ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

In every electric circuit there are three basic quantities that
are always present. These quantities are:- CURRENT,
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE and RESISTANCE.
Current – This is the movement of electrons through a
conductor. Electric current is represented by the capital
letter I and is measured in amperes, shorten form amp.
The unit symbol is the letter A
Electromotive force – This is the force that causes the
current to flow through the conductor. It is represented by
the abbreviation e.m.f and is measured in volts, unit symbol
V
Resistance – This is the opposition to the flow of current.
This limits the flow of current. It is represented by the letter
R, and is measured in ohms, unit symbol, the Greek letter
omega (W)

QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY

When a certain amount of electric current passes through a

given conductor in a specific time, then a quantity of Eg. 1 A current of 20 amp flows through a conductor in 5
electricity is said to go through it. This quantity of electricity seconds. Calculate the electric charge.
is also known as an Electric Charge, and is represented by
the letter Q and is measured in Coulombs, unit symbol C. Q=Ixt
The time at which electricity passes through the conductor is = 20 ´ 5
represented by the letter t and is measured in seconds, and = 100C

the amount of current is represented by the letter I and is Eg. 2 A current of 10 amp flows through a conductor and
measured in amperes. set up a charge of 0.5C, calculate the time taken.
It is said that one coulomb (1C) will pass through a circuit
when a current of one amp (1A) flows for one second (1 t=Q/I
sec). = 0.5
10
Q = I ´ t = coulombs = 0.05 sec.

Eg. 3 Calculate the current that cause an electric charge

of 600C to pass through a conductor in 15 seconds.

I=Q/t
 = 600 / 15
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC SYSTEM
Electric systems involve the uses of circuits, the construction
of circuits and classifying the principal parts that are to be
found in every circuit.
AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
A circuit is an assemblage of conductors and devices
through which current flows or it’s a complete path for
current flow. A basic electrical circuit consists of four main
parts namely:
The source; load; Control device and the transmission
system.
= 40A
The Source-- The function of the source is to provide
energy for the circuit. Eg. Generator, battery.
The Load-- The function of the load is to use up the energy
that is provided by the source. Eg. Radio and refrigerator.
The Control Device-- The function of the control device is
to open and close (make and break) the path for current to
flow. Eg. Switch , push button
The Transmission System-- The function of the
transmission system is to carry energy from the source to
the load. Eg. Conductor, wire (pg 77)
Control device
Source Load
Transmission system
A simple circuit (open)
 OHMS LAW

A German Physicist, GEORGE SIMON OHM carried out an Eg.1 Calculate the current flowing through a conductor of
experiment to determine the relationship between current, 30 ohms (30W) when it is connected to a 120V
voltage and resistance. supply.
He found out that, and make it his law (OHMS LAW) stating
that the current flowing through a conductor is directly I = V/R
proportional to the voltage across it ends but is inversely = 120/30
proportional to its resistance at a constant temperature. = 4A
This relationship can be express in a mathematical formula:
Eg. 2 Calculate the voltage that will cause a current of 10A
I = V/R to flow through a conductor (resistance) of 50 ohms
Where I = current in ampere (A) (50W)
Where V = voltage in volts (V)
Where R = resistance in ohms (W) V=IxR
= 10 x 50
This formula can place in a triangle called the magic = 500V
triangle.
Eg. 3 A current of 20 amp flows through a resistor when it
V is connected to a 600v supply. Calculate the
resistance.
I R
R = V /I
To find any of the three (3) quantities (that is I, V and R) = 600/20
when any two are given you would cover the letter that = 30W
represents the quantity that is to be found and the remaining
two letter will give the formula.
 ELECTRIC POWER AND ENERGY

Power (P) is the rate at which work is done, measured in
watt; (W). While energy (W) is the ability to do work,
measured in joules; (J)
The power dissipated by a resistor (or any load) in a d.c.
circuit can be determined by the given formula
Apparent power (S) is the product of total voltage and total
current, measured in volts-ampere, thus the formula:
S = V x I = Volts-ampere; (VA)

P = V x I = watt True power (P) which can also be called real power or the
active power, measured in watts, is always less than the
From the formula P = V x I apparent power (S) is determined by the formula
By substituting I x R for V
we get P = I x R x I P = V x I x p.f.
\ P = I2 R \P = V I cos. q
Substituting V / R for I, We get P = V x V / R = S cos. q
\ P = V2 / R Since the voltage and the current are in phase for a resistor
in an a.c. circuit and the power factor power factor is unity
The total power dissipated by resistors (loads) in series or (1), therefore the power dissipated by a resistor whether in
parallel can be determined by the same formula; an a.c. or d.c. circuit, is determined by the same formula and
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 … is the same.

Where P1, P2, P3 = the power dissipated by P = V x I = watts

resistor/load one, two and three respectively.
An a.c. circuit delivers energy to resistive and reactive loads.
In an a.c. circuit there are three types of power; these are
Ø apparent power (S)
Ø true (P) and
Ø reactive power (Q)
The reactive power (Q) is determined by the given formula:
Q = V x I sin. q = volts-ampere-reactance, (VAR)
=S sin. q
The electrical power wasted as heat in the winding of an
electrical machine or in a cable is frequently referred to as
an I2 R loss

1 kilowatt (1kW) = 1000W

1 horsepower (1hp) = 746W
Mechanical power is measured in horsepower

4
POWER FACTOR cosine of the phase angle form between the applied voltage
and the current. Therefore

Power factor is defined as the ratio between the actual p.f. = P/S

power and the apparent power in an a.c. circuit, or the

POWER TRIANGLE

The relationship between the three (3) powers can be

q
expressed by Pythagoras theorem and / or a right angle
P S
triangle

S2 = Q2 + P2 Q
Power triangle

ENERGY

Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Electric energy The watt-second is too small a unit, thus the more
is the product of the useful power and time. Energy is convenient unit is the kilowatt-hour (kWh), and is on the
represented by the capital letter W and its basic unit of basis of kilowatt-hour we pay our electricity bill (light bill).
measurement is the joule (J)

Since energy is the product and time, and time is measured One kilowatt-hour (1kWh) = 1000 Wh
in seconds, therefore energy is measured in watt-second.
One watt-second is equal to one joule.

5
 THE KILO-WATT-HOUR METER.

The kilo-watt-hour meter in short (kWh) is put into an One watt sec = one joule
instillation to record the consumption of electric energy. This 1W s = 1J
meter give the reading in kilo-watt-hour (kWh), which is the Because the watt-sec is two small a unit the kWh is used
product of power in (kilo-watt) and the time consumed (in instead.
hours). The basic unit for energy is joules (J), which is the
product of power and time. 1kWh = 3600000J

Power x time
Watt x sec It is on the basis of kilo-watt-hour (kWh) you pay your
W x s = WS = J electricity bill. Your electricity bill is determined by the
energy you consume multiplied by cost per each unit.
(KWh).

6
 RESISTORS AND RESISTANCE

A resistor is a device, which provides resistance in an

electrical circuit. Its resistance is its ability to limit current
Fixed variable
flow.
When drawing an electric circuit diagram it is represented by
the symbol:

Or

And is labeled “ R ”
The resistance of a resistor is said to be linear if the current
through the resistor is proportional to the potential difference
(p.d) across its terminals.
If the resistance should vary with the magnitude of the
current or the voltage then the resistance is said to be linear.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RESISTANCE OF
A CONDUCTOR
There are four things that will affect the resistance of a
conductor. These are:
Ø The type of material used to make the conductor
Ø The length of the conductor
Ø Cross sectional area (c.s.a) of the conductor
Ø Temperature surrounding the conductor

TYPES OF RESISTORS

Resistors are made in a variety of ways but they all fall into
the categories of either Fixed or Variable resistors. Most
fixed resistors are used in electronic circuits and are made
from carbon moldings or from metal oxide film. Wire wound
resistors maybe wound on what looks like a large washer
made from an insulated material. An arm is mounted
through the center of the washer. By rotating the arm along
the length of wire between the ends; where the arm started
and the point where the arm is, the resistance is varied.

7
 RESISTIVITY

Certain materials permit the reasonable free passage of Where R = resistance in ohms (W)

electric current and are termed conductors. While others r = resistivity in ohm-metre (Wm)

oppose such a free passage and are called insulators. L = length in metre (m)
These abilities are simply taken relative to one another and A = area in meter-square (m2)

depend on the material considered. However other factors

also have to be taken into account. Consider two conductors Eg. A conductor made of copper 400m long has a cross-

made of two wire with resistance of 1W for every 10cm of its sectional area of 1mm2. Calculate its resistance.

length, if the wire is made of 20cm long, then effectively (r = 1.57 x 10-8)

there are two section each of 10cm connected in series,

therefore the resistance will now be 2W, and 30cm will give R= rL

three section having 3W. Therefore the resistance of a A

conductor is directly proportional to its length. R µ L = 1.57 x 10-8 x 400

1 x 10-6
Again considering two 10cm pieces are connected in parallel = 6.28W
then the resistance is 0.5 ohms.
We arrived at 1x 10-6 since that its takes 1000 mm to make
Therefore resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional
1m, which is 1/1000 of a meter, which is the same as
to its cross sectional area.
1 x 10-3m. When this is squared, the result is 1 x 10-6
Therefore R µ L / A

Rather than dealing proportionally, it is better to insert a

constant into this relation thereby taken into account the
type of material being used. The constant is called
Resistivity of the material. Resistivity is a constant for a
material relating its resistance to its length and cross
sectional area, symbolize by the Greek letter r (rho) and is
measured in ohms-meter. (Wm)
When the resistivity of a conductor is taken into account, the
resistance can be determined by the formula

R= rL
A

8
 TEMPERATURE CO-EFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE

The resistance of all pure metal is directly proportional to the Eg 1. A copper conductor having resistance of 40W at 400C.
change in temperature. While carbon, electrolytes and Calculate its resistance at 600C ( temperature coefficient of
insulating material resistance is inversely proportional to the resistance of copper is 0.004)
change in temperature. Directly proportional means
resistance increase with the increase in temperature and R2 = R1 [1+ µ ( t2 – t1 )]
decrease with the decrease in temperature. While inversely = 40 [1+ 0.004 (60 – 40]
is vise versa. Therefore all pure metals will have a positive = 40 [1+ 0.004 ( 20 )]
temperature co-efficient, while carbon, electrolytes and = 40 (1+ 0.08)
insulating material will have a negative temperature co- = 40 (1.08 )
efficient. = 43.2W

Certain alloy such as manganin shows no change resistance Eg. 2 A copper conductor having resistance of 40W at
for considerable variation of temperature. This means it’s 600C. Calculate its resistance at 400C (temperature
considered to have a zero (0) coefficient. The ratio of the coefficient of resistance of copper is 0.004)
change of resistance per degree change of temperature to
the resistance at some definite temperature is called R2 = R1 [1+ µ ( t2 – t1 )]
temperature co-efficient of resistance. A standard = 40 [1+ 0.004 (40 – 60)]
temperature of 200c which is roughly the average at = 40 [1+ 0.004 (- 20 )]
atmospheric temperature is considered 100m temperature. = 40 (1+- 0.08)
Resistance of a material is due to the change in temperature = 40 ( 0.98 )
can be determine by the formula. = 36.8W

Therefore, if the temperature surrounding a conductor made

R2 = R1 [1+ µ ( t2 – t1 )]
from pure metals increases the resistance will increase, and
vise-versa.
Where R1 = resistance of the material at an initial
temperature
R2 = resistance of the material at a second
temperature.
µ = temperature co-efficient of the material.
t1 = initial temperature.
t2 = second temperature.

9
 THE SERIES CIRCUIT

A series circuit is one that has all its components (eg. Rt = R1 + R2 +R3

resistor) connected one after the other, in other words end- = 10 + 20 +30

to-end, and has only one path for current flow. Therefore if = 60W
one component is removed or damage or the path is made
open this will affect the entire circuit causing all components If two or more identical resistors are connecting in series,
to stop working. then the resultant resistance can be determined by the given
formula.

Rt = nR,
RESISTORS IN SERIES
Where R = the value of any one resistor and n = the number
of resistors.
When resistors are connected in series to form a circuit,
example the diagram below, the resultant/effective
resistance of such circuit is the sum of the individual
resistors value and can be determined by the formula. Rt =
R1 + R2 + R3 ............

R1 R2 R3

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN SERIES CIRCUIT

Where Rt = total resistance When a voltage is applied to a series circuit, that voltage
R1 = resistance in resistor one (total voltage Vt) is shared amongst the number of
R2 = resistance in resistor two components (eg. resistor) connected in series. Therefore,
R3 = resistance in resistor three the total voltage is the sum of voltage drop across each
resistor, thus giving the formula:
Note: Any number of resistors can be connected to form a Vt = V1 + V2 + V3........
series circuit.
Where V1 = the total voltage drop across resistor one
Eg. Three resistors of the values 10W, 20W and 30W V2 = the total voltage drop across resistor two
respectively are connected in series. Calculate their V3 = the total voltage drop across resistor three
effective resistance

R1 =10W R2 =20W R3 = 30W

10
The current flowing in a series circuit is constant (one value) (a) Rt = R1 + R2 (b) It = Vt / Rt
through out the entire circuit. That means the current is the = 10 + 15 = 100/ 25
same through each resistor also the same as the value = 25W = 4A
flowing from the source. Thus the formula
It = I1 = I2 = I3.........
(c) V1= I1 x R1

Where I1 = current through resistor one

Since the current in a series circuit is the same throughout
I2 = current through resistor two
the circuit, therefore I1 = It
I3 = current through resistor three
Note: Current flows through while voltage is across. This is
\ V1 = It x R1 AND V2 = It x R2
because the voltage is across the resistor and force current
= 4 x 10 = 4 x 15
through it.
= 40V = 60V

Eg. Two resistors R1 = 10W and R2= 15W are connected in

Using the formula;
series. Then to a 100V supply calculate
Vt = V1 + V2
(a) the total resistance
= 40 + 60
(b) the total current
= 100V
(c) the voltage across each resistor
(d) use the formula Vt = V1 + V2 to prove that Vt = 100V

11
 THE PARALLEL CIRCUIT

1 = 1 + 1
A parallel circuit is one that has more than one branch with a Rt R1 R2
load. That means that it has one main path for current flow 1 = 1 + 1 (find the L.C.M)
and several sub-paths. When resistors are connected in Rt 10 15
parallel (or any other load). They are connected across each 3 + 2 = 5
other and each is connected across the source. e.g. the 30 30
circuit diagram below.
To find Rt we invert 1 to become = Rt
Rt 1
also invert the fraction which is 5 / 30 to become 30 / 5
\Rt = 30 / 5 (b) It = Vt / Rt

R1 = 6W = 48 / 6
= 8A
R2

R3 Note: The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less

than the value of smallest resistor.

Vt When two resistor (only two) are connected in parallel the

given formula can be use to determine the total resistance
In a parallel circuit each resistor will have its own path for (Rt)
current flow, therefore if any one resistor is damage, remove
Rt = R1 x R2
or its path is broken it will not affect the others. The total
R1 + R2
resistance is determining by the given formula........
Using this formula to find the total resistance for the example
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
above, will give
Rt R1 R2 R3
Rt = 10 x 15
10 + 15
Note: Any number of resistors can be connected to form a
= 150 / 25
parallel circuit.
= 6W

If two or more identical resistors are connecting in parallel,

Eg. Two resistors of 10W and 15W are connected in parallel then the resultant resistance can be determined by the given
across a 48V supply. Calculate formula.

Rt = R / n,
(a) their effective resistance (Rt)
Where R = the value of any one resistor and n = the number
(b) the total current flowing (It)
of resistors.

12
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN PARALLEL Or transposing the formula It = I1 + I2 for I2
we get I2 = It I1
CIRCUIT –

[Note] In a parallel circuit the resistor with the lowest value

When a voltage is applied to a parallel circuit, each branch
resistance will take the highest current.
will get the same voltage as that of the supply voltage
regardless of the resistance of that branch, while to the total
current is shared amongst the number of branches, thus the
formulas.

Vt = V1 = V2 = V3........ and
It = I1 + I2 + I3....... CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE

Eg. Two resistors of 12W and 8W are connected in parallel The current divider rule is for a parallel circuit only, while the

across a 24V supply. Calculate voltage divider rule is used in series circuit only

(a) their effective resistance

(b) the total current flowing The current divider rule is I1 = It x R2

(c) the current through each resistors. R1+ R2

(a) Rt = R1 x R2 (b) It = Vt / Rt And the voltage divider rule is V1 = Vt R1

R1 + R2 = 24 / 4.8 Rt

= 5A
= 12 x 8
12 + 8
= 96/ 20
= 4.8 W

(c) I1 = V1 / R1, but V1 = Vt

Substituting Vt for V1
\ I1 = Vt / R1
= 24 / 12
= 2A
I2 =V2 / R2, but V2 = Vt

Substituting Vt for V2
\ I2 = Vt / R2
= 24 / 8
= 3A

13
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

First Law (current law) states that the sum of current(s) Second Law (voltage law) states that, the sum of voltage

following into a junction of the circuit is equal to the sum of drop around any closed circuit is equal to the voltage applied

the currents(s) following away from that junction. to that circuit

I1 I4

I2 I5

I3 I6

I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5 + I6

14
 TYPES OF CURRENT
There are two types of current.
Ø Alternating current (a.c.)
Ø Direct current (d.c.)
These two current can be define as:
Direct current – a current that flows only in one
direction. And is represented by the symbol
Alternating current – a current that varies in the both
direction and magnitude every half cycle and is
represented by the symbol. ~
GENERATION OF ALTERNATING E.M.F
An E.M.F. (electromotive force) can be induced into a coil
(conductor) by either rotating the coil/ conductor uniformly
within a magnetic field or the magnetic field across the
coil/conductor. An A.C. voltage is usually obtained from a
generator.
A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy
to electrical energy.
When the armature (the rotating coil) is rotated within the
magnetic field it will be cut by the magnetic line of force, and
therefore an E.M.F. will be induced into the coil.
15
Direct current can be obtained from a cell or battery or
from a conversation of a a.c. to the d.c. through device
known as DIODES.
Alternating current flows in one direction and then the
other. This happens every half cycle (1800), the
repetitive current is represented by sine waves. The
curves relating current the time is known as wave
form. Some of the waveforms are as follows.
Sinusoidal Square Saw Tooth
* The Sinusoidal waveform is the most frequently used
waveform.
When the armature is in parallel with the line of force it will
not be cut by the magnetic field therefore there will be no
induced E.M.F. The magnetic field is usually obtained
between two magnets.
The induced E.M.F. will reach its maximum value when the
armature is being cut at 900 by the magnetic field. The
induced E.M.F. will depend on:
(a) the speed of rotation.
(b) the number of turns in the coil or the length of the
conductor.
(c) the strength of the magnetic field.
 + Peak
Peak –to-
Peak Crest
1 2 2 2 3 3 3 t
8 1 4 7 0 3 6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
30 60 90 120 150

Wavelength - Peak

TERMS AND DEFINITION

1. Waveform – a variation of voltage or current shown in

9. Instantaneous value- the magnitude of an a.c.
a graph to a base of time or rotation.
waveform at the specific instance or position of rotation.
2. Cycle –a complete revolution taken place in a This equals n = VMAX x sin q
generator or repetitive revolutions.

Eg. A sine wave having a peak value of 400V. From it

3. Period - the time taken to complete a cycle or a
calculate
number of cycles.
(a) the average (mean) value
Unit – seconds t =1/ƒ, whereƒ means frequency in
(b) the r.m.s. value
hertz.
(c) the instantaneous value at 300

4. Frequency – the number of cycles completed in one

(a) VAV = 0.637 x VMAX (c) n = VMAX x sin q
second.
= 0.637 x 400 = 400 x sin 30
5. Peak Value – this is the maximum magnitude reached = 254.8V = 400 x 0.5
during a positive or negative half cycle. = 200V
(b) VRMS = 0.707 x VMAX
6. Peak-to-Peak Value – this is the magnitude of an A.C.
= 0.707 x 400
waveform taken from its positive peak to its negative
= 282.8V
peak.

7. Average Value- this is the mean magnitude of the

positive or negative part of a sine wave. It is 63.7% of There are other formulas to determine r.m.s and average
peak value VAV = 0.637 x VMAX value. r.m.s value = 1.11 x average value and average
value = 0.901 x r.m.s. value.
8. R.M.S Value – (root means square / effective value).
So VAV = 0.901 x VRMS and VRMS = 1.11 x VAV
That value of a.c. that gives the same heating affect as
= 0.901 x 282.8 = 1.11 254.8
a similar value of d.c. It is 70.7% of peak values
= 254.8V = 282.8V
VRMS = 0.707 x VMAX

16
 SINGLE PHASE SERIES CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit having a resistor of “R” ohms is exactly the same as that of the voltage, also the two

connected across the terminal of a a.c. source as in the quantities are in phase with each other i.e., they start at

figure below. the same time, reach their maximum at the same time,
and complete a cycle at the same time as depicted in
the figure below.
R
Voltage
Current
Resistor in a.c. circuit

t
If the value of the alternating voltage at any instance is
“ V ” in volts, then the value of the alternating current at
that instant can be determined, by the formula
Voltage and current waveform for a resistive circuit
I =V / R.

When the voltage is zero, the current is also zero and

when the voltage reaches its maximum, the current I V

also reaches its maximum. Since the current is

Phasor diagram for a purely resistive circuit
proportional to the voltage, the waveform of the current

ALTERNATING CURRENT IN AN INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

Consider the effect of an alternating current flowing
through an inductor having an inductance of “ L ” Henry
and a negligible resistance, as in the figure below.
L
in purely inductive circuit (or the current through the
inductor) will lag the voltage by 900.
V I

Voltage and current waveform for a purely inductive circuit

Direction of rotation
Inductor in a.c. circuit
VL

Assuming the circuit to be purely inductive, the applied

voltage will reach its maximum value a quarter of a
cycle (900) before the current. This means the current I
Phasor diagram for a purely inductive circuit

17
 RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE IN SERIES

Consider a resistor of pure resistance and an inductor
(with negligible resistance) of pure inductance
connected in series to an alternating current source as
in the figure below.
L
The combination of both components will give an
opposition to alternating current called, IMPEDANCE
(Z), and this can be determined by the given formula:
Z2 = R2 + X2

Where X = reactance (which would be the inductive

reactance)
R

Inductance and resistance in series a.c. circuit \Z = ÖR2 + XL2

The opposition that the inductor offers to the rate of Eg. An inductor of 0.5H and a resistor of 50W are
change to alternating current is called inductive connected in series, then to a 240V-50HZ supply.
reactance ( XL ) measured in ohms and is determined Calculate the impedance of the circuit.
by the given formula:

XL = 2pƒL
XL = 2pƒL = wL = W
= 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 0.5
= 157.1W
Where p = 3.142
ƒ = Frequency in hertz (HZ)
Z2 = R2 + X2
L = inductance, in Henry (H)
= ( 50 )2 + ( 157.1 )2
w = Angular velocity
= 2500 + 24680.41
= 27180.41
\Z = Ö27180.41
=164.865W

18
ALTERNATING CURRENT IN A CAPACITIVE
CIRCUIT
Consider the effect of an alternating current flowing
through a capacitance of “F” farad and negligible
resistance, as in the figure below
CAPACITANCE & RESISTOR IN SERIES
Consider a resistor (purely resistance) and a capacitor
(purely capacitive and negligible resistance) connective
to an alternating current source as in the figure below.
C

C
R

Capacitance and resistance in series a.c. circuit

Capacitor in a.c. circuit The opposition that the capacitor offers to the rate of
change of current is CAPACITIVE REACTANCE ( XC ),
Assuming the circuit to be purely capacitive, the applied and is measured in ohms. Capacitance can be
voltage will reach its maximum value a quarter of a determined by the given formula:
cycle (900) after the current. This means the current in
XC = 1
purely capacitive circuit (or the current through the
2 pƒC x 10-6
capacitor) will lead the voltage by 900.
If 10-6 is brought to the top, it becomes 106
\ XC = 106
I V 2 pƒC
The total opposition of the combined circuit is called
impedance. (Z) measured in ohms and can be
determined by the given formula:

Voltage and current waveform for a purely capacitive circuit Z2 = R2 + XC 2

Eg. A 300µF capacitor and a 50W resistor are

I
connected in series, then to a 250V-50HZ
supply. Calculate the impedance of the
circuit.
XC = 106 Z2 = R2 + XC
VC
2 pƒC = ( 50 )2 + (10.6 )2
Phasor diagram for a purely capacitive circuit
= 106 = 2500 + 112.36
2 x 3.142 x 50 x 300 = 2612.36
= 106 / 94260 \Z = Ö2612.36
= 16.6W = 51.11W

19
 RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

Consider a resistor, inductor, and a capacitor connected in If the resultant reactance is more inductive, then the current
series then connected to an A.C. supply as in the figure will lag behind the voltage by an angle between zero and
below. 900. If the resultant reactance is more capacitive, the
current will lead the voltage by an angle between zero and
L R C 900.

Inductance, Capacitance and Resistance in series a.c. circuit

VL VL
Vt
The current flowing through each component will be the VL - VC
same, but voltage across each component may be different VR I VR I
VC - VL
due to the opposition that each component offers to the flow
VC Vt
of current. The total opposition that such a circuit offers to
VC
current is called IMPEDANCE, which can be determined by This represents current. This represents current
the given formula: lagging voltage leading voltage

Z2 = R2 + X2

Where X = Reactance in ohms, which is the result of XL – XC

or XC - XL (whichever is bigger)

Z2 = R2 + ( XL - XC ) 2
Or R2 + ( XC - XL) 2

The phase angle for such a circuit can be determined by the

given formula:

Cos-1 R / Z
Where R / Z = the power factor = Cos. q

The phase angle for such a circuit will depend on the

difference between the inductive reactance and the
capacitive reactance.

20
Eg. A 50W resistor, a 300µ F capacitor and an inductor of
0.5H are connected in series, then to a 240V-50HZ
supply. Calculate
a. the impedance of the circuit
b. the total current flowing in the circuit
c. the phase angle
d. the voltage across each component

XL = 2pƒL

= 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 0.5
= 157.1W

XC = 106
2 pƒC

= 106
c. q = Cos-1 R / Z
2 x 3.142 x 50 x 300
= Cos-1 50 / 149.132
= 106 / 94260
= Cos-1 0.335
= 16.6W
= 70.4270
\The current lags behind the voltage by 70.4270
X = XL – XC (since XL is greater than XC )
= 157.1 - 16.6
d. VR = IR
= 140.5 = 1.61 x 50
= 80.5V
Z2 = R2 + X2
= ( 50 )2 + ( 140.5 )2
VL = I XL
= 2500 + 19740.25
= 1.61 x 157.1
= 22240.25
= 252.93V

\Z = Ö22240.25
VC = I XC
=149.132W
= 1.61 x 10.6
= 17.07V
b. I=V/Z
= 240 / 149.132
= 1.61A [Note: In many cases, the voltage drop across the inductor
will be higher than the supply voltage.]

21
CAPACITOR AND POWER FACTOR ( P.F.)
Capacitors are used in installation work mainly for power
factor correction, starting of single-phase motors and anti-
interference devices. Most of the machines used in
electrical work are inductive (Eg. Motors and transformers).
An inductive circuit is one which possesses resistance and
inductance. In such circuits, the current lags behind the
voltage by an angle that is between zero and 900. The
current has two components, the power component (in
phase with the voltage) that does the useful work, and the
idle or reactive component. (900 out of phase with the
voltage). This idle component is responsible for the setting
up of magnetic fields, causing energy to surge to and from
the load during alternating quarter cycles. It should be noted
that this is similar to the energy in a capacitor. If an inductor
and capacitor were connected to the same source, the
inductor would take the energy, as the capacitor was giving
out energy (discharging).
The ratio between the active power and the apparent power
is the “power factor.” Or the cosine of the angle between the
voltage and current is known as “power factor” (p.f.). It has
no unit.
The power factors of a series circuit can be determined by
the given formula:
p.f. = R / Z
Since Z = Vt / I and R = VR/ I
p.f. = VR ÷ Vt
I I
\p.f. = VR / Vt
22
Also, p.f. = True power = P
Apparent power S
If the load is more inductive than capacitive, a lagging power factor will
develop, while, if the load is more capacitive than inductive, a leading power
factor will develop.
Poor power factor will cause the load to use more current.
Increasing the power factor will enable the load to operate at
a less current. The most common method of improving the
power factor of a machine is by connecting a capacitor in
parallel with the machine. The capacitor takes a leading
current; this compensates for and reduces the idle
component of the machine current. The power is therefore
increased and the total current reduced.
It must be noted that while the highest possible power
is unity (1), the highest power factor of any load is that
at which it was manufactured to operate.
J.P.S. for example, distribute at a power facture of 0.85 and
therefore if all the loads in your house were manufactured at
a 0.85 power factor, their operating efficiency would have
been as stated on their nameplates.
Power factor can either be lagging or leading, but most (if
not all) are of the lagging type. To correct a low, lagging
power factor, reactive power is added to the circuit by
connecting a capacitor in parallel with the load or across the
supply. The capacitor takes a leading current; this
compensates for and reduces the idle component of the
machine current. The power is therefore increased and the
total current reduced.
 RESONANCE IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

Resonance is the condition where the energy stored in the OR

capacitor is the same as the energy stored in the inductor. We could find the capacitive reactance, which is the same
This means that the inductive reactance and the capacitive as the inductive reactance, then use the formula:
reactance are the same, thus the impedance of the circuit is
the effect of the resistor. Therefore, the total voltage is L = XL / 2pƒ
distributed across the resistor, and the supply voltage and
current will be in phase with each other. This leads to the XC = 106

formulas: 2pƒC
= 106 / 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 300

XL = XC = 106 / 94260
= 10.6W

2pƒC = 106
2pƒL Which is the same as XL, \ XL = 10.6W
From this formula, \ L = XL / 2pƒ
= 10.6 / 2 x 3.142 x 50
L = 106 / 4p2ƒ2C
= 0.034H
Since XL = XC, therefore VL = VC To find the voltage drop, you must find the total current, and
Z=R the total current is determined by the formula:

Eg. A 10W resistor, a variable capacitor at 300µF and an

I =V/R
inductor are connected in series to a 240V-50HZ supply.
= 240 / 10
Calculate:
= 24A
a. The inductance of the inductor that will give
resonance. VC = XL = I XC
b. The voltage drop across the inductor and the
= 24 x 10.6
capacitor.
= 254.4V
c. The power factor of the circuit
p.f. = R / Z
L = 106 / 4p2ƒ2C
= 10 / 10
= 106 / 4 x (3.142)2 x (50)2 x 300
=1
= 106 / 29616492
= 0.034H
Therefore, the power factor for a resonance circuit is unity.

23
RESONANCE FREQUENCY MAGNIFICATION OF VOLTAGE

Resonance frequency is the frequency when resonance
occurs. Thus the formula:
ƒr = 106 / 2pÖLC
So for the frequency for the example on page 38 is
The ratio between the applied voltage and the voltage
across the inductor (or capacitor) at resonance is called
MAGNIFICATION OF VOLTAGE (Q factor). This is a
quantity without unit.
Q factor = Vc / Vt or VL / Vt

ƒr = 106 / 2pÖLC
= 106 / 2 x 3.142 x Ö0.034 x 300 I XL / I R = 2pƒLI / I R.

= 106 / 6.284 x Ö 10.2

This could be terminated leading to the formula XL / R or XC
= 106 / 20.071
/R
= 49823.1279 HZ

Eg. The Q-factor for the example on page 38, is

Q-factor = VC / Vt
= 254.4 / 240
= 1.06

OR

Q-factor = XC / R
= 10.6 / 10
= 1.06

24
 CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND CABLES
each strand having a diameter (not cross-sectional-area) of
0.036mm

A conductor is a material that offers a very low resistance

to the flow of electric current. Conductors for everyday use
should be

Ø Of low electrical resistance

The Ampacity of a conductor is the amount of current it can
Ø Mechanically Strong
safely carry.
Ø Relatively cheap
Ø Flexible

Some of the more frequent conductors used are An insulator is a material that offers a very high resistance
Ø Silver to the flow of electric current. Insulators for everyday use
Ø Copper and should posses the following properties:
Ø Aluminum Some of the more frequent insulator used are
Ø Gold 1. Rubber
Ø Platinum 2. Plastic
Ø Broze 3. Air
Ø Brass 4. Glass
5. Fibre glass
gold is considered to be the best conductor , but because it
6. Porcelein
is expense, copper is used more frequently; especially in
7.ceramic
domestic and commercial buildings. Also, copper is more
flexible than the other two; therefore copper is the most
widely used conductor.

Conductors are manufactured as either solid (one piece) or

stranded.
For places where flexibility is needed, to avoid breaking,
stranded conductors are used. Stranded conductors are
bigger than solid conductors because of air space, even if
the wires have the same current capacity.
The size of a stranded conductor is given by the number of
strands and the diameter of the individual strands. For
example, a 3/.036 cable consist of three strands of wire, with
Ø Electrical Properties: it should have a high
resistance to current flow.
Ø Mechanical Properties: it should be able
withstand mechanical stress and strain, eg.
Compression
Ø Physical Properties: it should be non-absorbent,
also should be able to withstand high
temperature.

25
 Ø Chemical Properties: it should be able to carrying capacity as the operating conditions of the cable
withstand the corrosive effect of chemical. change.

Each insulator is picked for a particular application. For
example, porcelain and fireclay are relatively good insulator,
but could not be used for covering conductors forming a
cable because they are not flexible. P.V.C. is also a good
insulator, but cannot used in conditions where the
temperature exceeds 450C eg. Insulation for electric fires.
For low voltage wires, a single coating is used, but for high
voltage wires, several layer of insulations are used. To be
effective, the insulation must be able to withstand the
conditions of the environment in which it is used.
Eg. A twin-core 10mm2 P.V.C. cable will carry a maximum
current of 40A at an ambient temperature of 250C, but if the
ambient temperature is increased to 650C, then the
maximum current attained will now be:
Þ (current rating) x (rating factor
= 40 x 0.44
= 17.60A
The rating factor is also dependent on the type of excess
current protection. If cables are bunched together, their
current capacity will decrease.

Insulation is usually coated with letters to indicate

Ø Type of insulation
Ø Location where it is most effective
The type of insulation used to cover a conductor helps to
determine the current and voltage rating of the
conductor/cable.
For example, a single core cable 2.5mm2 / 600V, means the
cable should not be used in circuitry above 600V – 21A

A cable is a length of conductor, solid or stranded, or two or

more such conductors, each with its own insulation laid
together into one insulation.

Ambient Temperature: this is the temperature of the air

surrounding the cable/conductor

The current rating of a cable is decreased as the

temperature of the surrounding air increases.

Rating Factor: this is a number, without unit, which is

multiplied with the current rating to find the new current-

26
 SELECTING THE CORRECT SIZED CABLE FOR A Vd/A/m £ M.P.V.D. x 103
PARTICULAR JOB. ILOAD x L

When selecting a cable for a particular job, the first things to
take into consideration are:
Ø The cable must be able to carry the load current
safely
Ø The cable must be sized such that the voltage
drop in it does not exceed 2.5% of the supply
voltage.
The maximum permissible voltage drop
(M.P.V.D.) = 2.5 x supply voltage
100
Eg. A cable is to be run 175m and carry a load current of
30A at a 240V supply, single phase. Determine the correct
size cable.
£ 6 x 1000
30 x 175
£ 1.14
Check the JS21 for the size that has a Vd/A/m that is equal
to 1.14 or the nearest one that is lesser than 1.14, then look
for the cable size that corresponds with it. Also check under
the correct phase column (i.e. three phase or single phase),
and check that the cable can carry that current or a current
that is bigger.

The M.P.V.D. would be

M.P.V.D. = 2.5 x supply voltage

100
= 2.5 x 240
100
= 6V

\The M.P.V.D between the point of supply and the load

should not exceed 6V. Therefore the expected voltage at
the load should not fall below 240 – 6 = 234V

To determine the correct size cable, one should use the

given formula
Vd/A/m £ M.P.V.D. x 103
ILOAD x L
Where Vd/A/m = voltage drop per ampere per meter
M.P.V.D. = maximum permissible voltage drop
ILOAD = load current, in amperes
L = length (distance) in metres

27
When choosing a cable after you calculate its size, you Ø The current rating of the sub-circuit cables should be
determine greater than the current rating of the respective sub-
q if its armoured or non-armoured circuit breakers.
q the type of insulation
q the number of core (eg. s/core; twin & earth etc)
q type of conductor (eg. Copper or aluminum)

Ø the current rating of the main cable should be greater

than or equal to the current rating of the main breaker.

28
 WIRING A HOUSE

When wiring a house, to determine the size main circuit Since they are 110V lamps, then they can be evenly

breaker, the size service main cable and the size panel box, distributed to the two bus-bars. Thus the total current is

you start your calculations from the final sub-circuits up to divided in two (7.81 / 2) = 3.905A

the main breaker. This is because the combination of the

loads of the final sub-circuits that will determine the size of v By using three outlets in the kitchen (two circuits)

the main breaker and subsequently, the main cable. leaving 15. Using four (4) to three circuit breakers
and three (3) to one. This gives six circuits (six

Eg. A three-bed room house with the following: s/pole circuit breakers). To calculate the current

Ø 18 -- convenient outlets (110V each) for the outlets, you use the formula for diversity

Ø 13 -- filament lamps rated at 100W/110V each factor for outlets which is

Ø 2 -- a/c units rated at 24000 BTU / 220V at a (100% 0f the largest breaker) + (40% of the sum

power factor of 0.85 each (0.293 W = 1 BTU) of the remaining breakers)

Ø 1 -- water heater rated at 2000W/220V at power = 20 + ( 0.4 x 5 x 20)

factor of 0.85 = 20 + ( 40)

Ø 1 -- 13A fused 220V special outlet = 60A

Since they are 110V outlets, then they can be evenly

First you must remember that in accordance to the JS21, distributed to the two bus-bars. Thus the total current is

there should be no more than divided in two = ( 60 / 2) = 30A

o Two convenient outlets to a kitchen circuit

o Five such outlet to circuits elsewhere in the v The current rating for each a/c unit is determined

installation by the formula I = P

o 12 -- 100W lamps to a 15A breaker V x p.f.

= 0.293 x 24000

v The current rating of each lamp is P / V = 100/110 220 x 0.85

= 0.91A = 37.6A

\The total lighting current = 13 x 0.91 =11.83A Therefore the total current for the two units is

The lighting current at diversity factor (66% of total 37.6 x 2 = 75.2A

current)
= 0.66 x 11.83 v The current rating for the water heater is

= 7.81A determined by the formula I = P

Connecting seven lamps to one and six to the other, V x p.f.

thus giving two circuits. = 2000 / 220 x 0.85

= 10.7A

29
 v The current rating for the 13A fused special outlet
is calculated at 100% and is protected by a 20A
D/Pole breaker = 13A
The total current is the sum of the individual currents, =
3.905 + 30 + 75.2 + 10.7 + 13 = 132.805A
The number of single pole circuit breakers is (lights = 2
and outlets = 6) = 8 S/pole circuit breakers.
Total number of S/Pole breaker slots = 18. Thus a 24-
way panel can be used.
The service main cable would be a 50 mm2

The main circuit breaker would be a 150A double Three 50 mm2 cables, single phase, enclosed in
pole circuit breaker. conduit will carry 150 Amps safely.

The main earth conductor would be a half of the

The number of double pole circuit breaker is (main =1;
main cable, thus a 25 mm2 cable.
a/c units = 2; water heater = 1; special outlet = 1 ). This
is equivalent to ten (10) single pole breakers.

PROTECTION OF AN INSTALLATION
(PROTECTIVE DEVICE)

The main factors against which an installation must be A circuit breaker (either thermal or electromagnetic) is a
protected are as followed: device that is used to make (close) and break (open), a
circuit both manually and automatically (under normal and
Ø Earth leakage and danger of electric shock abnormal conditions). If a condition such as an overload and
Ø Excess current short circuit occur, the breaker will automatically open circuit
Ø Moisture and corrosion (this means the circuit breaker will chip). When a breaker
chips the lever is in the center. To reset the breaker it must
There are three basic reasons for fitting protective devices in be turned “OFF” and then “ON”.
an installation
Ø To protect the circuit against excess current
Ø To protect the circuit against earth leakage
Ø To allow the consumer and/or the maintenance
electrician to isolate the installation from the
supply Graphic symbol single double triple
pole pole pole
Protective devices fall into three categories:
Ø Thermal
Ø Electromagnetic
Ø Fuse

30
The breakers installed must be of the correct current rating
and must be of sufficient breaking capacity for short circuit
faults. The breaker shall be so adjusted so that it will open
the circuit when a current flow equal to 1.25 times the rating
of the smallest cable/conductor it is used to protect. This
requirement does not apply to motor circuits. The breaker
must be firmly secured in the panel and all the strands of the
conductor must be well secured in the breaker terminal. The
breakers must be identified on the panel directory as to the
circuits they control and protect.
FUSE
A fuse is a device for opening a circuit by means of a
conductor designed to melt when an excessive current
flows.
Graphic symbol
There are three types of fuses:
Ø Rewirable
Ø Cartridge
Ø High breaking capacity ( H.B.C.) or High rapture
capacity (H.R.C.)
Current Rating – this is the current at which the fuse
element will carry continuously without deteriorating.
Fuse Current – this is the current at which the fuse element
will melt. This is approximately twice the current rating of
the fuse element
31
Fusing Factor –this is a number without unit that when
multiplied by the current rating of the fuse will give the fusing
current.
\ Fusing Current = Fusing Factor x Current Rating
The advantages of a rewirable fuse are:
Ø It is cheap
Ø Its element is easy to be replaced
Some disadvantages are:
Ø Fuse element deteriorate in use
Ø Any size of fuse wire can be fitted, thus defeating
the purpose of the fuse
Ø Lacking in discrimination. It is possible that a 15A
fuse element may melt before a 10A fuse element
depending largely on the condition of the wire. Furthermore,
the rewirable fuse is not capable of discriminating between a
momentary high starting current and a continuous fault
current.
CARTRIDGE FUSE
The fusing factor is 1.5
This type comes into use with the fused 13A plug used on
domestic ring circuit.
HIGH BREAKING CAPACITY
This type of fuse is designed to protect circuits against
heavy overloads and is capable of opening a circuit under
short-circuit conditions without damaging surrounding
equipment
Note: A fuse or circuit breaker is rated by its current and
voltage capacity.
 Supply authority These two are not linked.

Pothead L1 L2 N

KWh meter

Distribution box
1 2
3 4
5 6
Sub-circuits
7 8

A ONE-LINE DIAGRAM FOR THE INSTALLATION OF POTHEAD,

METER, PANEL BOX AND SUB-CIRCUITS

220V SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEM

L 110V N
MAIN Wire linking the two sides
Between any circuit breaker and neutral, the voltage is 110V. Between
circuit breakers 1 & 3, the voltage is 220V. Circuit breakers 1 & 3 together
are the main breakers, while circuit breakers 2,4,5,6,7 & 8 are sub-
breakers.

1 2
3 4
5 6
7 8

110V SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEM

Between any circuit breakers (1,2,3,4,5,6,7 or 8) and neutral, the voltage is

110V. Circuit breaker one (1) is the main breaker, while circuit breakers
2,3,4,5,6,7 & 8 are sub-breakers. The linking at the top is done ONLY for a
one-line (110V) single-phase system. This is done to enable all the bars to
be live.

32
OVERLOAD AND SHORT CIRCUIT Short circuit is a condition where there is an unintentional
connection/contact between

Overload is the condition where a load or a combination of

loads is drawing a current that is higher than that of the Ø A live and neutral/earth conductor

respective protective device or the supply. Example, if a Ø Two or more live conductors

circuit breaker is rated at 20A, and a load or combination of

loads is drawing say about 40A, the breaker will chip; under A short circuit or overload can cause electrical fire, because
the insulation of the cable will melt, thus starting a fire.
the condition of overload.

33
 ELECTRICAL TEST (THE PURPOSE OF TESTING AN INSTALLATION)
It is very important to carryout the relevant tests on an
instillation (circuit) to detect faults before connecting it
to power supply to avoid dangerous situations from
arising.
The main tests carried out on an installation are
Ø Verification of Polarity
Ø Earth continuity resistance test
Ø Insulation Resistance tests
Ø Test for ring circuit continuity
The test should be carried out on new installations,
additions to existing installation and periodically on
existing ones.
Verification of Polarity Test – this is done to ensure
that the phase conductor(s) is/are taken through the
respective protective devices and the respective control
devices then to the load. The neutral conductor should
never be broken by a fuse, circuit breaker or a switch.
The instrument used is an ohmmeter and the reading
should be zero ohm once the polarity is correct.
In order to carry out the polarity test on an installation,
the following should be noted:
Ø Loads must be out
Ø All switches off; neutral in; protective devices
out
Ø Supply off
Test for continuity of live and neutral conductors in their
appropriate position with the ohmmeter.
34
Earth Continuity – this is to done to
Ø Ensure that the earth continuity conductor is
continuous connected to those parts of the
installation to which it is supposed to be, also
that all metals and earthing terminals are
properly earthed and connected together.
Ø Measure the resistance of the earth continuity
conductor
Ø Ensure that the earth continuity conductor is
capable of carrying heavy leakage current
Ø Ensure that the earth electrode is effectively
connected to the general mass of earth.
Instrument used; the ohmmeter.
Procedure: check between every metal box.
The maximum allowable resistance of the earth
continuity conductor must not exceed one ohm.
The following must be noted:
Ø Gas and water pipes must not be used as
earth continuity conductors, but they may be
bonded to the earth continuity conductor.
Ø Where separate earth continuity conductors
are used, the minimum allowable size is
1mm2
Ø It is essential that all joints in an earth
continuity conductor are electrically and
mechanically sound, should also be protected
against corrosion.
Insulation Resistance Test -- this is done to
determine whether the insulation of the conductors
used or the insulation of the joints made is such that no
significant leakage of current occurs whenever the
circuit is energized.
The instrument used is the meg-ohmmeter. The
acceptable reading between
Ø Live and earth should not be less than one
megohm
Ø Phases should not be less than two
megohms
Ring Circuit Test – On completion of a ring circuit
installation, a test similar to that carried out to check the
verification of polarity must be carried out to ensure the
continuity of all lines, neutrals and earth continuity
conductors throughout the ring circuit. This test is
carried out at the point of connection in the installation
distribution board prior to the completion to the ring
circuit conductors.
A ring circuit is one where there is an alternate path
for current flow to the load.

The instrument is usually set on a voltage twice that of

the supply voltage. Therefore, if the supply voltage is
120V, the instrument is set on 250V, and if the supply
voltage is 240V, then it is set on 500V. (The supply
voltage is the voltage that the installation is going to be
connect to from the supply authority, example JPS)

35
 Standard procedures for upgrading of installation from 110V single-phase to 220/110V, 3-wire single-phase.

Procedures to be followed:

# ACTIONS
PROCEDURE DONE BY

1 Electrician
The Electrician advises JPS of intention to upgrade supply and obtain permission in writing from
JPS to proceed.
2 Electrician
When the new phase (L2) is drawn in it is tied to the neutral at the pothead and connected to the
right side of the meter socket and the installation is left at 100V with the 110V meter still working

3 Electrician
The main breaker is changed to a double pole breaker. At this stage line-two (L2) is not connected
to the main breaker but left taped inside the panel and is coloured RED to facilitate easy
identification connection.

4 Electrician
Electrician makes formal request to the Chief Electrical Inspector (G.E.I.) for inspection.
5 G.E.I.
If found satisfactory, the G.E.I. then sends a certificate to JPS
6 JPS
After the contract is signed for a 220V supply, JPS removes the link between neutral and the new
phase (L2) at the pothead, connect the 220V triplex service line, install and seal new 220V/110V
meter.

7 Electrician
After JPS has completed their installation the following must be done by the electrician:
(i) The jumper (bridge) in the panel is to be removed first
(ii) The new phase (L2) must then be connected to the main double pole
circuit breaker thus finalizing the upgrading to 220V

36
EXISTING 110V CONNECTION (Electrician makes this connection)
(JPS personnel will remove it)
L 110V N L N

METER When this is done, the consumer

will be getting his 110V supply
and the meter is reading on 220V
supply

Bridge

Bridge (Electrician remove this

bridge after being connected to
MAIN
BREAKER 220V supply by J.P.S.

After being connected to 220V

supply, the electrician should
remove the bridge, replace the
single pole main breaker with a
double pole main breaker and
connect the other line (L2) to the
main breaker.

This end must be taped and not

connected until J.P.S. personnel
makes the upgrading connection.

37
 TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is a static electro-magnetic device that is transmission by overhead line system and then

capable of transforming the value of alternating current stepped-down to values which can be used in factories,

and voltage at a constant frequency. It is constructed homes and other commercial buildings.

with two coils, namely the primary and the secondary,

on one core, usually iron core but are not electrically The primary coil is connected to the power supply and

connected together. the secondary coil will give out a version that is either
greater or lesser than the input voltage/current,
Yoke (also the bottom part) depending on the ratio between the number of turns on
s

both sides and the input voltage/current. A transformer

In Out that gives out a lower voltage than the input voltage is
limb
called a step-down transformer, while a transformer
Symbol lines of
Magnetic force
that gives out a higher voltage than the input voltage is
called a step-up transformer. Some transformers do
not change the value of the input voltage and are called
isolation transformers.

A transformer has no moving parts and the energy is

transferred from one coil to the other by means of
electromagnetic induction (mutual inductance).
Generators of electrical power station produce standard
voltages, but transmission of electrical energy over very PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
long distances is accompanied by substantial power
losses as a result of an increase in temperature of the When a voltage is applied to the primary coil and a

conductors. To alleviate this, much higher voltages current flows through it, it creates an electromagnetic

than that produced by the generators are needed. That field within that coil. This magnetic field links the two

is why the transformers used in electrical power coils, and thus induces an e.m.f. in the secondary coil.

stations to increase the voltages to transmission level This induced e.m.f. depends on the ratio between the

are called step-up transformers. The voltage number of turns on the primary and the secondary

produced by a power station is usually stepped-up for coils, and the input voltage.

38
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF TURNS, CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

If the voltage that is applied to a transformer is divided OR

by the number of turn in the primary coil, the result VS = volts-per-turn x NS
would be known as volts-per-turn. The volts-per-turn = 0 . 2 x 800
on the primary side is the same as the volts-per-turn on = 160V
the secondary, thus the equation When a transformer steps down voltage, it steps up
current and vice-versa. Therefore, the ratio expression
VP = VS
NP NS for voltage is the inverse for current, thus the equation:

Where VP = volts on primary side

VP = I S
VS = volts on secondary side
VS IP
NP = number of turns on primary side
NS = number of turns on secondary side
Also NP = I S
The ratio between the number of primary turns and the NS IP
secondary turns is equal to the ratio between the
primary voltage and the secondary voltage, thus the \ VP = NP = I S = µ
equation VS NS IP
VP = NP Where µ = ratio
VS NS A transformer given in ratio term will tell if the

Eg. A transformer with 2000 turns on the primary and transformer is a step-up or step-down transformer.

800 on the secondary is connected to a 400V When the transformer is given in ratio terms, it indicates

supply and is supplying a load. Calculate: the voltage and terns ratio. The inverse of this is the
current ratio.
(i) the primary and secondary volts-per-turn
(j) the secondary voltage
Example, a 4 : 1 or 2 : 1 transformer is a step-down
(i) VP = VS = 400 / 2000 = 0. 2V transformer because the primary comes first, while a 2 :
NP NS 3 or 4 : 5 transformer is a step-up transformer.

(ii) VP = NP
VS NS
Eg. A 4 : 1 transformer with 300 turns on the primary is
400 = 2000
connected to a 200V supply and is supplying a
VS 800
load using 2A. Calculate:
By cross-multiplying, we get
(i) the secondary voltage
2000 VS = 800 x 400 (ii) the secondary turns
VS = 320000 / 2000 (iii) the primary current
= 160V

39
(i) VP = 4/1 (ii) NP = 4 / 1 (iii) IS = 1 / 4
VS NS IP
\ VS = 200 / 4 \ NS = 300 / 4 \ IP = 2 / 4
= 50V = 75 = 0 . 5A

TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio between the PO = Pi - losses

output power and the input power. A transformer can = Pi - ( iron loss + copper loss)
be considered 100% efficient (ideal) because it has no = Pi - (Fe loss + Cu loss )
moving parts, but the efficiency is affected by two
losses, namely the core loss and the copper loss. \l = Pi - losses OR PO
The core loss is due to hysteresis and eddy current,
Pi PO + losses
while the copper loss is the
I 2 R loss in the primary and the secondary windings.
= Pi - losses
The core loss may also be called the iron loss. The
Pi Pi
efficiency of a transformer can be determined by the
= 1 - losses x 100
given formula:
Pi

l = PO x 100 = %

Pi Eg. The primary and secondary windings of a 500kVA

Where PO = output power transformer have resistances of 0.42W and
Pi = input power 0.0019W respectively. The primary and

l = efficiency secondary voltages are 10000V and 400V

respectively and the core loss is 2.9kW.
From the formula for apparent power V x I
Assuming the power factor of the load to be 0.8,
\Pi = VP x IP & PO = VS x IS
calculate the efficiency of the transformer on full
if the transformer is considered ideal, then
load.
Pi = PO
\VP IP = VS IS
IP = Pi / VP
= 500000 / 10000
Considering the losses, the output power is less than
= 50A
the input power, thus the equation
PO = Pi - losses or Pi = PO + losses

40
Primary copper loss Þ IP2 x RP AUTOTRANSFORMER
= ( 50 )2 x 0.42
= 1050W An autotransformer is a transformer that has its primary
and secondary windings being on the same, and the
IS = 500000 / 400 magnetic flux from the primary cuts the turns of the
= 1250A secondary and induces an e.m.f. into them. This type
Secondary copper loss Þ IS x RS 2
of transformer uses the principle of self-inductance.
= ( 1250 ) 2 x 0.0019
= 2968.75W

Total copper loss = ( primary copper loss ) + ( An autotransformer

secondary copper loss )

= (1050 + 2968.75 )
= 4018.75W = 4.01875kW CURRENT TRANSFORMER

Total losses = (total copper loss ) + (iron loss) A Current transformer (CT) is used when the load
= 4.01875 + 2.9 current exceeds 200A. The reason is that, kWh meter
= 6.91875kW sockets are manufactured with a maximum current
rating of 180A (200A). Thus the current transformer is
Note: change the apparent power to true power used. Current transformers are also called instrument
Pi = S x p.f. transformers, because they are used to accommodate
= 500 x 0.8 measuring instruments. Current transformers have no
= 400kW primary windings. A conductor is placed inside the
hole, in the center, which works as the primary winding
of the transformer. This conductor (a current-carrying
l= 1 - losses x 100
conductor) produces a magnetic field, which is
Pi
transferred to the secondary winding of the current
transformer. The high current is reduced by the
= 1 - 6.91875
transformer so that it can be measured.
400
= ( 1 - 0.0172969 ) x 100 Current transformers usually have a ratio of something :
= ( 0.9827031 ) x 100 5, example 300 : 5. This means that the full-scale
= 98.27% deflection (f.s.d.) of the CT is 5A, but the actual current
of the consumer (load) is 300A. So, if the actual
current is 300A and the f.s.d. on the CT is 5A, then
each stroke = 300 / 5 = 60A. Say the reading on the
CT is 4, then the actual current used by the consumer
(load) at that instant is 4 x 60 = 240A.

41
For a three-phase configuration, they are usually
connected in STAR. CT’s are usually connected on low 24kV

voltage circuit only.

Consumer (24kV)
Voltage transformer

Conductor (Primary winding) Secondary winding

(Always sending out 5A) Meter device

A voltage transformer in the circuit

CT Meter Device
TRANSFORMER REGULATION

A current transformer in the circuit

The secondary voltage of a transformer decreases as
the load is increased, because of the increases in
Whenever an instrument is removed from a CT, the losses that occur. The difference between the

ends of the CT should be shorted out. secondary voltage at no load and the secondary at full
load, when divided by the secondary no load voltage is
called voltage regulation per unit.

Therefore
Voltage Reg. = No load voltage – Full load voltage
No load voltage
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

This is also sometimes expressed in percentage.

Voltage transformers (potential transformer) are
used on high voltage circuits. They are used when the Eg. Calculate the voltage regulation per unit for a
consumer requires a voltage that exceeds that of the single-phase transformer which has an open circuit
measuring instrument (usually 240V). Say for example voltage of 250V and a terminal voltage of 240V when
the consumer requires 24kV and the measuring on full load.
instrument can only measure 240V, then a voltage
transformer is used in the circuit. These transformer Voltage Reg. = No load voltage – Full load voltage
have primary and secondary windings, with the primary No load voltage
winding is the high voltage side. = 250 - 240
250
= 0.04

Therefore the loss of voltage in percentage is 4%

42
 SOLENOIDS
A solenoid is a coil of wire with the wire wound in the
same direction, so that when the coil is carrying a
current, all the turns are assisting one another in
producing a magnetic field. The magnetic field may be
intensified by inserting a soft iron inside the coil.
The direction of the magnetic field produced by a
current in a solenoid can be determined by applying the
grip rule (the right hand rule). The solenoid has
magnetic poles and magnetic field that have the same
properties as those of a permanent magnet.
43
If a solenoid is energized with direct current, the polarity
of its magnetic poles remains fixed. If the solenoid is
energized with alternating current, its polarity reverses
with each reversal of the direction of the current.
The soft iron that is inserted within the coil is usually
moveable i.e. when the coil is energized; it pulls the soft
iron (armature) inward. As soon as the coil is de-
energized, a spring action returns the armature to its
original position.
A SOLENOID
 LIGHT AND POWER CIRCUITS AND CALCULATION

TERMINATION TYPES OF TERMINALS

The entry of the end into an accessory is called There is a wide variety of conductor termination.
termination. In the case of stranded conductors, the Typical methods of securing conductors in accessories
strands should be twisted together before terminating. are pillar-terminals, nut and washer and screw-head.
Care must be taken not to damage the conductor.

Regulation requires that a cable termination of any kind

Pillar terminal
shall securely anchor all the strands of the conductor
and shall not impose any mechanical stress on the
A pillar-terminal has a hole through its side into which
termination. A soldered joint, if used, must contain all
the conductor is inserted and secured by a set screw.
the strands of the conductor.
If the conductor is too small in relation to the hole, it
should be doubled then inserted into the hole.
The first step is preparing the end of a cable for entry
into an accessory such as a switch or joint box is to
When using the screw-head type or the nut and
pare off a short length of the insulator and make the
washer, the conductor should be placed under the head
conductor bare. The stripping of a cable is usually
with the end of the conductor pointing in the clockwise
done by a sharp knife, held at an acute angle, and
direction.
stripped away from the body.

To cut at neat right angle would be very bad practice

because although it may give a neater finish, it would
probably cause nicking of the conductor. A nicked
conductor will become very weak and if bend a few
times it will break. Apart from the tendency to break,
the effective cross-sectional area of the conductor will
reduce causing increase resistance that may result in
excessive heat.

44
 FILAMENT LAMPS
Filament lamps fall into the group of light-producing
devices called incandescent. They give light as a
result of heating a filament conductor to a very high
temperature
The tungsten-filament lamp first appeared about 1910
and has since been the main incandescent lamp in use.
It operates at a temperature of about 23000C and has a
light output of about 8 lumens/watts (8 lm/W). The bulb
is filled with argon and nitrogen which are inert (weak)
gases and do not support combustion. This
development enabled the filament to be operated at a
higher temperature without the undue evaporation of
the filament that tends to take place in a vacuum. The
operating temperature of the gas-filled lamp is about
27000C. The light output is in the region of 12 lm/W.
The filament of the lamp is usually in the coiled-coil
format. The light output of this lamp is about 14lm/W.
The main advantages of the coiled-coil lamp are that
the filament has a more compact formation and that the
heat losses, due to convection currents in the gas, are
reduced, so giving a higher light-output efficiency.
45
AN INCANDESCENT LAMP
TUNGSTEN-HALOGEN LAMP
The tungsten-halogen lamp is basically a filament
lamp, gas-filled with an addition of bromine compounds
which are used because they do not have any effect on
the spectral characteristics of the light output. Because
the minimum wall temperature of this type of lamp must
be at least 25000C. The life of the lamp is generally
twice that of the corresponding type of gas-filled lamp.
Their main application is for floodlighting.
The lamp has many advantages:
Ø Compact size
Ø Wide range of wattage
Ø Good colour rendering properties
Ø Long life ( 2000 hours)
 DISCHARGE LAMPS

SODIUM-VAPOUR LAMP

This lamp gives an orange light and is used mainly for The lamp will start immediately whether it is hot or cold.

street and road lighting, and on airfields. The lamp is Care must be taken in disposing of used sodium lamps,
because metallic sodium may burn if it comes into
the most efficient producer of light, but because of its
contact with moisture or water.
single-colour characteristic, it gives an inferior colour
quality (everything looks yellow or gray to black). The
lamp consists of a long glass tube, which contains a The average life of all sodium lamps is 6000 hours.

mixture of argon and neon gases, with particles of solid

sodium. The lamp is operated from an autotransformer
which raises the main voltage to about 350V to 400V.
When the switch is closed, the tube gives off an initial
reddish glow, which is the result of the discharge
through the neon-argon gas. The heat of the discharge
vaporizes the sodium and after about ten minutes or so,
the vapour fills the tube. The colour of the light emitted
changes from red to orange. Because the sodium is at
a very low pressure, it will not vaporize if the tube is
cooled in any way. To prevent this, the tube is
enclosed in a double-glass jacket, with an evacuated
space which conserves the tube’s heat. When in
operation, the running voltage falls to between 100V
and 150V, depending on the lamp size. The
transformer used has a high leakage reactance so that
no current-limiting device is needed, as in other
discharge-lamp circuits. Because of the danger of the
sodium vapour condensing on the electrodes of the
lamp when cooling down after being switched off, these
lamps are usually designed for operation in a horizontal
or near-horizontal position. Lamp sizes vary from 45W
to 200W. The lamp circuit has a power-factor
correction capacitor to improve the overall power-factor.

46
LOW PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOUR Ø The capacitor – this is fitted across the
supply to improve the power factor of the
LAMP
circuit by neutralizing the inductive effect of
the choke.
This lamp is known as the fluorescent lamp. It
consists of a glass tube filled with mercury vapour at
Electrodes
low pressure. The electrodes are located at the ends of
Starter
the tube. When the lamp is switched “ ON “, an arc-
discharge excites a barely-visible radiation, the greater
part of which consists of ultra-violet radiation. The
interior wall of the tube is coated with a fluorescent
powder which transforms the ultra-violet radiation to
tube
visible radiation or light. The type of light, that is the Ballast
colour range, is determined by the composition of the
fluorescent powder. When the temperature of the gas Power factor
correctional
or vapour rises, the resistance of the discharge lamp
Supply capacitor (optional)
decreases and will thus tend to draw an ever-increasing
current from the supply. The current is limited to a A FLUORESCENT LAMP CIRCUIT
predetermined value by the insertion in the circuit, in
series with the lamp, a choke (ballast).

There are two types of fluorescent lamps: There are two methods of starting fluorescent lamps:

Ø The hot-cathode and Ø Glow-start and

Ø The cold-cathode Ø Instant-start

The hot cathode is the more common type. In this type, The practical application of the lamp includes the

the electrodes are heated and the voltage of operation lighting of:

is usually low voltage. To assist starting, the mercury Ø Shops

vapour is mixed with a small quantity of argon gas. Ø Homes

Ø Factories

The auxiliary equipment associated with the hot- Ø Transportation etc.

cathode lamp includes:

Ø The choke – this supplies a high initial The fluorescent lamp has several advantages over an

starting voltage on starting (caused by the incandescent lamp. Some of these are:

interruption of the lamp’s inductive circuit), Ø It dissipates less heat

and also limits the current in the lamp when Ø It is better for the human eye (better for

it is in operation. reading areas)

Ø The starter –used only for starting. After Ø It gives more illumination for the same

starting, it automatically opens and wattage as an incandescent lamp.

disconnects itself from the circuit. Ø It creates less shadow

47
 HIGH- PRESSURE MERCURY-VAPOUR LAMP

This type of lamp is used for street and road lighting,

floodlighting and lighting industrial premises. The light
emitted is bluish-green in colour. High Pressure
Mercury Vapour (HPMV) lamps are classified according
to the loading per centimeter of arc length. The lamp
consists of an inner bulb or lamp properly made of
special silicate glass to withstand the higher
temperature of the arc, surrounded by the outer glass
bulb. This arrangement prevents the loss of heat from
the inner bulb and also the emission of unwanted ultra-
violet radiation. The space between the two bulbs is
either evacuated or filled with inert gas. The inner bulb
is sealed into three electrodes, the main electrodes at
each end and a starting electrode, adjacent to one
of the main electrodes.
The lamp contains a tiny globule of liquid mercury and
argon gas at low pressure. The starting electrode is
connected to the main electrode farthest from it by a
high resistance of the order of 50kW. The electrodes
are special electron-emitting cathodes, coated with
oxide.
When the switch is closed, the main voltage appears
across the tip of the starting electrode and its adjacent
main electrode. A discharge takes place through the
argon gas. The heat from this discharge gradually
vaporizes the mercury globules. The vapour carries the
discharge along the lamp tube until the main discharge
takes place between the main lamp electrodes. The
lamp takes about five minutes to reach its full light
output. The current taken by the discharge is limited
by a choke (ballast) connected in series with the lamp.

After switching “OFF”, the lamp will not restart until it is

cooled down. This lamp can be operated in either a
vertical or horizontal position, depending on the type.

48
 LIGHTING SUB CIRCUIT

Electrical apparatus are connected by cables to the
electricity supply and to the associated protective
device (usually fuse circuit breaker). This is an
arrangement called a circuit. A circuit that supplies
apparatus directly is known as a sub- circuit. When
connected to a distribution board, this is called a final
sub- circuit. The simplest sub circuit arrangement for
lighting circuit is a one-way, comprising one lamp
The other terminal is connected to the live terminal of
the lamp holder by connecting wire and the neutral
terminal of the lamp holder is connected to the neutral
terminal of the supply.
Graphic symbol

controlled by a one-way switch.

When lamps are connected in series, the supply

voltage is shared amongst them. The lamps will not
give off their full brightness if they are not getting their
rated voltage. Also if one lamp gets bad the others will
go out. For these reasons lamps are usually connected A SINGLE POLE SWITCH IN A CIRCUIT

in parallel. In this arrangement each lamp will get the

same voltage as that of the supply, thus giving off their
full brightness.
SWITCHES
A switch is a device that is used to control the current
flow in a circuit or a part of a circuit.
A single-pole switch is usually rated at 5A. When used
on a 110V –120V supply, the switch could be used to
control up to nine lamps rated at 60W each. The single
pole switch is called ONE WAY SWITCH, because it
can control lighting points from only one switching
position. Whenever possible, the single pole switch
should be so mounted that the operating lever points in
the upward direction when the switch is in the “ON”
position.

SINGLE POLE SWITCHES

A single-pole switch (single-pole singe throw) is one
that controls only one pole (one line). It has two
terminals. When connecting a single pole switch in a
circuit, the live wire is connected to one of the two
terminals (usually on the top terminal).
N.B. The disadvantage of switches in parallel, is that
for the lamp to turn “OFF” both/all the switches have to
be “OFF”
The disadvantage of switches connected in series, is
that for the lamp to be “ON” both/all switches must be
“ON”.

49
THE TWO-WAY SWITCH
A two-way switch (single-pole double throw) is one
that provides two independent switching positions. It
has three terminals, one is called the common and the
other two are called travellers terminals. When used
in pairs, they allow two independent control positions.
Either of the two can turn “ON” and/or “OFF” the lights
independently. They have no “ ON “ or “ OFF “
position.
Graphic symbol
When two-way switches are connected in a circuit, the
live conductor is connected to the common terminal of
any one of the two-way switches (because two-way
switches are single-pole switches). The common
terminal of the other two-way switch is connected to the
live terminal of the lamp holder. The neutral wire is
connected directly to the neutral terminal of the lamp
holder. The two remaining terminals on one two-way
switch are connected to the two remaining terminals on
the other two-way switch by wires called travellers.
Two two-way switches in a circuit
The two-way switching arrangement is used, for
example when a room has two points of entry and the
lamp(s) is/are controlled from any one of the two
positions.
50
INTERMEDIATE SWITCH
An intermediate switch is one that allows independent
switching from three or more positions. It has four
terminals and is usually used between two two-way
switches. There are three (3) types of intermediate
switches. When using the most common type, the two
top terminals are connected to the two traveller’s
terminals of one two-way switch and the two bottom
terminals are connected to the two traveller’s terminals
of the other two-way switch. Any number of
intermediate switches can be connected between the
two two-way switches, each giving a complete
independent control.
The intermediate switching arrangement is used when
lamp(s) is/are to be controlled from three or more
switching positions, such as long corridors or areas
where there are a number of entry points.
The most
common type
DOUBLE-POLE SWITCH
A double pole switch is one that controls two lines. It
makes and breaks both poles simultaneously. It has
four terminals. The two lines are connected to the two
top
terminals, and the returning wires are connected to the
two bottom terminals.
Graphic symbol
DIMMER SWITCH
A dimmer switch is placed into a lighting circuit to
reduce the light output of a lamp (usually incandescent
lamp). The action of the switch is similar to that of a
51
variable resistor, where it either increases or decreases
the resistance for the path of current flow to the lamp.
In varying the resistance, the voltage across the lamp is
varied, thus varying the light output of the lamp.
Dimmer switches come in both sliding and turning
types. Some are basic two-terminal while others may
have terminals for other connections. The switch is
connected into the circuit similarly to the connection of
a single pole switch.
THE PHOTOCELL
A photocell is a device that operates by the effect of
light. When light strikes the sensitive material inside a
photocell through its window, this material produces a
small amount of electricity. This electricity is enough to
energize a coil inside the photocell. When the coil is
energized it opens a pair of contacts, thus breaking the
path of current flow to the circuit it’s supposed to control
(esp. lamps). When the light (that strikes it) is removed,
the coil is de-energized, thus closing the pair of
contacts and allowing current to flow through to the
load. (This is an example of a street lights operation)
Outer case
Window
Line in (Black) Line out (Red)
Neutral (white)
A photocell
 LIGHTING FIXTURES AND ACCESSORIES

Load centre – this is called the fuse/circuit breaker

panel. From these boxes, electricity is distributed to
different locations in a building. They contain the main
and sub-circuit breakers/fuses. The box is designated
by the number of circuit breakers/fuses that can be
A photocell in a circuit
placed in it, and by its load (load current) rating. It is
also called the distribution board.

Switch box – used in walls (flush) to accommodate

flush switch. They can be disassembled and joined
with several others.

Junction box – these are the boxes where conduit

ends are connected. Inside these boxes, the cable
ends are connected. It could be a handy box, an
octagonal box: a 4x4 box, etc.

Handy box –as its name implies, this is a box that can
be used for several purposes. For example, it can be
used to accommodate switches, convenient outlets
(plugs), as draw through boxes etc. A draw through
box is a box where cables are drawn through, also
connections can be made in this box.

Joint box –a joint box is usually round and has four

terminals inside. It has four knockouts on its
circumference where the cable enters the box. No
more than eight cores of cable should be inside the
box.

52
POWER CIRCUIT WIRING A 240V PLUG

When wiring a 110V plug.

In a 240V circuit, the neutral conductor is usually left
out, but the earth conductor is always in place. When
When wiring a 3-pin 110V plug (socket outlet) the live
wiring a 220V socket, one of the live wires is connected
wire (red) is connected to the bronze terminal, neutral
to the terminal marked L1 and the other to the other
wire (black) is connected to the silver screw and the
terminal marked L2. The earth wire (green or yellow &
earth wire (green) is connected to the greenish
green stripe) is connected to the terminal marked E.
terminal.
When a socket outlet is installed in a horizontal position
When connecting the 220V plug, one of the live wires is
on a vertical surface, it should be so mounted that the
connected to the terminal that is fixed to the fuse socket
live slot is atop the neutral slot. It shall be so mounted
and the other to the terminal marked L2. The earth wire
not less than 18” from floor for flush type, and 42” for
is connected to the terminal marked E. No neutral is
surface type and 6” above a kitchen counter.
used in this socket/plug

No convenient socket outlet shall be installed in any

bathroom, except that provision may be made for the
use of electric dry shavers only.

Live slot Live terminal

Neutral slot Neutral terminal

A three-pin socket outlet

Regulation to be studied

Neither switch nor circuit breakers shall be installed in:

Ø Bathrooms
Ø Laboratories
Ø Washrooms or
Ø Any location where the person operating it
would be likely under normal conditions, to
be simultaneously making contact with earth
or earth metals.

53
CABLE COLOUR CODING

For identification purposes, the cores of the cable are

coloured in accordance with a table included in the
regulation.

COLOUR SINGLE PHASE THREE

PHASE

Red live live

Brown live ___
Yellow live live
Blue neutral live
Black neutral ___
Green earth earth
Yellow & green
stripes earth earth

Bare copper earth earth

American system Black = live

Red = return
White = neutral
E.g. photo cell

54
INSTALLING A METER BASE
Ø Meter base must be installed at a location to meet
the requirements of the Government Electrical
Inspectorate (GEI) and the supply authority (JPS).
Ø Meter readers must be provided with reasonable
direct access from the street to the meter.
Ø It must be essential (esp. in the case where
location of the meter might not be accessible) that
the location of the meter(s) be discussed with the
supply authority before the installation is
completed.
Ø From the ground to the centre of the meter base
should be at least 6 ' 6 " (discretions can be used)
Ø The minimum height of the pothead is 15 '
INSTALLING A MAIN DISTRIBUTION PANEL
Criteria for installing a panel box:
Ø The location of the panel box must be 100%
accurate, must be readily accessible to the
consumer and installed and located to the
satisfaction of the GEI.
Ø There must be adequate space in which to install,
maintain and operate the distribution panel.
Ø A clear space of not less than 0.8m must be
available in front of any main panel.
Ø The panel must not be enclosed.
Ø No switchboard/panel box shall be erected above
a stove, laundry, copper tub, wash boiler, or the
like, nor in a bathroom, freezing chamber, cooling
chamber, lavatory, on or under a staircase.
Ø The main circuit breaker must be readily
accessible and easily identifiable.
Ø The height of the panel box should be at least 4' 6"
from floor. (Discretion can be used). Thus the
55
height of all the breakers should be hand reachable
without the assistance of stools, chairs etc.
INSTALLING AND CONNECTING SERVICE
MAIN CABLE, EARTH ELECTRODE AND
EARTHING LEAD.
Ø Main cables, earth electrode and earthing lead
must be installed to meet the requirements of the
Government Electrical Inspectorate (GEI), the
supply authority (JPS) and the electrical
regulations.
Ø Connections must be 100% and done in
accordance with safety procedures.
Ø The earthing lead is to be terminated in a separate
cable socket in the panel box and to be securely
and effectively connected to the neutral bus-bar.
Ø The earthing lead must be of a high-conductivity
conductor.
Ø The earth electrode to which the earthing lead is
connected must be driven into the ground to a
vertical depth of not less than 8ft.
Ø The earthing lead must be protected against
mechanical damage and corrosion.
INSTALLING AND CONNECTING EARTH
CONTINUITY CONDUCTOR
Ø The earthing wire must be firmly and effectively
connected to the earthing terminal of the fixture or
the metal framework and be of the correct sizes.
All metal work associated with the electrical wiring
system must be earthed.
 ELECTRIC MOTORS AND GENERATORS

A motor is a device that converts electrical energy to

mechanical energy. It has four main parts:
Ø Rotating coil; The stationary coil
Ø End plates; Frame

D.C. motor
The armature of a d.c. motor with windings in place
A d.c. motor is one that can be used for such
mechanical works that require control such as printing
The speed of a d.c. motor is dependent on four factors:
machines, elevators, etc.
Ø The strength of the magnetic field. This is an
Its main parts are:
inverse relationship. Speed is inversely
proportional to the strength of the magnetic
Ø The armature ( the rotating coil )
field.
Ø Field poles (coil)
Ø The number of poles in the main field
Ø End plates and brushes
Ø The number of armature conductors
Ø The voltage across the armature

Since the number of poles and the number of armature

conductors cannot be varied, the speed must be
controlled by varying the strength of the magnetic field.
Speed can also be varied by placing resistance in the

A d.c. motor armature circuit, but this is extremely inefficient

The armature is wrapped with coils of wires. The field
poles hold the field coil. In all d.c. motors, current must
be conducted to the armature. This is accomplished by
connecting from the winding to the commutator.
because of the large current involved.
The torque (twisting force) in a d.c. motor is
proportional to the armature current. Increased
armature current means increased torque.

The commutator is supplied with current by allowing the

brushes to ride on it and staying in contact with it while
it is rotating. The function of the commutator is to
supply d.c. to the armature. This ensures that the
direction of the armature field remains fixed although
the armature conductors rotates.
Armature reaction – this is the distortion of the main
field due to the field of the current flowing in the
armature conductors.
Perfect commutation (sparkles commutation) is attained
when the brushes are placed on the magnetic neutral
axis.

56
TYPES OF D.C. MOTORS SHUNT WOUND MOTOR

There are three types of D.C. motors:

In the shunt wound motor, the armature coil and the
Ø Series wound motors
field coil are connected in parallel with each other, as
Ø The shunt wound motor shown in the figure below.
Ø Compound wound motor
Field coil

They are similar in constriction but differ in the

construction of the field coils and the connection
Armature

between the field coils and the armature coil.

d.c.supply

In this motor, the current that is fed to the motor is

shared between the two coils at the same magnitude.
SERIES WOUND MOTOR

In the series wound motor, the armature coil and the

field coil are connected in series with each other, as SPEED CHARACTERISTIC OF A SHUNT WOUND
shown in the figure below. MOTOR

Field coil Armature

This motor has a medium starting torque and a
relatively constant speed for all loads. It drops speed
approximately 5% from no-load to full-load. Generally
d.c. Supply
used in drill press and lathe.
A series wound motor

In this motor, all the current that is fed to the motor

passes through the two coils at the same magnitude.

SPEED CHARACTERISTIC OF A SERIES WOUND

MOTOR

This motor has a high starting torque and a variable

speed characteristic, the higher the load the lower the
speed. Such motors tend to increase their speed
(r.p.m.) if the load on them is decreased; and in case
the load is removed suddenly, they may reach such
high speed that they will wreck themselves. They are
generally used in cranes and electric trains.

57
COMPOUND MOTOR resistance must be placed in the low-resistance
armature circuit (which is generally less than one ohm
In the compound motor there are two field coils. One is {1W}) to limit the armature current until the speed (and
in series with the armature and the other is across the back e.m.f.) builds up.
them, as in the figure below.
STARTER
Shunt field

The purpose of the starter is to reduce the armature

Series field current until the back e.m.f. builds up. This can be
illustrated by calculating the current through a 500V d.c.
motor having an armature resistance of 0.1W. If the
supply voltage is applied across the stationary armature
(the back e.m.f. is zero) the current will be 5000ª. (the
A COMPOUND MOTOR
field current is negligible and can be ignored) This high
current would damage both the motor and the control
equipment.

SPEED CHARACTERISTIC OF A COMPOUND

Back (counter) E.M.F. – this is the e.m.f. which is
MOTOR
generated in the armature conductors as they are cut
by the lines of force of the main field. The back e.m.f.
This motor combines the characteristic series and
is in opposition to the applied e.m.f.
shunt motor.
It will maintain a steady speed.
For a motor, the back e.m.f. is calculated by the given
formula:

Vt = E + ( Ia x Ra ) + VB
REVERSING D.C. MOTORS.
Where Vt = applied voltage

To reverse a D.C. motor, one should change the E = back e.m.f.

direction of the current flow through either the armature Ia = armature current

or the field coil. Ra = armature resistance

VB = voltage drop at the brushes

STARTING AND SPEED CONTROLL

Eg. A series motor is connected to a 500V d.c. supply

When a d.c. motor armature is run up to speed, a back and is taking an armature current of 40A. If the

e.m.f. is induced in the armature conductors which motor has an armature resistance of 0.1W and a

opposes the applied e.m.f. and so limits the current brush voltage drop of 2V, calculate the back e.m.f.

flowing. During the starting period, additional

58
From the formula
Vt = E + ( Ia x Ra ) + VB , \ E = Vt - ( Ia x Ra ) - VB
= 500 - ( 40 x 0.1) – 2
= 500 – 4 – 2
= 494V
NO VOLTAGE PROCTECTION
the purpose of this protection is to ensure that the
handle is replaced to the “OFF” position when the
supply is cut off. The no-volt coil, which is usually
connected in series with the field, forms an
electromagnet which holds the spring-loaded starter
handle in the “run” position. When the suply is cut off
the no-volt coil is de-magnetized and the coil alsoallows
the motor to stop from a distance by connecting a stop
button which, when pressed, shorts out the no-volt coil.
OVER-CURRENT PROTECTION
The purpose of this protection is to gaurd the motor
against excess current. The line current to the motor
flows through a coil (the current coil) which attracts a
soft-iron armature when the motor is being overloaded.
This soft-iron armature carries a contact which shorts
out the no-volt coil, thus releasing the starter handle to
the “OFF” position. The no-volt coil has many turns of
fine wire. The current coil has a few turns of heavy
wire, and is usually set to operete at 150% of full-load
current.

59
 D.C. GENERATOR

SELF-EXITED GENERATOR. SERIES GENERATOR – the series generator has both

the armature and the field coils connected in series.

Most generators use some of the current generated in

the armature to supply excitation current to the fields. Characteristics of a series generator – the output
voltage depends on the load applied: voltage increases
This type is called a self-excited generator.
with load.

At standstill, the magnetic field is due only to the

residual magnetism of the field core and is very weak. Applications – this type of generator is seldom used
but can be used as a booster on a d.c. transmission
When the armature rotates, the conductors cut this
line.
weak flux and generate a very low voltage that will
excite the field coils slightly and create additional lines
COMPOUND GENERATOR – this type of generator
of force. Because the armature now turns in a stronger
contains both a shunt and a series field. There are two
magnetic flux, it will generate higher voltage and cause
types:
more current to flow to the fields, which in turn will
produce more lines of force. Ø Cumulative – the shunt and series field act
together
This action continues until the field poles saturate
Ø Differential – the shunt and series field are
magnetically. This process in which the voltage
counter wound to oppose each other.
increases in a generator is called “the building-up
process”.
Characteristics – the output of the compound
generator depends on the relative strength of the two
There are three types of self-excited generator. These
fields and whether they act together or they oppose one
are:
another. The fields can be compound to give a
practically constant output voltage on all loads.
SHUNT GENERATOR -- The prime mover (petrol
engine, electric motor, etc.). The shunt generator is a
self-exited machine.

Characteristics of a shunt generator – the output

voltage drops approximately 25% from no-load to full-
load.

Applications – used for battery charging and motor car

generators (alternators).

60
SEPARATELY EXITED GENERATOR. For a generator, the terminal voltage is calculated by
the given formula:
When the field coils of a generator are connected to an
Vt = E - ( Ia x Ra ) - VB
outside source of electricity, the generator is known as .

a separately excited generator. Where Vt = terminal voltage

shunt field coil E = generated e.m.f.
Ia = armature current
Ra = armature resistance
VB = voltage drop at the brushes

+ to load -
Eg. A d.c. generator delivering 500V at 80A from an
A SEPARATELY EXCITED SHUNT GENERATOR armature having a resistance of 0.1W. Assuming
a negligible brush voltage drop, calculate the

The field coil is energized by a battery. When the generated e.m.f.

armature rotates in the magnetic field, current is

supplied to the load. From the formula:
Vt = E - ( Ia x Ra ) - VB, \ E = Vt + ( Ia x Ra ) + VB
= 500 (80 x 0.1)
= 500 – 8
= 492V

Eg. A d.c. machine having an armature resistance of

0.1W is connected to a 240V supply. Calculate
the generated e.m.f. when it is running as (i) a
generator delivering 80A and (ii) a motor taking
60A

(i) As a generator E = Vt + ( Ia x Ra )
= 240 + (80 x 0.1)
= 240 + 8
= 248V

(ii) As a motor E = Vt - ( Ia x Ra )
= 240 – (60 x 0.1)
= 240 – 6
= 234V

61
 A.C. MOTORS

These two sets of coils are:

SINGLE PHASE MOTOR

Ø The running (main) coil/winding &

In order for a single-phase induction motor to be a
Ø The auxiliary or
practical motor, it is necessary to employ some means
(starting) coil/windings.
of making it self-starting so that during the starting
period, the motor will function in some manner and
develop starting torque. Commercial single-phase
induction motors are classified and named in
accordance with the method for making them self-
starting. Some of these motors are: CAPACITOR,
SPLIT-PHASE and SHADED POLE.
A split-phase motor

SPLIT PHASE MOTOR

A split phase motor is an a.c. motor of fractional

horsepower, (one horse power = 746W; 1hp = 746W).
It has four main parts: the rotor, the stator, the end
plates and the centrifugal switch. The rotor consists of
A rotor of a split-phase motor
three essential elements. One of these elements is a
core that is made up of sheets of high-grade electrical
sheet steel called laminations. Another is a shaft on
which the laminated iron is pressed. The third element
is a squirrel-cage winding consisting of heavy copper
bars placed in slots in the iron core and are connected
to each other by means of heavy copper rings located
on both ends of the core. In most split phase motors A stator of a split-phase motor

the rotor has a one-piece cast-aluminum winding. It

rotates within the magnetic field created by the stator
windings. The stator is composed of laminated steel The starting winding is of fine insulated copper, which is

core with semi-closed slots. The coils are wound into usually located on top of the main winding and is used

the slots. The stator is comprised of a laminated steel for staring only. The main windings are of heavy

core with semi-closed slots, a heavy cast-iron or steel insulated copper wire and are usually located at the

frame into which the core is pressed, and two windings bottom of the slots. The two windings are connected in
(coils) of insulated copper wire wound into the slots. parallel to the supply. The two windings are connected
in parallel to the supply.

62
The centrifugal switch is located inside the motor and
its function is to disconnect the auxiliary windings from
the supply after the motor reaches a predetermined
speed (75% of full speed).
The usual type consists of two main parts, namely a
stationary part and a rotating part. When the motor is
at standstill (not running) the centrifugal switch is
closed. When the motor starts running and it reaches
approximately 75% of full speed, the centrifugal switch
opens, thus automatically disconnecting the starting
windings from the circuit.
The end plates are fastened to the stator frame by
means of screws or bolts and serve mainly to keep the
rotor in position. The bore of the endplates in which
the rotor shaft rests, is fitted with either ball or sleeve
bearings.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
When a voltage is applied to the stator windings an
electromagnetic field is created in the coil. This
magnetic field then cuts the armature (rotor) coil thus
inducing an e.m.f. into it. This induced e.m.f. then
create another electromagnetic field which creates an
opposing current that will cause the armature to rotate
due to the process of repulsion.
REVERSING A SPLIT PHASE MOTOR
To reverse a split phase motor, one should reverse the
direction of the current through either the auxiliary
windings or the main windings. To do this, one would
reverse the leads of either the main winding or the
auxiliary winding. Although the split-phase motor is low
in cost, it has the disadvantages of high starting current
and relatively low starting torque, and is somewhat
noisier when heavily loaded than the single-value of
two-value capacitor motors.
63
DUAL-VOLTAGE SPLIT-PHASE MOTORS
Most split-phase motors are made for single voltage
operation. However, some split-phase motors, usually
motors made for specific application, are made so that
they can be connected for either of two voltages,
usually 115V and 230V. Such a motor usually has a
main winding of two sections and a starting winding of
one section. A sufficient number of leads are brought
out of the motor to permit a changeover from one
voltage to another and for reversing. If the motor is to
operate on 115V, the two sections of the running
winding are connected in parallel. If the operation of
230V is desired, then the two sections are connected in
series. In either case, the starting winding usually
operates on the lower voltage only and is connected
across one of the running winding. This means that the
starting winding is intended for only one voltage. In a
dual-voltage motor, the two running windings are of the
same size wire and are wound with the same number
of turns in the same slots, one on top the other. The
wires are brought out of each section, and are marked
T1 & T2 for coil one, and T3 & T4 for coil two.
The starting winding is usually wound last, and its leads
are marked T5 & T6
CAPACITOR MOTORS
A capacitor motor has two stator windings: An auxiliary
winding connected in series with a capacitor and a
main winding. Capacitor motors are available in three
types designated as: (1) Capacitor Start (2) single-
value capacitor and (3) two-value capacitor.
In the capacitor start motors, the auxiliary winding is
used only for starting and is cut out at approximately
75% of the synchronous (full) speed while the other
two, both the auxiliary and the main windings are
employed when running as well as starting.
The two-value capacitor motor uses two capacitors,
while the other two types employ only one.
A capacitor start motor
When the windings are energized, the capacitor causes
the magnetic field in the starting winding to reach a
peak before the field in the main winding. As a result, a
two-phase rotating magnetic field is created to produce
a starting torque. Capacitor start motor provide a high
starting torque ranging from 225% to 400% of full-load
torque and thus is excellent for hard start loads. They
are used for compressors, refrigerators, air condition
pumps, washing machines, etc.
In a single-value capacitor motor, the auxiliary winding
and the capacitor remain permanently connected in the
circuit and are used during running as well as starting.
Since this motor uses the same capacitor for starting
and running, neither optimum starting nor running
performance is obtained.
Although the single-value capacitor motor has a very
low starting torque ranging from 50% to 100% of full
load torque, the motor is quite popular for certain
applications where starting conditions are not severe.
One advantage of the single- value capacitor is that it
can be easily and frequently reversed. This motor is
also sensitive to voltage variation and is one of the few
single- phase induction motors whose speed may be
readily controlled by variations of line voltage.
Because of its fairly uniform rotating magnetic field and
torque, the motor is quiet when running and does not
64
exhibit the pulsating hum characteristic of most single-
phase motors when loaded.
All types of capacitor motors can be reversed by
interchanging the connections to the power supply of
either the main or the auxiliary winding.
UNIVERSAL MOTORS
A Universal motor is one that can be operated on either
direct current or single-phase alternating current at
approximately the same speed. This motor is most
popular in the fractional horsepower size and is on
household appliances such as vacuum cleaners, food
mixers and sewing machines.
Universal motors are series wound and have a high
starting torque and a variable speed characteristic.
They run at dangerously high speed without load, and,
because of this they are usually built into the device
they drive.
The universal motor is similar to the d.c. motor in many
respect.
A universal motor can be reversed by reversing the
current through either the armature or the field coils.
The usual method is to interchange the leads on the
brush holders.
A universal motor
SHADED POLE MOTORS

The shaded-pole motor is a single-phase a.c. motor All shaded-pole motors have rotors of the squirrel-cage

varying in size from approximately 1/100 to 1/20 h.p. It type. On many of these motors only one of the end

is used for applications requiring very low starting plates can be removed, the other is cast as part of the

torque, such as fans and blowers. The stator is usually frame.

of the concentrated-field type and has a laminated core

consisting of salient field poles on which a coil of wire is
placed. The poles are provided with a slot near one
end in which a solid copper coil of one turn, called the
shading coil, is placed.
A B C D
The parts of a shaded-pole motor
A & D = end plate B = armature
C = stator field

65
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
In the induction motor, electrical energy is supplied to
the stationary windings and is transferred inductively to
the rotating winding (the rotor). The rotor is separated
from the stator by a small air gap. No electrical
connection is made between the two sets of circuits.
The two principal kinds of induction motors are:
Ø The squirrel cage motor, and
Ø The wound rotor
A THREE-PHASE MOTOR
A STATOR OF A THREE-PHASE MOTOR
A ROTOR OF A THREE-PHASE MOTOR
The squirrel cage motor is widely used in industries.
The rotor resembles the wheel of a squirrel cage. Its
design is simple but the motor is rugged.
The stator of the wound rotor and the squirrel cage
motor are similar, but their rotor windings are however
different.
The rotor windings of a wound rotor consists of
insulated coils of wire, and they are not permanently
short-circuited. The ends of the rotor windings are
brought out on slip rings.
66
Three phase (3f) motors vary from fractional
horsepower to several thousand horsepower. These
motors have a high constant speed characteristic and
are made in designs giving a variety of torque
characteristics. Some are designed to draw normal
current while others draw high starting current. When a
three-phase motor is starting, it draws up to six times
the running current. In a three-phase motor, there are
three different stator windings which are 1200 apart.
Eg.
Coil 1
1200 1200
1200
Coil 2 Coil 3
The coils can either be connected in STAR (WYE ‘Y ‘
system) or DELTA ( MESH – ‘D ‘ system )
To connect a three-phase motor in star configuration,
the ends of each coil are connected at one common
point, and then the source is connected to the
beginning of each coil respectively.
To connect it in delta configuration, the beginning of coil
one is connected to the ending of coil two, the
beginning of coil two is connected to the ending of coil
three and the beginning of coil three is connected to the
ending of coil one.
OR
The ending of coil one is connected to the beginning of
coil two, the ending of coil two is connected to the
beginning of coil three and the ending of coil three is
connected to the beginning of coil one.
The source (L1, L2 & L3) is connected to the junctions
that are formed between the three coils.
L1 L1
L2 L3 L2
STAR CONFIGURATION DELTA CONFIGURATION
REVERSING A THREE PHASE MOTOR
To reverse the direction of rotation of a three-phase
motor, you would interchange any two lines.
If the motor lost one line (lead) during running, it will
continue to run, but as a single-phase motor. However
if it lost one line before starting it will not start, it will
only hum.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPEED,
NUMBER OF POLES AND FREQUENCY.
The speed of a three-phase motor is affected by two
main factors:
Ø The frequency of the supply and
Ø The number of pair of poles.
The speed is directly proportional to the supply
frequency but is inversely proportional to the number of
pairs of poles (or just number of poles).
For a three-phase motor with ‘ P ’ pairs of poles
supplied at a frequency of “ f “ hertz, the speed of the
rotating flux (synchronous speed) is ‘ N ’ revolution per
second (r.p.s). Thus giving the formula
N=f/P
Where f = means frequency in hertz
N = means speed in rev. per sec. and
P = means number of pairs of poles.
Example. A 4-pole 3f introduction motor is supplied
L3
from a 415V-50Hz supply. Calculate its synchronous
speed in rev. per minute.
N=f/p
= 50 / 2
= 25 r.p.s. Þ Converting to r.p.m. = 25 x 60 =
1500 r.p.m
Or
N = 120 f / P
Where P, means number of poles instead of number of
pairs of poles.
Therefore N = 120 f / P
= 120 x 50 / 4
= 1500 r.p.m.
This formula gives the answer in revolution per minute.
The actual speed of the motor is called the rotor
speed. This is the speed at which the rotor conductors
are being cut by the rotating flux. The speed that is lost
within the motor is called the slip speed. The ratio
between the slip speed and the synchronous speed is
called per-unit-slip. Thus the percentage slip is the
per-unit-slip multiplied by 100.
Let the actual speed (rotor speed) be “ Nr”; the per unit
slip be “ S “ and the synchronous speed be “ N ”. The
slip speed can be determined by the given formula:
Slip speed = N - Nr
67
\Per-unit-slip (S) = ( N – Nr ) a. N = 120 f / P b. S = ( N - Nr ) x 100
N = 120 x 50 / 4 N
= 1500 r.p.m. = ( 1500 – 1200 ) x 100
And percentage slip = ( N – Nr ) x 100
N 1500

From the formula, S = N – Nr = 30000 / 1500

N = 20%

Mathematically this gives NS = N – Nr

The speed of a motor can be measured using a
Therefore: Nr = N – NS tachometer.
Giving Nr = N ( 1 – S )

Eg. A 4-pole three-phase induction motor is supplied

by a 415V – 50Hz supply and has a percentage slip of ROTOR FREQUENCY
4%. Calculate its actual speed.

Now 4% as percentage slip is 4 / 100 giving 0.04 as per The frequency of the rotor e.m.f. and the current can be
unit slip. determine by the given formula:

First you must find the synchronous speed in rev. per ƒr = Sƒ

minute. Where ƒr = rotor frequency

N = 120 f / P ƒ = supply voltage frequency

= 120 x 50 / 4 S = per unit slip

= 1500 r.p.m. Eg. A three-phase 4-pole induction motor is supplied
Using the formula Nr = N (1 – S ) from a 50HZ supply. Calculate:
= 1500 ( 1 – 0.04 ) a. the synchronous speed
= 1500 ( 0.96 ) b. the rotor speed when the slip is 4%
= 1440 r.p.m. c. the rotor frequency when the rotor speed falls

Therefore the slip speed (the speed that is lost inside to 600 rpm.

the motor) would be: a. N = 120ƒ / P b. Nr = N (1 - S )

1500 – 1440 = 120 x 50 / 4 = 1500 ( 1 - 0.04 )
= 60 r.p.m. = 1500 rpm = 1500 ( 0.96 )

Eg. 2 A 4-pole squirrel cage motor has an actual speed =1440 rpm

of 1200 r.p.m. at full load when it is connected to a c. ƒr = ƒ S

220V-50Hz supply. Calculate: First you must find the new per unit slip, since
the speed has fallen.
a. The synchronous speed = 1500 – 600 ƒr = ƒ S
b. The percentage slip 1500 = 50 x 0.6
= 0.6 = 30 HZ

68
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

A synchronous motor is an a.c. motor in which the rotor

revolves in steps or in synchronism with the rotating
magnetic field (synchronous speed) produced by the
stator winding. This action means that if the magnetic
field (synchronous speed) of a 4-pole, 60 cycle (60 HZ)
motor revolves at the rate of 1800 r.p.m. the rotor will
also turn at that speed. In an ordinary induction motor,
the rotor runs at a slightly lower speed than the
revolving magnetic field. This is necessary in order that
the squirrel-cage winding be cut by the revolving field
A ROTOR OF A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
and thereby have a current induced in it. Since slip is
defined as the difference in speed between the actual
(rotor) speed and the revolving magnetic field
(synchronous speed), a synchronous motor has no slip.
Synchronous motors range from approximately 20
horsepower to hundreds of horsepower and are used
wherever it is necessary to obtain constant speed. In
many cases, synchronous motors are used to improve
the power factor of the electrical system of a plant or
factory.

69
 THREE-PHASE MOTOR CONTROL
3 f circuit breaker 3 f motor Relay coil

When an a.c. motor is started on full voltage it will draw

between 2 to 6 times its normal running current. In
every large motor it is desirable to reduce the starting
current, otherwise damage may be done to machinery
driven by the motor and line disturbance may be
created that will affect the operation of other equipment
that are on the same line. An automatic switch can be
used for controlling the motor. This type of switch
connects the motor directly across the line and is called
an across the line starter. Controllers (starters) are
also used to protect the motor from overheating and
overload; to provide speed control; to provide changing
of direction of rotation and for under voltage protection.
Symbols used in motor control
TERMS AND DEFINITION
Torque - this is the turning effect developed by the
motor.
Starting Torque - this is the torque needed to
overcome the static function of the driven machine.
Acceleration - this is the torque needed to run the
driven machine at full speed.
Running Torque - this is the torque when full speed is
reached.
Jogging - this is the repeated stopping and starting of
the motor at frequent intervals for a short period of
time. By this method, the motor is made to run only
when the jog button is being pressed.
Plugging - this is a quick stopping of the motor by
using a reverse current through the leads (line) of the
motor.

Start Button Stop Button Double (Stop /

Start )
(Normally Open) (Normally Closed)

OVER CURRENT PROTECTION

CONTACTS

The function of the over-current protection device is to

Main (N.O.) N.O. ------- Auxiliary -------
Heaters---- Overload ---- Contacts
protect the motor branch-circuit conductors, control
N.C.
apparatus and the motor from short circuits or grounds.
The protective devices commonly used to sense and
clear over current are the thermal magnetic circuit
breakers and fuses. The short-circuit device shall be
capable of carrying the starting current of the motor but
the device setting shall not exceed 250% of full load
current with no code letter on the motor, or from 150%
C

70
to 250% of full-load current depending on the code
letter of the motor.
OVERLOAD PROTECTION
The effect of an overload is a rise in temperature in the
motor windings. The larger the overload, the more
quickly the temperature will increase to a point
damaging to the insulation and lubrication of the motor.
An adverse relationship, therefore, exists between
current and time; the higher the current, the shorter the
time before motor damage or burnout can occur. All
overloads shorten motor life by deteriorating the
insulation.
The ideal overload protection for a motor is an element
with current-sensing properties, which could act to
open the motor circuit when the full-load current is
exceeded. The operation of the protective device
should be such that the motor is allowed to carry
harmless overloads, but is quickly removed from the
line when an overload has persisted too long.
In a manual starter, an overload trips a mechanical
latch, causing the starter contacts to open and
disconnect the motor from the line. In the magnetic
starters, an overload opens a set of contacts within the
overload relay itself. These contacts are wired in series
with the starter coil in the control circuit of the magnetic
starter. Breaking the coil circuit causes the starter
contacts to open, thus disconnecting the motor from the
line.
There are two classifications of overload relays –
magnetic and thermal. Magnetic relays react only to
excess current and are not affected by temperature.
Thermal relays can further be divided into two types –
melting alloys and bimetallic.

The ideal device is the overload relay, which consists

of a current-sensing unit connected in the line to the
motor, plus a mechanism actuated by the sensing unit.
This unit serves to break the circuit directly or indirectly.

71
 THREE PHASE CALCULATIONS

The line current (IL) is equal to the phase current (IPH)

THREE-WIRE STAR (Y) SYSTEM
\ IL = IPH

IL

VPH R

4-WIRE Y SYSTEM

1200 1200
.

VPH 1200 VPH This system is used when three separate loads have to
Y B be supplied. Example, houses will obtain supply from a
IL IL one phase to neutral. Another building might obtain
supply from another phase to neutral, etc. Most times
the loads are not balanced; hence the current may
- VY VL
differ in each line.

300 If the loads are balanced then the currents are equal.
Thus, the result is that the current in the neutral line is
300
1200 VR zero. However, this is not so when the loads are not
balanced.

VY

The magnitude of the line voltage (VL) is given by the

expression:- DELTA CONNECTION
VL = VR Cos. 300 + VY Cos. 300
[Note: VL is the voltage measured between any two
phases, and VR and VY are phase voltage (VPH) ]

VR VB
Cos. 300 = 0.866 which is equal to 0.5Ö3
(VPH) (VPH)
Thus Cos. 300 can be substituted by 0.5Ö3; giving VY (VPH)

VL = 0.5Ö3 VPH + 0.5Ö3 VPH

= 2 ( 0.5Ö3 VPH )
= Ö3 VPH

72
 - IB IL

For a star system VPH = VL / Ö3 & IPH = IL

300
\ P = 3 (IL VL p.f) note [ 3 = Ö3 x Ö3]
300 IR Ö3
1200 = Ö3 x Ö3 x IL VL p.f
Ö3
\ P = Ö3 VL IL p.f )
IB

For a delta system VPH = VL & IPH = IL / Ö3

For a balanced load, the currents are the same in each

phase \ P = 3 (IL VL p.f) note [ 3 = Ö3 x Ö3]
Ö3

IL = IB Cos. 300 + IR Cos. 300 = Ö3 x Ö3 x IL VL p.f

Ö3
Cos. 300 = 0.866 which is equal to 0.5Ö3 \ P = Ö3 VL IL p.f )
Thus Cos. 300 can be substituted by 0.5Ö3; giving
IL = 0.5Ö3 IPH + 0.5Ö3 IPH Therefore this formula [P = Ö3 VL IL p.f ] is

= 2 ( 0.5Ö3 IPH ) maintained for both STAR and DELTA alike.

= Ö3 IPH

Eg 1. A three-phase star-connected load is taking a line

power in three-phase system voltage and current of 440V and 25A respectively from
a supply at a power factor of 0.85 lagging. Calculate

For a balanced load the line voltages are equal to each

(i) the voltage of each phase (ii) the current in each
other and the phase voltages are also equal. The
phase (iii) the power taken by the load
current in each line is the same and the phase currents
are equal to each other. A balanced load also means
In star-system VPH = VL / Ö3
that the power factor in each phase is the same. Thus,
= 440/1.732
= 254.04V
Power per phase = (phase current) x (phase voltage) x
(power factor) In star-system IPH = IL
P = IPH VPH p.f = 25A
Hence the total power = 3( IPH VPH p.f )

73
The power in both star and delta is determined by the THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
same formula:
CONFIGURATIONS

P = Ö3 VL IL p.f
When three single-phase transformers are connected
= 1.732 x 440 x 25 x 0.85
to form a three-phase bank, they can be connected in
= 16194.2W
one of the following FOUR configurations: -

(i) STAR – DELTA (ii) STAR – STAR

Eg 2. A three-phase delta-connected load is taking a
(iii) DELTA – STAR (iv) DELTA – DELTA
line voltage and current of 440V and 25A
respectively from a supply at a power factor of
When the secondary of the transformer are connected
0.85 lagging. Calculate:
in STAR, the common point is used as the neutral, thus
enabling a single-phase one-line plus neutral. When
(i) the voltage of each phase
the secondary are connected in DELTA without a
(ii) the current in each phase
centre-tap, the system is called a STRAIGHT DELTA
(iii) the power taken by the load
(3-wire). However, when they are connected in
DELTA, using a centre-tap, the system is called
In delta-system VPH = VL
EDISON-DELTA (4-wire). The point directly opposite
= 440V
the centre-tap is called the POWER APEX, and
between this apex and the centre-tap, the voltage is
In delta-system IPH = IL / Ö3
usually 190V. This system is difficult to balance.
= 25/1.732
= 14.434A Three-phase, 3-wire (delta / star) system is used for
transmission
The power in both star and delta is determined by the Three-phase, 4-wire (delta / star) system is used for
same formula P = Ö3 VL IL p.f distribution
= 1.732 x 440 x 25 x 0.85
Most transformers are rated at 13.8kV, thus it is safer to
= 16194.2W
connect their primary in STAR, because when they are
connected in STAR, only one of the primary terminals is
connected to the supply line and the other is connected
to earth. Therefore, the transformer is connected
between one phase and earth. The line voltage is
usually 24kV, and between one phase and earth the
voltage is 13.8kV.
VPH = VL / Ö3 Þ 24kV / 1.732 = 13.8kV
(The highest voltage generated in Jamaica is 13.8kV,
and is transmitted at a maximum of 138kV)

74
If the transformers are rated at 24kV, their primary can
be connected in delta, thus each transformer is
connected across two phases (line voltage), but their
secondary can be connected in either DELTA or STAR.

Transformers can also be connected in OPEN DELTA L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 N L3

– OPEN DELTA, OPEN DELTA – OPEN STAR, OPEN DELTA-DELTA (STRAIGHT) DELTA-DELTA (EDISON DELTA)

STAR – OPEN STAR or OPEN STAR – OPEN DELTA

L1 L2 N L3 L1 L2 L3
STAR-DELTA (EDISON DELTA) STAR-DELTA (STRAIGHT DELTA)

L1 L2 N L3 L1 L2 N L3

STAR-STAR DELTA-STAR

75
 THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF A LICENSED ELECTRICIAN
1. Ascertain the size (current and voltage
rating) and type load (if the load is
single phase or three phase) that will
be required.
2. Find out whether or not the supply is
available. (You can do this by looking
on the J.P.S. light pole to see the type
of supply wires or contact the supply
authority for information)
3. Do a design of the installation.
4. Submit a completed notice form to the
Government Electrical Inspectorate
(G.E.I.)
5. Submit the design to the G.E.I. for
approval.
(4 & 5 can be done together, or 5 can be done
before 4.)
6. Commence work on the installation
after approval of design.
7. Request intermediate inspection, if
necessary.
8. Carry out the necessary test on the
completed installation
(One of the first tests is visual.)
9. Make a formal request for an
inspection of the completed installation.
(One of the first tests is visual.)
10. Collect the inspection report and hand
it over to the client.
76
ü The G.E.I. is a body of people, not an
individual. They enforce the light and power
act
ü C.E.I. means Chief Electrical Inspector. (a
person)
ü A contract form is the form used to carry out
any job that is to be submitted for
inspection.
ü For every commercial and industrial
installation, a plan MUST be submitted, also
all three phase installation. For houses, its
only if the main cable exceeds 70A.
ü For a plan, the plan must be
o Floor plan, showing location of
switches; plugs; panel box; lamps etc.
o Sectional view showing earth rod
(length and size earth cable)
o One line diagram showing if it’s
from pothead-to-meter-to-panel-to-
sub circuits or if it’s from pothead-
to-panel-to-sub circuits.
 STANDBY GENERATORS’ INSTALLATION
Whenever installing a standby generator it will be
necessary to ensure that the generator’s exhaust
is directed away from buildings or openings of
buildings (windows, doors, grilled areas etc).
This is to ensure that the gas emitted from the
exhaust is not directed into the building or that
the heat from the exhaust is not allowed to
decrease the strength of the building or cause a
fire.
DECREASING THE OPERATIONAL NOISE OF
GENERATORS
If the generator is one whose operation is
associated with excess noise, it is advisable to
locate this generator at a distance that will not
allow for the noise to become a nuisance to
people working or living in close proximity to it.
Some generators come with vibration dampers
that help to decrease the amount of noise
associated with its operation. If however, this is
absent, the introduction of thick rubber padding,
placed between the base of the generator and
the plinth on which it is installed, is a good way of
reducing the amount of vibration and
subsequently the operation noise.
GENERATORS’ FUEL TANKS
The fuel tanks of generators must be installed in
an area, so prepared to ensure that in the case of
a spill the oil will be contained in a sump. The
sump should contain a one-foot deep gravel bed
(of at least one inch gravel) that will allow for the
77
oil to flow from the surface to the bottom of the
gravel bed.
EARTHING OF GENERATORS
The casing of large standby generators should
be effectively connected to the general mass of
earth by means of an earth electrode. The size of
the earthing lead should obey the table at the
bottom of page 155 of the JS 21, and at least two
(2) earthing-locations should employ.
ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS OF
STANDBY GENERATORS
All standby generators should be connected to
the load by means of a change-over-switch. The
change-over-switch should be so connected that
it can be totally isolated from the load, generator
and the supplying authority by means of circuit
breakers, so installed. The generator and the
change-over-switch should share a common
grounding system and it should be installed in
closed proximity to the generator itself.
LOADING OF GENERATORS
It is advisable that generators be started off-load,
however, if it becomes necessary for it to be
started on-load it is advisable that the starting
load does not exceed approximately forty percent
(40%) of the rated load of the generator. This will
allow for the prime mover to run up to speed from the supply authority (J.P.S.); three (3) from
within a time that will not significantly affect the the standby generator and three (3) from the
connected load. load.

Always check the frequency and voltage of the

generator shortly after starting. It is advisable kWh meter

that these are checked before the load is added

change-over-switch
to the generator. Check the generator A

periodically to ensure workability.

B C standby generator

Ø Never fuel (or refuel) generator whilst

D
in operation.
Ø Generators with open moveable parts
should be installed in a room. E
Ø Large generators should be earthed at
Panel box
least at two points (preferably 8¢
copper rods)
A, B, C, D & D are circuit breakers.
Ø Never allow the exhaust to let out
B = C in ratings.
inside the room.
A³D=E
A>B&C
The number of leads (wires) coming from a three
phase change-over-switch is nine (9). Three (3)

78
 LIGHTING PROTECTION SYSTEM
Lighting protection system is required on
buildings that are over 60 feet high or buildings
that will at any one time accommodate 50 or
more people. This also applies to a games field.
The method of protection is usually a lighting rod
located at the highest point of the building and
connected to at least two (2) ground rods.
Connection between the lightning rods to the
ground rods is made via a one inch by ¼ inch
copper tape that is secured to the surface of the
building. The rods come in standard 2ft.
The lightning rods should be so installed that the
two 600 angles of descent formed on either side
of the rod should encompass the building that the
rod is installed to protect. If this does not happen
then additional rods are strategically placed so
that the complete system encompasses the
building for which protection is sought.
Lightning rod
600
> 60 ¢
60¢ building building
1 2
This section is fully protected
Pole This section is not protected
by the lightning arrester
Building 1 is fully protected
79
LIGHTNING ROD ON A POLE THAT IS
ATTACHED TO THE BUILDING
This method of protection necessitates the
installation of a lightning rod on a pole, higher
than the building to be protected but in close
proximity, such that the angle of descent (600)
encompasses the building.
Here again, if the is not totally protected then
additional lightning rods are strategically placed
so that it is so protected.
In both method of protection all the ground rods
used must be bonded together to form a single
system. The earth resistance reading must not
exceed 10W.
The lightning system of a building and the
building’s electrical power earthing system may
be connected together to form a single system
once the desired earth resistance readings of
10W (or less) can be obtained on both systems.
Regulation states that, for every 100ft of
perimeter measurement there should be one
grounding point (ground rod).