workers of the social
Hymenoptera these bodies are very large, while in the males and
females they are small. The workers and females of Bombus have
six abdominal ganglia, while the males have only five; and the
worker of the honey-bee has five abdominal ganglia, while the male
and the queen-bee have but four. In the leaf-cutting bee (Megachile)
the male has four abdominal ganglia and the female five, and in the
wasps the workers have five, the males and females six. The
nervous system in the larvae shows but little difference between the
ganglia, which are thirteen in number, eight being abdominal. In the
embryo of the bee Kowalewsky has observed seventeen ganglia.
The changes that take place from the embryonic to the imago
condition are therefore directed to the reduction in number of the
ganglia, which is accomplished by the fusion of some of them. In the

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Real-world SAMPLE DOCUMENTS add

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A LOOK INTO THE

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SPECIAL FEATURES ENHANCE LEARNING

Employment Communication 293

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Chapter 10: Instructions

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Chapter 14: Proposals

Chapter 15: Ethics in the Workplace

Chapter 16: Technical Reading

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STOP AND THINK 1.1

The imagines of certain species possess filaments—or something of