M6

What This Module is About

Water is life. Our basic need for food, freedom from disease, and overall human development
and well-being depend on it. Households, schools, hospitals, industries, and all other sectors rely on
the availability of safe water for sanitation, hygiene, waste management, and the maintenance of a
sustainable natural environment.

The demand for water has consistently increased across all major water use sectors. It will
continue to do so over the coming decades. In addition to the water demand of the agricultural sector,
large increases in water demand are predicted for industry and energy production (WWAP, 2015).
The situation worsens with shifting diets towards water-intensive meat products and the consumer’s
fascination for larger meal portions, quick meals, and food waste disposal to landfills instead of hitting
compost bins at home for richer soils.

An understanding of water and land management is needed as we consider human

interactions with water and soil functions. If ignored, then human activities will continue to degrade
freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. This in turn affects the life-supporting ecosystem goods and
services that water, and land provide us.

Water Facts

In the previous module, you have learned about the various water resources on Earth. Recall
that we live on a blue planet where water circulates through the water cycle in its different states, as
water vapour, liquid water and ice. The freshwater in our world is found in three main places:

 Atmospheric water in the air either as a solid (hail, snow), liquid (fog, mist, rain) or gas
(invisible water vapour)
 Surface water as runoff and base-flow into and from the catchment areas like lakes

 Groundwater in the cracks and spaces of soil, sand, and rocks underground, generally
adequate and of high quality that does not require treatment for human use.
 But despite the seeming abundance of water on Earth, freshwater availability is less than 2.5
percent of the world’s water supply. Of this percentage, less than one third is easily accessible from
surface water bodies like lakes and rivers and from the underground stored in aquifers. This leaves us
with less than 1% available for water, sanitation, and hygiene needs.

Figure 1. World’s small fraction of freshwater for human needs.

LESSON 11: Of Ripples and Reflections: Human Impacts on Freshwater

Of Direct and Indirect Water Uses

As you have listed on Table 1, there are two categories of water use: direct and indirect.
You directly use water in different activities like hand washing, drinking, cooking, bathing, cleaning
and many more. You also used water indirectly through the food you eat, the things you buy, and
even the energy you use. The water used to produce or process a commodity, commercial goods or
service is referred to us virtual water. The measurement of virtual water along the full production -
consumption chain is referred to as a water footprint.
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 Let’s say you drank one liter of tap water last night. Due to this action, you directly consumed
one liter of actual tap water. If today, you will buy a 1-L bottled water and drink all of it, you would have
directly consumed one liter of bottled water. But you also indirectly used the many liters of virtual water
needed (and some amount possibly got wasted) to produce and supply the water bottle itself.
Depending on where and how the bottle was produced, you just added five liters or more of freshwater
to your water footprint because of that action.

Your personal water footprint is the total volume of water required in the production of the
services and goods you patronize and use. So in which type of water use did you consume more
water? Drinking tap water or drinking bottled water? What can you do minimize your total water
consumption even if you still prefer bottled water to tap?

How did you estimate which water use is larger? Within this week you will make a simple
water audit of your direct water use for 24 hours. To help you prepare for it, analyze Table 2 for direct
and indirect water uses and the total volume per use.

Table 2. Direct and Indirect Water Use

Direct Water Use for Liters of Water Indirect Water Use Liters of
Activity1 Used (Goods) 2 Virtual Water
1-min shower, regular flow 10 1 pair of jeans (1000 g) 10,850
1-min shower, low flow 7 1 bed sheet (900 g) 9750
1-min standard faucet flow 8 1 T-shirt (250 g) 2720
1-min with aerator faucet flow 6 1 diaper (75 g) 810
1 standard toilet flush 6 1 cotton bud (0.333 g) 3.6
1 old inefficient toilet flush 22
Sources:
Indirect Water Use (Food)3 Liters of Virtual
Water Content 1. www.epa.gov/watersense/using-water-efficiently
60 g large-sized egg 196
250 ml of milk (1 glass) 255 2. A.K. Chapagain A.Y. Hoekstra H.H.G.
Savenije R. Gautam (2005). The water
100 g chocolate 1720
footprint of cotton consumption, Value of
100 g mango 180 Water Research Report Series No. 18,
100 g banana (small) 79 UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands.
1 kg cabbage 237
1 kg potato 287 3. M.M. Mekonnen and A.Y. Hoekstra (2010),
1 kg corn 1222 "The Green, Blue and Grey Water Footprint of
1 kg rice 2497 Crops and Derived Crop Products," and "...of
1 kg beef 15415 Farm Animals and Animal Products," Value of
1 kg chicken 4325 Water Research Report Series No. 47 and 48,
1 kg fish (freshwater)4 3160 UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands.
1 kg fish (marine)4 1490 4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.134
1 kg pork 5988
 What you are reading now is printed on an A4 sheet of paper. The global average water
footprint for this paper alone is estimated to be between 2-13 liters. The exact amount depends on the
type and origin of the paper materials used. If recycled paper is used instead of raw paper materials,
then an estimated 40% of virtual water is saved.

Generally, water is required in the different paper production stages – from growing wood to
processing pulp into paper products. But most of the water is required in growing the tree, where water
consumption refers to the forest evapotranspiration. Then, there’s the additional water used during the
manufacturing processes in the industrial stage, mostly due to the evaporation and contamination of
groundwater and surface water.

How much water was used to grow your rice and chicken, to manufacture your shirt and skirt,
your books and music gadgets? Surprisingly, you may not see your indirect water use, yet it accounts
for most of your water footprint. With your daily actions and choices, you directly and indirectly use,
reuse, and wastewater.

Later this week, you will do a household water audit. This is a quantitative analysis of water
use from entry into the home up to its discharge as waste or excess water. Doing a water audit
involves calculating your direct water use and identifying simple ways for reducing water
consumption. Practice how to do a simple water audit for virtual water use.

Of Water Footprints

When you compare how much water is used to make a variety of products, you can be guided
on how to reduce your virtual water consumption or your “water footprint”. Virtual water applies to
products only, while water footprint as introduced by Hoekstra in 2002 applies not only to products but
also to a process, a producer, a consumer, or a nation. It has three components:

 The green water footprint refers to consumption of green water resources like rainwater that
is stored as soil moisture in the root zone. Green water also evaporates from plants by
evapotranspiration and is important for agriculture, forestry, and horticulture.
 The blue water footprint refers to consumption of blue water resources like surface water
and groundwater. This can evaporate, naturally flow, or become part of the product. Domestic,
industry and irrigated agriculture uses blue water.

 The grey water footprint refers to polluted water or water used to dilute pollutants to satisfy
water quality standards. This is what goes into bathroom floor drains, sinks and sewage
facilities.

The Philippines has abundant water resources with an annual average rainfall of about 2,400
millimeters. The surface water potential is 125,790 million cubic meter (MCM) while the
groundwater potential is 20,200 MCM.

By 2025, the estimated water demand in the country is 85,401 MCM per year but the
estimated available water by then is only 60,586 MCM/yr. Supply cannot meet demand. More often,
water tends to be available in the wrong place, at the wrong time with the wrong quality (National
Action Plan to Combat Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought, 2010-2020).

On the average, 70%, 20% and 10% of global water consumption was used in the
agricultural, industrial, and municipal sectors respectively (Shiklomanov, 1999). During 1996 to 2005,
89.7%, 5.8% and 4.5% of the Philippine water footprint was used in the agricultural, industrial, and
municipal sectors. Of the blue water resources, 63% was used for rice production, while grey water
(contaminated water) volume came mostly from industrial use at 44% and from domestic use at 33%.
So, water pollution was mostly generated by industrial and domestic activities. Indeed, water footprint
assessments reveal patterns of indirect water use of individuals, businesses, and nations just as
water audits do for direct water use.

Of Water Marks from Muddled Ripples

The first “detectable” human impact within a lake catchment may not immediately cause a
response or change in the aquatic system because of its negligible degree of impact caused by say a
small population size or the use of less invading technologies. Bodies of water adapt to slow changes,
but over time with the rise of technological advance, population surge, intensified activities, and
resource use, then ecological shifts start to occur significantly.

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 Human activities (settlements, industry, and agricultural developments) can disturb the
components of the natural water cycle through land use diversions, water use/reuse and discharge of
wastes into the natural groundwater and surface water pathways. A consolidated look of your answers
for Activity 3 may be illustrated similar to Figure 6.

Figure 6. Water Marks from Muddled Ripples

Human activities in natural drainage areas can cause soil erosion and pollution. These are
direct drivers of ecosystem change. Erosion affects freshwater ecosystems due to the
transportation and deposition of sediments, nutrients, and contaminants to surface water systems.
This results to sedimentation, flooding, turbidity, and eutrophication which can fill downstream
water reservoirs faster than planned.

On the other hand, high levels of lead, copper or mercury in sediment loads are indications of
heavy metal contamination. Effluents, discharges and even nutrients come from domestic,
industrial, and agricultural (fertilizer and fungicide) runoffs. These lead to water acidification and the
worst cases of eutrophication. Due to high nitrogen and phosphorus loads in water, eutrophication,
is globally considered as the most prevalent water quality problem. In addition, contaminated surface
waters and groundwater are costly and difficult to clean.
 Moreover, habitat modification changed the physical flow of water into the ecosystem through
the manipulation of surface water level and groundwater reservoirs. The creation of dams, bridges,
harbors, or electric power plants can cause flow diversion or intensive water withdrawal and/or water
recharge. These results in fluctuations of water level, salinization, nutrient loads, turbidity, and the
light environment.

Biological invasions, like the introduction of non-native species of fish on a lake that has no
fish before, can induce important shifts in breeding, feeding, and nursing patterns, and even promote
algal blooms and the dominance of invasive species.

On the other hand, people have been disposing untreated wastes into the air, land, and water
resources. Pollution degrades ecosystems and affects rainfall, surface, and ground waters. Pollution
sources that impact our water resources can develop at different space and time scales. The 2006
United Nations World Water Development Report 2 categorized the freshwater pollution sources in
the following nine categories:

 Organic matter from industrial wastewater and domestic sewage can deplete oxygen from
water as it decomposes and suffocates aquatic life.

 Pathogens and microbial contaminants from domestic sewage, livestock and natural
sources can spread infectious diseases through contaminated drinking water supplies.

 Nutrients from agricultural run-offs, and industrial discharges can over stimulate the growth of
algae that leads to eutrophication. Furthermore, high levels in nitrate in drinking water leads to
illness in people.

 Salinization from saltwater intrusions cause salt residue build-up in soils due to over irrigation
or over-pumping of coastal aquifers. As irrigated waters evaporate from soils, salt residues are
left on the soil to accumulate.

 Acidification from electric power generation, industrial stacks, and vehicle emissions
including acid mine tailings can lower the pH of soils and water.

 Heavy Metals from industries and mining sites can accumulate in the tissues of shellfish and
fish. These are toxic to aquatic life and humans.

 Toxic organic compounds and micro-organic pollutants from industrial sites, automobiles,
agricultural fields, and municipal wastewaters can be toxic to aquatic fauna and humans.

 Thermal Pollution from stored water in dams and reservoirs that warms up due to discharges
from cooling towers can change the aquatic oxygen levels and rates of decomposition in the
receiving waters.

 Silt and suspended particles from natural soil erosion due to road building, agricultural
activities, construction, deforestation, and other land use changes can reduce water quality for
drinking and recreation. These can also degrade aquatic habitats by choking aquatic
organisms with silt and disturbing breeding and feeding.

The quality of water is affected by chemical, microbiological, and thermal pollution (Carr and
Neary, 2008; Mayers et al., 2009; UNEP, 2010a):

 Chemical contamination can be caused by excess in nutrients, heavy metals, and persistent
organic pollutants, resulting to acidification, changes in salinity and increase in sediment
loads.

 Microbiological contamination due to bacteria, viruses and protozoa in water is a leading

global human health hazard.

 Fluctuating natural water temperature cycles can affect metabolic rates and biological
functions resulting to long-term population declines.

LESSON 12: Of Dirt and Digs: Human Impacts on Soil

 Can you name all the vegetables in the song “Bahay Kubo” without singing it?

The catchy tunes of this well-known Filipino folk song bring to mind a simple nipa hut
surrounded by bounteous blessings of the land. Young or old, farmer or not, one would do well in life
by remembering the song’s message of hope in the harvest of the land.

Remember those childhood days of playing barefoot outside, shooting marbles on holed
grounds of bare soil, baking mud cakes with petals on top, or getting dirty while digging. Did we ever
ask then, is soil dirt? And now as an adult, we need to ask, is dirt soil?

Soil scientists dig deeper and study soils getting their hands dirty to learn the role of soils in
food, fiber, fuel, freshwater and even flood control. Soil is Mother Earth’s thin dynamic skin which
serves as foundation for our natural living world. Dirt, on the other hand is that dead, disintegrated
mineral part of wind-eroded soil and by itself can never sustain life. Soil is much more than dirt! But
when we treat soil as dirt, digging it for our immediate needs and economic gains without regard for its
continuous health, conservation, and protection, then tons of natural soil will end up as useless dirt. It
is time to look at our actions and strengthen our personal connection to the very soil that supports the
very ground we stand on.

The statement from then US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, “The nation that destroys its soil
destroys itself.” kick-started the soil conservation programs against the devastating problems of great
dust storms and floods. This powerful warning assert that human actions globally impact soil
resources. It is no wonder that scientists and environment authorities under the United Nations‟ Food
and Agriculture Organization declared 2015-2024 as the International Decade of Soils and
published in 2015 the report “Status of the World‟s Soil Resources” that shed light into the soil
threats challenging soil functions and resources.

The goal of this lesson is to help you understand soil degradation issues. You will take a look
at soil science, soil matters and the growing trend in human activities that affect soil resources and its
life-sustaining functions. Through this unit, you will explore global and local uses of soil in agriculture
and urban developments through a simple soil aggregate model. Finally, the lesson introduces the
concept of soil sealing and some soil health principles as groundwork for you and your family to
identify current practices and apply sustainable approaches to soil use at home or in the community.

After going through the lesson, you are expected to:

1. identify soil functions and soil threats,
2. compare healthy soil from a degraded soil,

3. identify human actions that can have significant impacts on soil health, and
4. plan a soil conservation and protection project that improves soil quality and quantity.

Soil Matters

In the previous modules, you have learned about earth consisting of four subsystems across
whose boundaries matter and energy flow. At the overlapping boundaries of the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere is the critical zone of soil. It is here where air, water,
minerals, and life intersect and interact. You also studied the importance of common rock-forming
minerals, and how these rocks undergo earth processes to offer mankind with natural resources and
energy supply.

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Prior to the 20th century, soil was regarded as a mixture of weathered rock layer which serves
as a medium for plant growth and agricultural production. Engineers may define soil in relation to
supporting structures as a mixture of mineral material of sand, gravel, and fine particles used as a
base for construction. Over the past 150 years of man‟s interaction with soil, soil concept and
principles has increased with studies on soil horizons, soil-forming factors, soil processes, soil fertility,
soil conservation, soil system, soil cover, soil quality, soil health, soil degradation, sustainable soil
management and much more.

At present, soil as a dynamic and finite resource is defined as the unconsolidated mineral
or organic material on the immediate surface of the earth formed from a parent rock material
through processes that show the effects of climate, macro and micro-organisms, the
topography of its location on land, and of formation time (SSSA, 2015).
Figure 7. What are the components of an idealized soil? Based on Pidwirmy (2006)

1.) 40-50% inorganic mineral particles

a. rock particles too big to be soil

(gravel, stones, boulders),
b. sand as large soil particles,

c. silt as medium soil particles, and

d. clay as small soil particles

2.) 0–10% biological organisms or parts of biological organisms (living or dead) from
macroscopic plants and animals to the microscopic bacteria, archaea, and fungi. Included here are
the animal and microbial waste products in different stages of decomposition breaking down into
humus.
3.) ~ 50% empty pore spaces in soil filled with either (a) air that allows exchange of the soil organic
matter is the most important CO2 and O2 gas for the respiration of component because of its influence
on the organisms or (b) water for uptake by physical, chemical and biological properties of a
plant roots and living soil organisms’ healthy soil as it carries out its different soil functions.

Of Global Soil Functions and Soil Threats

Table 9. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment – Summarized Ecosystem Services and

Functions of Soil (FAO, 2015)

Food, Fiber and Fuel (water, nutrients, and physical support for plant
growth, bioenergy, and fiber needed by man and animals)
Water (retains, stores, and purifies water)
Soil
Raw Earth Material (topsoil, aggregates for construction, peat, etc.)
Provides
Surface Stability (support for human habitations and related infrastructure)
Refugia (habitat for soil organisms, birds, etc.)
Pharmaceutical and Genetic Resources (source of biological materials)

Water Quality (filters, buffers substances, transforms contaminants in

water)
Water Supply (water infiltration into soil, water flow within soil, and drainage
Soil
of excess water out of soil and into groundwater and surface water)
Regulates
Climate (regulates CO2, N2O, and CH4 emissions; stores soil organic carbon
and sequesters carbon from the atmosphere and land vegetation*
Erosion (retains soil on the land surface)

Nutrient Cycling (soil organisms transform organic materials; releases or

retains nutrients on charged surfaces)
Soil
Soil Formation (weathers primary minerals; releases nutrients; transforms
Supports
and increases organic matter; creates structures in soil aggregates and soil
horizons for gas, water flow, and root growth; and creates charged surfaces
for ion retention or exchange)

Soil’s Aesthetic and spiritual (preserves natural and cultural landscape diversity,
Cultural source of pigments and dyes)
Services Heritage (preserves archaeological records)

Soil services are basically determined by the soil properties texture, mineralogy, and soil
organic matter (Palm et al. 2007). Soil texture and mineralogy are dependent on the parent rock
materials which change very slowly over time. While the soil organic matter (SOM) changes easily
due to human-induced impacts. So, the management of SOM is critical to sustainable soil
management because of its quick response to changes and our ability to use and manipulate it.

The World Soil Charter echoes the plea for all who use or manage soil to act as stewards of
the soil and ensure that this essential natural resource is managed sustainably and protect it for the
future generations (FAO, 2015).
10
In the 2015 “Status of  soil sealing
 soil waterlogging
the World‟s Soil
Resources” report, FAO
identified the top 10 soil From the previous modules, you also learned about fossil fuels and
threats to global soil other energy resources. The infographics below show that human-
functions as: induced water and land uses lead to environmental degradation
affecting the water cycle which then affects the soil.
 nutrient
imbalance

 soil acidification

 soil biodiversity
loss

 soil compaction

 soil
contamination

 soil erosion

 soil organic carbon

Figure 9. United Nations Children‟s Fund, Thirsting for a future:
(SOC loss
Water and children in a changing climate, UNICEF, New York,
March 2017. Printed with permission.
 soil salinization

Excessive withdrawal of water

can cause imbalance in the
water cycle.

In the Philippines, 11.45

million hectares or 38% of
the total land area are
vulnerable to human-
induced soil and land
degradation. Ten million
hectares of this land area
were degraded by water
erosion and the rest due to
physical deteriorations,
chemical deteriorations,
and then by wind erosion.
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Soil degradations result to reduced soil functions and lower ability to support ecosystem
services needed for human survival and well-being. Minimizing or stopping significant soil degradation
is important for the sustainable maintenance of soil services. This is more cost-effective than restoring
degraded soils.

Conversely, the arrangements of the solid parts and pore spaces of soil is called soil
structure. Clumps of soil particles held together by varied organic substances are called soil
aggregates. Well-structured aggregates of soils indicate a healthy soil.

In this activity, you will use bread as a simple model of a soil aggregate. Observe how soil
erodes due to water (or wind) flow, how soil contaminants get dispersed by water, and how water
flows when soil is compacted or sealed. This activity is designed to introduce the concept of soil
aggregate stability which is critical to soil functions and soil health.

Of Healthy and Degraded Soils

Soil takes thousands of years to naturally form a few centimeters thick of soil cover. Yet in just
a few minutes we can lose volumes of it to natural and human-induced soil threats like soil
erosion, soil contamination, soil compaction, soil sealing, waterlogging and through
unsustainable land use/land take/land conversion practices as shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16. From top to bottom, left to right (landslide due to water erosion, house improvements
expose grounds, urban areas have lots of storm drain systems, paved driveways, and rain gardens,
cut mountainsides for roads, corn growing on a vacant dumped with construction debris).

With increased population, the demands on what arable land is left has continued to increase.
Human settlements and urban infrastructure expanded. Residential and recreational areas extend
further into rural areas where prime farmland gets converted into other land uses.

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 Those who rely on their land are taking actions to improve the health of their soil. Key actions
are not to disturb the soil by practicing sustainable solutions like the no/reduced till, crop
rotation, composting or leaving crop residues on the soil, and providing a living cover crop of
diverse plants and animals, above and below the soil surface.

When the solid parts – sand, silt and clay particles – stick together as aggregates, the soil has
a good combination of solid parts and pore spaces. Well-structured soils have both large
macropores (>0.08 mm) and small micropores within interconnected networks of pores. This allows
rapid infiltration and easy movement of water and air. These pores also provide a refuge or habitat
for soil organisms. Thus, healthy soils are well-structured. Plowed or tilled soils have loose particles
that easily erode, clog pores, seal surfaces, and can be compacted.

The undisturbed soil The disturbed soil on the top

on the top layer of a
lawn or field that has
not been tilled for
years form stable soil
aggregates and hold
together when
immersed in water.
layer of a field or
construction site is
unaggregated having no
stable form, it readily falls apart
during erosion. Runoff waters
Figure 17. stable soil aggregate (USDA- are muddy. Eroded sediments
NRCS Soil Health Campaign) settle in layers sealing off fine
pores.

Fig. 18. Fig. 19

The stable aggregate of baked bread (flour +
water + yeast + heat + empty pores) acted
like a sponge allowing water to soak straight
down to the bottom of the bread aggregate
“soil” model. The runoff is clear and is
minimal. The yeast microorganism activated
the rise of a structure. It represents the
organic matter that exudes or give off carbon-
rich “snots, slimes and organic glues like the
sticky protein “glomalin”. These bind mineral
particles into a soil aggregate. The kneading
and baking of bread stands for the formation
processes.
The unaggregated flour particles got
detached by water resulting to a cloudy run-
off. The flour “soil” model’s surface got
sealed as eroded fine particles settled down
in layers, sealing the flour surface. Much of
the water just runoff to lower areas while the
layers under the wet surface remained dry.
The mineral particles (represented by the
uncooked flour) on its own and without
contact of binding agents remained
unaggregated. It has no structure and
strength against water and wind and can
easily crumble to bits that we can call as dirt.

Figure 20. No till soil, clear rainwater runoff. Figure 21. Tilled soil, murky rainwater runoff.
(US Department of Agriculture – Natural Resources (US Department of Agriculture – Natural Resources
Conservation Service Soil Health Campaign) Conservation Service Soil Health Campaign)
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 The aggregated soil model of bread showed a greater available water capacity (AWC or
holding capacity) compared to the unaggregated soil model of flour. Water soaked all the way
through the bread “soil” while water was surface sealed off the flour “soil”.

The same principle happens with tilled or plowed land. Pores collapse and soil breaks apart in
poor soil structures. Much of the water that falls on cultivated soil surface move individual soil
particles into empty pores. The soil gets sealed, making it difficult for water to seep into the soil but
easier to runoff to other lower areas. On the other hand, water flowing past aggregate soil structures
soaks deep, gets filtered and stored in the unplowed soil. Figure 22. Holding capacity of aggregated
and unaggregated soil.

Figure 23. Soils (b) compacted by vehicular or foot traffic changes the soil composition by
decreasing the percentages of organic matter, soil air, and soil water in the soil. These results to a
higher bulk density for minerals but with lower available water capacity (AWC) of the soils limiting the
infiltration of water so the excess water runs off and can cause waterlogged areas where water
accumulates in depressed areas that does not drain water well.

Do the Slake Test for Real Soils!

(a) (b) The test compares two clods or chunks of
real topsoil submerged in water. See for
yourself how well and how long tilled and
untilled identical topsoil chunks will hold
together as aggregates under water.
Hook wire screen holders inside two water-
filled glasses. Submerge the soil clods on
separate water-filled glasses at the same
time. Watch and see for yourself which soil
holds together and which one falls apart.

Soil erosion by water is the greatest threat to soil productivity and one of the largest sources of water
pollution. The productive topsoil layer is usually the first to be eroded and the organic matter
disintegrated. When water erodes contaminants like fertilizers, pesticides, and soil particles away into
other water sources, the soil will be deposited as a pollutant sediment.

Figure 24. Polluted bread “soil” aggregate Figure 25. Polluted unaggregated flour “soil”

Most of the liquid and solid contaminants on Most of the liquid contaminants got sealed the soil
soaked into and got filtered in the onto the soil’s surface. While most of the solid bread “soil
aggregate”. What little excess contaminants spread over the “unaggregated water that wasn’t able to
infiltrate the soil, soil” surface some were carried away by the runs off as a polluted water polluted
runoff waters.
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Soil erosion can damage or wash away human structures like roads and weakened building
foundations or cause landslides on steep slopes. It can also uproot or damage vegetation and crops,
covering plants with eroded soil and field residue. Mulch tillage, crop residues, and cover crops help
hold the soil in place and filter out fertilizers and pesticides.

Figure 26. Mulch Tillage leaves crop residue Figure 27. Corns planted into no till corn on soil surface
as a cover even when the soil residues provide soil organisms with food and was disturbed during
reduced tilling. (US cover against heat and water evaporation. (US Department of Agriculture–Natural
Resources Department of Agriculture–Natural Resources Conservation Service Soil Health
Campaign) Conservation Service Soil Health Campaign)

Figure 28. Both soil landscapes are partially sealed (covered by a cement tile that represents an
impervious material). The exposed part at the lower right allowed water to interact with the
aggregated (a) and unaggregated (b) soils. There is greater water run-off from the partially sealed
aggregated soils (a) as compared to the open aggregated soil (c). But still this is a lesser volume as
compared to the runoffs from both the partially sealed (b) and open unaggregated soils (d). It is
evident that the spread of soil and water pollution is far greater when water flows over impermeable
or impervious materials covering soils.

(a) partially sealed aggregated soil (b) partially sealed unaggregated soil

(c) open/exposed aggregated soil (d) open/exposed unaggregated soil

Surface or soil sealing is a “land take” trend that appears to have no end at present because
of the demands of growing cities, changing lifestyles, and land planning decisions (European Union,
2013). Converting green spaces for areas like houses, offices, factories, roads, and other structures
degrades the soil by covering productive land with hard layers of concrete and asphalt that prevent
the production of plants or animals.

Soils in urban areas can be natural soils (weathered by underlying bedrock or deposited by
water, wind, or ice) or anthropogenic soils (formed in human-deposited material or fill) to modify
landscape or improve undesirable soil properties for specific human activities.

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 Urban soil fill materials can be any or a combination of (a) human-moved
natural soils, (b) construction debris, (c) waterways dredged materials, (d) coal ash, and
(e) municipal solid waste. Moving and using anthropogenic soils generally lead to topsoil
removal, digging deep, overturning and mixing subsoil and topsoil. This alters soil
properties and predicting soil behavior in urban areas become difficult (USDA-NRCS,
2005).