M ERIAM

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CHAPTER 7
INTRODUCTION TO THREE-
DIMENSIONAL DYNAMICS OF
RIGID BODIES
CHAPTER OUTLINE
7/1 Introduction
SECTION A Kinematics
7/2 Translation
7/3 Fixed-Axis Rotation
7/4 Parallel-Plane Motion
7/5 Rotation about a Fixed Point
7/6 General Motion
SECTION B Kinetics
7/7 Angular Momentum
7/8 Kinetic Energy
7/9 Momentum and Energy Equations of Motion
7/10 Parallel-Plane Motion
7/11 Gyroscopic Motion: Steady Precession David Parker/Science Photo Library/Getty Images
Article 7/1 Introduction

• Importance of Plane-Motion Solutions
• Need for Three-Dimensional Solutions
• Complexity of Three-Dimensional Problems
• Scope of Chapter 7
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Article 7/2 Translation

• Translation
• Each line in the body remains parallel to its original
orientation
• Rectilinear Translation
• Points A and B move along parallel straight lines.
• Curvilinear Translation
• Points A and B move along congruent curves.
• Vectors of Interest
• Position: rA = rB + rA/B
• Velocity: vA = vB
• Acceleration: aA = aB
Article 7/3 Fixed-Axis Rotation

• Rotation about Fixed-Axis n-n
• Angular velocity ω about the axis.
• Each point moves in a circle about the rotation axis.
• Velocity of Point A
• Follows a circular path of radius b about axis n-n.
• v=ω r
• Note that r = h + b and ω × h = 0
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Article 7/3 – Fixed-Axis Rotation (cont.)

• Acceleration of Point A
• From previous, point A executes circular motion about the axis.
• a=α r+ω (ω r)
• Normal Acceleration: an = ω (ω r) and an = bω2
• Tangential Acceleration: an = α r and at = bα
• Angular Acceleration: α =
• Note that v ⋅ ω = 0, a ⋅ ω = 0, and a ⋅ α = 0.
Article 7/4 Parallel-Plane Motion

• Illustration
• All points move in planes which are parallel to a
fixed reference plane P.
• The reference plane is customarily taken through the
mass center G and is called the plane of motion.
• Motion of a point in the body, such as A′, has a
motion identical with the motion of the corresponding
point A in plane P.
• Kinematics of plane motion developed in Chapter 5
give a complete description of the motion of the body
when applied to the reference plane.
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Article 7/5 Rotation about a Fixed Point

• Comments
• When a body rotates about a fixed point, the angular-velocity vector no longer
remains fixed in direction.
• This complexity requires a more generalized concept of rotation.
Article 7/5 – Rotation and Proper Vectors (1 of 2)

• Rotation of a Solid Sphere about a Fixed Point O
• Case I
• First, rotate 90° about the x-axis. Point 1 moves to point 2.
• Second, rotate 90° about the y-axis. Point 2 moves to point 3.
• Case II
• First, rotate 90° about the y-axis. Points 1 and 2 are coincident.
• Second, rotate 90° about the x-axis. Point 2 moves to point 3.
• Comments
• The two cases produce different final positions.
• Finite rotations do not generally obey the parallelogram law of
vector addition and are not commutative.
• Therefore, finite rotations may not be treated as proper vectors.
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Article 7/5 – Rotation and Proper Vectors (2 of 2)

• Infinitesimal Rotations
• Do obey the parallelogram law of vector addition.
• Rotation of dθ1 produces a displacement of dθ1 r.
• Rotation of dθ2 produces a displacement of dθ2 r.
• The order of addition of these infinitesimal displacements
produces the same resultant displacement of point A.
• Resultant displacement is dθ1 r + dθ2 r = (dθ1 + dθ2) r
• This is equivalent to a single rotation of dθ = dθ1 + dθ2 about
a specific axis within the body.
• Angular velocities ω1 = 1 and ω2 = 2 may also be added
vectorially to give ω = = ω1 + ω2.
Article 7/5 – Instantaneous Axis of Rotation

• Visualization
• Consider a solid cylindrical rotor of clear plastic which contains
many black particles embedded in the plastic.
• The rotor spins about its shaft axis at the steady rate ω1.
• The shaft simultaneously rotates about the fixed vertical axis at
the steady rate ω2.
• A photograph of the rotor at a particular instant would reveal
one line of black dots, O-n, which are sharply defined,
indicating they are momentarily stationary.
• Any dot on this line will have equal and opposite velocity
components, v1 due to ω1, and v2 due to ω2.
• All other points in the body will momentarily rotate in circular
arcs about the instantaneous axis of rotation.
• Successive photographs would reveal a new axis at each instant.
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Article 7/5 – Body and Space Cones

• The Body Cone
• Instantaneous axis of rotation O-A-n generates a right-
circular cone about the cylinder axis called the body cone.
• The Space Cone

• The instantaneous axis of rotation will also generate a
right-circular cone about the vertical axis called the space
cone.
• Comments
• The body cone rolls on the space cone.
• The angular velocity of the body is a vector which lies
along the common element of the two cones.
• More general cases are not right-circular cones, but the
body cone still rolls along the space cone.
Article 7/5 – Angular Acceleration (1 of 3)

• Angular Acceleration in Three Dimensions
• Angular acceleration α is the time derivative of angular velocity ω.
• It reflects both a change in magnitude and a change in direction of
the angular velocity vector.
• The tip of the angular velocity vector ω follows the space curve p.
• The angular acceleration vector α is a vector tangent to this curve
in the direction of the change of ω.
• If the magnitude of the angular velocity ω is constant, then the
angular acceleration vector α is normal to ω.
• In this instant, we let Ω stand for the angular velocity with which
the vector ω itself rotates (precesses) as it forms the space cone.
• The angular acceleration is written as…
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• Visualization
• Upper figure relates the velocity of a point A on a rigid body to
its position vector from O and the angular velocity of the body.
• Lower figure relates the angular acceleration of a body to its

angular velocity vector and the precession of the body.

• Velocity and Acceleration of a Point
• Consider a body which rotates about a fixed point O.
• Let axis n-n represent the instantaneous axis of rotation.
• Then…
• Comments
• For rotation about a fixed axis, the angular acceleration vector is always directed along
the angular velocity vector and reflects changes in magnitude only.
• For rotation about a fixed point, the angular acceleration vector can also have a
component normal to the angular velocity vector which reflects changes in direction.
• Points on the instantaneous axis of rotation have no velocity, but will have acceleration.
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Article 7/5 – Sample Problem 7/1 (1 of 3)

• Problem Statement
The 0.8-m arm OA for a remote-control mechanism is pivoted about the horizontal x-axis of the
clevis, and the entire assembly rotates about the z-axis with a constant speed N = 60 rev/min.
Simultaneously, the arm is being raised at the constant rate = 4 rad/s. For the position where
= 30°, determine (a) the angular velocity of OA, (b) the angular acceleration of OA, (c) the
velocity of point A, and (d) the acceleration of point A. If, in addition to the motion described,
the vertical shaft and point O had a linear motion, say, in the z-direction, would that motion
change the angular velocity or angular acceleration of OA?

• Part (a) – Angular Velocity
• Part (b) – Angular Acceleration
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• Part (c) – Velocity of A
• Part (d) – Acceleration of A

The electric motor with an attached disk is running at a constant low speed of 120 rev/min in the
direction shown. Its housing and mounting base are initially at rest. The entire assembly is next set
in rotation about the vertical Z-axis at the constant rate N = 60 rev/min with a fixed angle γ of 30°.
Determine (a) the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the disk, (b) the space and body
cones, and (c) the velocity and acceleration of point A at the top of the disk for the instant shown.
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• Part (a) – Angular Velocity of the Disk

• Part (a) (cont.) – Angular Acceleration of the Disk
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• Part (b) – Space and Body Cones

• Part (c) – Velocity and Acceleration of Point A
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Article 7/6 General Motion

• Translating Reference Axes
• Point of Interest, A
• Convenient Reference Point, B
• Angular Velocity of the Body, ω
• Angular Acceleration of the Body and Axes,
• Relative Motion Equations
• Selection of point B is entirely arbitrary, but is usually a point with known

motion characteristics. For kinetics, point B is usually the mass center.
• The validity of the equations requires that distance is constant.
Article 7/6 – Translating Reference Axes (cont.)

• Comments
• If A and B represent the ends of a rigid control link in
a spatial mechanism where the end connections act as
ball-and-socket joints, then…
ωn ⋅ rA/B = 0
where ωn is the component of the angular velocity

vector which is normal to link AB.
• Note that any component of angular velocity
which is directed along the link axis AB has no
effect on the action of the link.
• Similarly, only the component αn of the angular
acceleration of the link normal to AB affects the
motion, so that αn ⋅ rA/B = 0 must also hold.
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Article 7/6 – Rotating Reference Axes (1 of 4)

• Situation of Interest
• Angular Velocity of the Body, ω
• Angular Velocity of the Axes, Ω
• Angular Acceleration of the Axes,
• Time Derivatives of Rotating Unit Vectors
• Relative Motion Equations

• Comments
• Relative Velocity Term: vrel = i + j + k
• Relative Acceleration Term: arel = i + j + k
• The relative-position vector rA/B is constant in

magnitude for points A and B fixed to the body, but it
will change direction with respect to x-y-z when the
angular velocity of the axes differs from the angular
velocity of the body.
• If x-y-z are rigidly attached to the body, then Ω = ω,

vrel = 0, and arel = 0 which is identical to the case of
translating reference axes.
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• Time Derivative of Vectors in Rotating Frames
• Relationship between Inertial and Relative Derivatives
• Applied to the Relative-Position Vector
or… vA = vB + vrel + Ω × rA/B

• This equation is particularly useful when the reference
axes are attached to a moving body within which
relative motion occurs.

• First Time Derivative of a General Vector
where [ ] represents any vector V expressible both in

XYZ and xyz.
• Second Time Derivative of a General Vector
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Crank CB rotates about the horizontal axis with an angular
velocity 1 = 6 rad/s which is constant for a short interval of
motion which includes the position shown. The link AB has a
ball-and-socket fitting on each end and connects crank DA
with CB. For the instant shown, determine the angular velocity
2 of crank DA and the angular velocity n of link AB.

• Velocity of Points A and B
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• Relative Velocity between A and B

• Solution of Unknowns
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Determine the angular acceleration 2 of crank AD in Sample
Problem 7/3 for the conditions cited. Also find the angular
acceleration n of link AB.
From Sample Problem 7/3…Crank CB rotates about the
horizontal axis with an angular velocity 1 = 6 rad/s which is
constant for a short interval of motion which includes the
position shown. The link AB has a ball-and-socket fitting on
each end and connects crank DA with CB. For the instant
shown, determine the angular velocity 2 of crank DA and the
angular velocity n of link AB.

• Acceleration of Points A and B
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• Relative Acceleration between A and B

• Solution of Unknowns
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The motor housing and its bracket rotate about the Z-axis at the constant rate = 3 rad/s. The
motor shaft and disk have a constant angular velocity of spin p = 8 rad/s with respect to the
motor housing in the direction shown. If γ is constant at 30°, determine the velocity and
acceleration of point A at the top of the disk and the angular acceleration of the disk.

• Velocity of Point A
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• Acceleration of Point A

• Angular Acceleration of the Disk
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Article 7/7 Angular Momentum

• Rigid Body in General Motion in Space
• The x-y-z axes are attached to the body at the mass center G.
• The X-Y-Z axes are fixed reference axes.
• The angular velocity ω of the body is also the angular
velocity of the x-y-z axes as observed from the X-Y-Z axes.
• Angular Momentum about Mass Center G
• From Art. 4/4, HG = Σ(ρi mivi).
• Substitute vi = +ω ρi to obtain HG = - Σmiρi + Σ[ρi mi(ω ρi )].
• The term - Σmiρi = 0 because Σmiρi = mρ = 0 since the origin is at G.
• Substitute dm for mi and ρ for ρi to obtain …
Article 7/7 – Angular Momentum (cont.)

• Angular Momentum about a Fixed Point O
• From Art. 4/4, HO = Σ(ri mivi) where vi = ω r i.
• Substitute dm for mi and r for ri to obtain …
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Article 7/7 – Moments and Products of Inertia (1 of 3)

• Integrand Expansion for HG and HO
• Position vectors ρi and ri are given by the same expression, xi + yj + zk.
• We will use the same symbol H to express the result of either case.
• The angular velocity components are invariant with respect to the integrals
over the body and thus become constant multipliers of the integrals.
• The cross-product expansion applied to the triple vector product, along with
collection of terms gives…

• Expansion (cont.)
• Substitute the following terms into the expression.
• The terms Ixx, Iyy, and Izz are the moments of inertia of the body about the
respective axes.
• The terms Ixy, Ixz, and Iyz are the products of inertia of the body with respect to
the coordinate axes. Note that Ixy = Iyx, Ixz = Izx, and Iyz = Izy.
• Calculation of moments and products of inertia is explained in Appendix B.
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• Expansion (cont.)
• The expression now becomes…
• The components of H are…
• Remember that the reference axes x-y-z are attached to the rigid body which makes
the moment-of-inertia integrals and the product-of-inertia integrals invariant with
time.
• If a rigid body is spinning about an axis of symmetry, the inertia integrals are not
affected by the angular position of the body about its spin axis and it is convenient to
choose one reference axis to coincide with the axis of rotation and allow the other two
axes to not turn with the body.
Article 7/7 – Principal Axes (1 of 2)

• Inertia Tensor
• The moments and products of inertia are collected in an array called the inertia tensor
or the inertia matrix.
• Changing the orientation of the axes relative to the body will change the values of the
moments and products of inertia.
• It can be shown that there is one unique orientation of axes x-y-z for which the
products of inertia vanish and the moments of inertia Ixx, Iyy, and Izz take on stationary
values.
• For this orientation, the inertia tensor takes the diagonalized form…
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Article 7/7 – Principal Axes (2 of 2)

• Inertia Tensor (cont.)
• The axes x-y-z for which the products of inertia vanish are called the principal axes of
inertia.
• The corresponding Ixx, Iyy, and Izz are called the principal moments of inertia.
• The principal moments of inertia for a given origin represent the maximum, the
minimum, and an intermediate value of the moments of inertia.
• It is always possible to locate principal axes of inertia though it may not always be
convenient to do so for geometric reasons.
• Effect on Angular Momentum

• If the coordinate axes coincide with the principal axes of inertia, then the angular
momentum about the mass center or a fixed point becomes…
Article 7/7 – Transfer Principle for Angular Momentum

• Momentum Terms of a Rigid Body
• Linear Momentum, G = m
• Angular Momentum About the Mass Center G, HG
• The angular momentum vector is a free vector.
• Force-Couple Analogy
• The angular momentum of the body about any point P equals the free vector
HG plus the moment of the linear-momentum vector G about P. Thus…
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Article 7/8 Kinetic Energy (1 of 5)

• General Expression
• From Art. 4/3, the kinetic energy T of any general system
of mass, rigid or nonrigid, is…
where ̅ is the velocity of the mass center and ρi is the

position vector of a representative element of mass mi
with respect to the mass center.
• The first term is the kinetic energy due to the translation of the system, and may
be rewritten as…
where is the velocity of the mass center G, and G is the linear momentum of
the body.
Article 7/8 – Kinetic Energy (2 of 5)

• General Expression (cont.)
• The second term is the kinetic energy associated with the motion relative to the
mass center. For a rigid body, this is kinetic energy due to rotation about G.
• The term i is the velocity of a representative particle with respect to the mass
center and may be rewritten as i = ω ρi, where ω is the angular velocity of
the body.
• Substitute this expression into the second term of the kinetic energy equation
to obtain…
• We can use the triple scalar product relationship, P Q⋅R=P⋅Q R, to

write
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• Factor out the angular velocity because it is the same for all lines in the body
to obtain…
where HG is the same integral expressed by Eq. 7/8.
• The general expression for the kinetic energy of a rigid body moving with
mass-center velocity and angular velocity ω is…

• Factor out the angular velocity because it is the same for all lines in the body
to obtain…
where HG is the same integral expressed by Eq. 7/8.
• The general expression for the kinetic energy of a rigid body moving with
mass-center velocity and angular velocity ω is…
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• Expansion of the General Expression
• Substitution of the appropriate vectors and expansion of the equation yields…
• If the axes coincide with principal axes of inertia, the expansion reduces to…

• Kinetic Energy with a Fixed Point
• The expression for the kinetic energy for a body about a
fixed point is…
• This expression reduces to…
where HO is the angular momentum about O.
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The bent plate has a mass of 70 kg per square meter of surface area and revolves about the z-axis
at the rate = 30 rad/s. Determine (a) the angular momentum H of the plate about point O and
(b) the kinetic energy T of the plate. Neglect the mass of the hub and the thickness of the plate
compared with its surface dimensions.

• Masses of the Parts
• Inertias for Part A
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• Inertias for Part B

• Inertias for the Body
• Part (a) – Angular Momentum
• Kinetic Energy
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Article 7/9 Momentum and Energy Equations of Motion
• General Equations for a System of Constant Mass

• From Art. 4/4…
• The terms in the moment equation are taken either about the mass center G or
about a fixed point O.
• The derivative of H in this equation is taken with respect to an absolute

coordinate system.
Article 7/9 – Momentum Equations (1 of 4)
• Momentum Equations Relative to Moving Coordinate Systems

• When H is expressed in terms of components measured relative to a moving
coordinate system x-y-z which has an angular velocity Ω, the moment relation
becomes…
• Expansion of the cross product and rearrangement of terms gives…
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• Comments about the Various Terms

• The Ω’s are the angular velocity components of rotation of the reference axes.
• The H-components are defined according to…
• The ω’s are the components of the angular velocity of the body.
• This equation is the most general form of the moment equation about a fixed
point O or about the mass center G.
• Momentum Equations with Axes Attached to the Body

• If the reference axes are attached to the body, then the moments and products
of inertia are invariant with time, and Ω = ω, and the equations become…
• These equations represent the general moment equations for rigid-body motion
with axes attached to the body.
• These equations also hold with respect to axes through a fixed point O or
through the mass center G.
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• Euler’s Equations
• If the reference axes are attached to the body, and coincide with principal axes
of inertia with origin at the mass center G or at a point O fixed to the body and
fixed in space, then the products of inertia vanish and the equations can be
written as…
Article 7/9 – Energy Equations (1 of 2)
• Work by Forces and Couples

• The resultant of all external forces acting on a rigid body may be replaced by
the resultant force ΣF acting through the mass center and a resultant couple
ΣMG acting about the mass center.
• Work is done by the resultant force at a rate ΣF ⋅ where is the linear
velocity of the mass center.
• Work is done by the resultant couple at a rate ΣMG ⋅ ω where ω is the angular
velocity of the body.
• Integration over time from condition 1 to condition 2 gives the total work done
during the time interval which is expressed as…
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Article 7/9 – Energy Equations (2 of 2)
• Work-Energy Relationship
• From Chapter 4, and also Chapter 6…
• The term U′1-2 is the work done by all active forces external to the body or
system during the interval examined.
• The term ΔT is the corresponding change in total kinetic energy of the rigid
body. The total kinetic energy consists of translational and rotational portions.
• The term ΔV is the corresponding change in potential energy of the rigid body.
The change in potential energy is determined in the usual way, as described
previously in Art. 3/7.
• Application of this equation is limited to two problems of special interest,
parallel-plane motion and gyroscopic motion.
Article 7/10 Parallel-Plane Motion

• Reminder of Art. 7/4
• Angular Velocity Components

• ωx = ωy = 0
• ωz ≠ 0
• Angular-Momentum Components
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Article 7/10 – Parallel-Plane Motion (cont.)

• Moment Relationships
• Force Relationships

The two circular disks, each of mass m1, are connected by the curved bar bent into quarter-
circular arcs and welded to the disks. The bar has a mass m2. The total mass of the assembly is m
= 2m1 + m2. If the disks roll without slipping on a horizontal plane with a constant velocity v of
the disk centers, determine the value of the friction force under each disk at the instant
represented when the plane of the curved bar is horizontal.
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• Free-Body Diagram

• Product of Inertia, Ixz
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• Kinetics
Article 7/11 Gyroscopic Motion: Steady Precession

• Introduction
• Gyroscopic motion occurs whenever the axis about which a body is spinning is
itself rotating about another axis.
• A complete description of this motion involves considerable complexity.
• The most common and useful cases of gyroscopic motion occur when the axis
of a rotor spinning at constant speed turns (precesses) about another axis at a
steady rate.
• Areas of Application
• Gyroscopes have important engineering applications including inertial
guidance systems, compasses, stabilizing devices in ships, and is a critical
consideration in the design of bearings for the shafts of rotors which are
subjected to forced precessions.
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Article 7/11 – Simplified Approach (1 of 8)

• Symmetrical rotor spinning about the z-axis with a large
angular velocity p, known as the spin velocity.
• Apply two forces F to the rotor axle to form a couple M
whose vector is directed along the x-axis.
• The rotor shaft will rotate in the x-z plane about the y-axis
in the sense indicated with a relatively slow angular
velocity Ω = known as the precession velocity.
• The rotor shaft does not turn about the x-axis in the sense
of M, as it would if the rotor were not spinning.
• Axes of Interest
• Spin Axis, z
• Torque Axis, x
• Precession Axis, y

• Particle Analogy
• Particle of mass m moving in the x-z plane with a constant
speed = v.
• Application of force F normal to the linear momentum G =
mv causes a change dG = d(mv).
• The vector dG, and thus dv, lies in the direction of F
according to Newton’s second law F = , which is written
as F dt = dG.
• In the limit, tan dθ = dθ = F dt/mv or F = mv .
• In vector notation with ω = j, the force becomes…
• This is the vector equivalent of the scalar relation Fn = man.
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• Precession of the Rotor
• From Art. 4/4, M = .
• For a high rate of spin p and a low precession rate Ω, the
angular momentum is approximately the vector H = Ip
where I = Izz and the small component of angular
momentum about the y-axis is neglected.
• Application of the couple M normal to H causes a change
dH = d(Ip) in the angular momentum vector which is in the
direction of the couple.
• Thus M, H, and dH are analogous to F, G, and dG.
• With this insight, it is easy to see the rotation vector
undergo a change which is in the direction of M, thereby
causing the axis of the rotor to precess about the y-axis.

• Precession of the Rotor (cont.)
• During the time interval dt, the angular momentum
vector Ip will rotate through the angle d .
• In the limit, tan d = d so that…
• Substitute Ω = d /dt for the magnitude of the precession velocity gives us…
• The vectors M, Ω, and p are mutually perpendicular and may be written in cross-
product form as…
• These two equations apply to moments taken about the mass center or about a fixed
point on the axis of rotation.
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• Spatial Relationships
• Vector dH, and thus dp, is in the direction of M.

• The spin vector p always tends to rotate toward the torque vector M.
• In the equations, M represents the couple due to all forces acting on
the rotor, as disclosed by a correct free-body diagram of the rotor.
• When a rotor is forced to precess, as occurs with the turbine in a ship
which is executing a turn, the motion will generate a gyroscopic
couple M which obeys the equation in both magnitude and direction.
• The foregoing discussion has assumed that the spin speed was large
and the precession rate was small.

• Influence of Precession Rate
• The moment of inertia of the rotor about the y-axis along
with the angular velocity of precession about the y-axis, will
result in an additional component of angular momentum, Hy.
• Thus, we have Hz = Ip and Hy = I0Ω, where I = Izz and I0 =
Iyy.
• The total angular momentum is H = Hy + Hz.
• The change in H remains dH = M dt.
• The precession during time dt is the angle d = M dt/Hz
which is d = M dt/(Ip) as before.
• Thus, the equation is still valid and is an exact description of
the motion for steady precession, as long as the spin axis is
perpendicular to the axis around which precession occurs.
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• Precession of a Symmetrical Top
• The top has a high spin velocity p about its axis and is
supported at point O.
• The spin axis makes an angle θ with the vertical Z-axis, the
axis about which precession will occur.
• Neglect the small angular momentum component due to
precession and assume HO = Ip results from spin only.
• The moment about the support point O is due to the weight
and is mg ̅ sin θ, where ̅ is the distance from O to the mass
center G.
• The angular momentum vector HO has a change dHO = MO dt which is in the
direction of MO during time dt, and that the angle θ is unchanged during this process.
• The increment in the precessional angle around the Z-axis is…

• Precession of a Symmetrical Top (cont.)
• Substitute MO = mg ̅ sin θ and Ω = d /dt to obtain…
• Note that this result is independent of the angle θ.

• Substitute the radius of gyration I = mk2 and solve for the
precessional velocity to obtain…
• This is an approximation based on neglecting the angular momentum

of the top about the axis of precession.
• If the conditions in the equation are not met, precession becomes
unsteady, and θ may oscillate with an amplitude which increases as
the spin velocity decreases. This rise and fall of the rotation axis is
called nutation.
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Article 7/11 – Detailed Analysis (1 of 6)

• Introduction
• Make direct use of Eq. 7/19 by applying it to a body spinning about its axis of
rotational symmetry.
• This equation is valid for rotation about a fixed point or for rotation about the mass
center, e.g., a spinning top, gyroscopic rotors, and spacecraft.
• The general solution to these equations is quite complex and involves elliptic
integrals.
• A large fraction of engineering problems where the motion is one of rotation about a
point involves the steady precession of bodies of revolution which are spinning about
their axes of symmetry. These conditions greatly simplify the equations and thus
facilitate their solution.

• Body of interest possesses axial symmetry.
• Rotation occurs about a fixed point O on its axis.
• The spin axis corresponds to the z-axis.
• The x-y axes are principal axes of inertia, Izz = I and Ixx = Iyy = I0.
• The products of inertia are therefore zero.
• Note that regardless of the rotation of the axes or of the body relative to the
axes (spin about the z-axis), the moments of inertia about the x- and y-axes
remain constant in time.
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• Other Illustrations
• Gimbaled Gyroscope Rotor
• Spacecraft

• Coordinates of Choice
• Axes X-Y-Z are fixed in space.
• Point O is a fixed point on the rotor axis.
• Plane A contains the X-Y axes and point O.
• Plane B contains point O and is always normal to the
rotor axis.
• Angle θ measures the inclination of the rotor axis from
the vertical Z-axis, and the angle between planes A and B.
• The intersection of the two planes is the x-axis, which is
located by the angle from the X-axis.
• The y-axis lies in plane B and the z-axis is the rotor axis.
• The angles θ and completely specify the position of the
rotor axis.
• The angular displacement of the rotor with respect to the
x-y-z axes is specified by the angle measured from the
x-axis to the x′-axis, attached to the rotor.
• The spin velocity becomes p = .
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• Angular Velocity Components
• The axes and body have identical x- and y-components

of angular velocity, but the z-components differ by the
relative angular velocity p.
• Angular Momentum Components

• Substitution
• Comments
• These are the general equations of rotation of a symmetrical body about either
a fixed point O or the mass center G.
• The solution will depend on the moment sums applied to the body about the
three coordinate axes.
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Article 7/11 – Steady-State Precession (1 of 4)

• Angular Velocity Terms
• Steady Precession Rate,
• Constant Angle θ
• Spin Velocity p
• Resulting Equations
• Comments
• Note that because the values of θ, p, and are constant, the moment in the x-direction
must be constant in magnitude.
• The moment axis is perpendicular to the plane defined by the precession axis and the
spin axis.

• Alternative Derivation
• The components of H remain constant as observed in x-y-z, so (d H/dt)xyz = 0.
• From Art. 7/9…
• This expression reduces to…
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• Precession about an Axis Normal to the Rotor Axis
• The most common engineering examples of gyroscopic
motion occur when precession takes place about an axis
which is normal to the rotor axis.
• Substitute θ = π/2, ωz = p, = Ω, and ΣMx = M into Eq.

7/27 to obtain…
• This was derived earlier from a direct analysis of this

special case of gyroscopic motion.

• Precession about an Arbitrary Axis
• Examine the steady precession of a rotor about an
axis for a constant inclination angle θ other than
π/2.
• Moment about x-axis is due to the weight of the
rotor and is ΣMx = mg ̅ sin θ.
• Substitute into Eqs. 7/27 and rearrange to obtain…
• If p is large, is small, and (I0 – I) 2 cos θ is

small compared to I p.
• This can be solved for the precessional velocity to yield…
• Substitute = Ω and I = mk2 to obtain…

which is the same as our earlier result.
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Article 7/11 – Steady Precession with Zero Moment (1 of 5)
• Introduction
• Symmetrical Rotor
• No External Moment about the Mass Center
• Examples include spacecraft and projectiles which

spin and precess during flight.
• Note that Izz = I and Ixx = Iyy = I0 and there are no

products of inertia for this type of rotor.
• The Z-axis has a fixed direction in space and coincides with
the direction of the angular momentum HG.
• HG is constant because ΣMG = 0.
• The x-y-z axes are attached in the same manner as in the
detailed analysis of gyroscopic motion.
• Substitution into the general expressions for the angular
momentum components and simplifying yields…
• Thus, ωx = Ωx = 0 so that θ is constant and the motion is one

of steady precession about the constant HG vector.
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• Situation of Interest (cont.)

• Because ωx = 0, the angular velocity ω of the rotor lies in the
y-z plane along with the Z-axis and makes an angle β with the
z-axis.
• The relationship between β and θ is obtained from…
• Thus, the angular velocity ω makes a constant angle β with

the spin axis.
• The rate of precession is easily obtained by substitution of
ΣMx = 0 into the general expression below.
• The direction of precession depends on the relative magnitudes of the two moments of inertia.
• Case (a): Direct Precession, I0 > I

• If I0 > I, then tan θ > tan β so that θ > β
• Precession is termed direct.
• Body cone rolls on the outside of the space cone.
• Precession velocity and spin velocity p have the
same sign.
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• Case (b): Retrograde Precession, I0 < I

• If I0 < I, then tan θ < tan β so that θ < β
• Precession is termed retrograde.
• Space cone rolls on the inside of the body cone.
• Precession velocity and spin velocity p have the
opposite sign.
• Case (c): I = I0
• If I = I0, then θ = β and the angles must both be zero.
• The body has no precession and merely rotates with an
angular velocity p.
• This condition occurs for a body with point symmetry,
such as with a homogeneous sphere.

The turbine rotor in a ship’s power plant has a mass of 1000 kg, with center of mass at G and a
radius of gyration of 200 mm. The rotor shaft is mounted in bearings A and B with its axis in the
horizontal fore-and-aft direction and turns counterclockwise at a speed of 5000 rev/min when
viewed from the stern. Determine the vertical components of the bearing reactions at A and B if
the ship is making a turn to port (left) of 400-m radius at a speed of 25 knots (1 knot = 0.514
m/s). Does the bow of the ship tend to rise or fall because of the gyroscopic action?
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• Free-Body Diagram

• Precession Velocity
• Kinetics
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• Ship Forces

A proposed space station is closely approximated by four uniform spherical shells, each of mass
m and radius r. The mass of the connecting structure and internal equipment may be neglected as
a first approximation. If the station is designed to rotate about its z-axis at the rate of one
revolution every 4 seconds, determine (a) the number n of complete cycles of precession for
each revolution about the z-axis if the plane of rotation deviates only slightly from a fixed
orientation, and (b) find the period of precession if the spin axis z makes an angle of 20° with
respect to the axis of fixed orientation about which precession occurs. Draw the space and body
cones for this latter condition.
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• Part (a)

• Part (b)
51

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2023/5/31

Article 7/1 Introduction

• Need for Three-Dimensional Solutions

• Complexity of Three-Dimensional Problems

Article 7/2 Translation

Article 7/3 Fixed-Axis Rotation

Article 7/3 – Fixed-Axis Rotation (cont.)

Article 7/4 Parallel-Plane Motion

Article 7/5 Rotation about a Fixed Point

• This complexity requires a more generalized concept of rotation.

Article 7/5 – Rotation and Proper Vectors (1 of 2)

Article 7/5 – Rotation and Proper Vectors (2 of 2)

Article 7/5 – Instantaneous Axis of Rotation

Article 7/5 – Body and Space Cones

• The Space Cone

Article 7/5 – Angular Acceleration (1 of 3)

Article 7/5 – Angular Acceleration (2 of 3)

• Lower figure relates the angular acceleration of a body to its

Article 7/5 – Angular Acceleration (3 of 3)

Article 7/5 – Sample Problem 7/1 (1 of 3)

Article 7/5 – Sample Problem 7/1 (2 of 3)

• Part (b) – Angular Acceleration

Article 7/5 – Sample Problem 7/1 (3 of 3)

• Part (d) – Acceleration of A

Article 7/5 – Sample Problem 7/2 (1 of 5)

Article 7/5 – Sample Problem 7/2 (2 of 5)

Article 7/5 – Sample Problem 7/2 (3 of 5)

Article 7/5 – Sample Problem 7/2 (4 of 5)

Article 7/5 – Sample Problem 7/2 (5 of 5)

Article 7/6 General Motion

• Selection of point B is entirely arbitrary, but is usually a point with known

Article 7/6 – Translating Reference Axes (cont.)

where ωn is the component of the angular velocity

Article 7/6 – Rotating Reference Axes (1 of 4)

• Relative Motion Equations

Article 7/6 – Rotating Reference Axes (2 of 4)

• Relative Acceleration Term: arel = i + j + k

• The relative-position vector rA/B is constant in

• If x-y-z are rigidly attached to the body, then Ω = ω,

Article 7/6 – Rotating Reference Axes (3 of 4)

• Applied to the Relative-Position Vector

or… vA = vB + vrel + Ω × rA/B

Article 7/6 – Rotating Reference Axes (4 of 4)

where [ ] represents any vector V expressible both in

• Second Time Derivative of a General Vector

Article 7/6 – Sample Problem 7/3 (1 of 4)

Article 7/6 – Sample Problem 7/3 (2 of 4)

Article 7/6 – Sample Problem 7/3 (3 of 4)

Article 7/6 – Sample Problem 7/3 (4 of 4)

Article 7/6 – Sample Problem 7/4 (1 of 4)

Article 7/6 – Sample Problem 7/4 (2 of 4)

Article 7/6 – Sample Problem 7/4 (3 of 4)

Article 7/6 – Sample Problem 7/4 (4 of 4)

Article 7/6 – Sample Problem 7/5 (1 of 4)

Article 7/6 – Sample Problem 7/5 (2 of 4)

Article 7/6 – Sample Problem 7/5 (3 of 4)

Article 7/6 – Sample Problem 7/5 (4 of 4)

Article 7/7 Angular Momentum

Article 7/7 – Angular Momentum (cont.)

Article 7/7 – Moments and Products of Inertia (1 of 3)

Article 7/7 – Moments and Products of Inertia (2 of 3)

Article 7/7 – Moments and Products of Inertia (3 of 3)