Q.2] what is Mean Bayesian Network .
4 Write short note on Fuzzy sets and
Explain The Concept of semantic in Bayesian
network.
Ans:- Mean in Bayesian Networks:-The term
"mean" in the context of Bayesian networks
typically refers to calculating the expected
value of a random variable within the
network. In Bayesian networks, you can
propagate probabilistic information and
compute expected values (means) of variables
based on available evidence and the network
structure.
Concept of Semantics in Bayesian
Networks:- In Bayesian networks, the
concept of semantics refers to the meaning
and interpretation of the nodes and edges in
the network. Here are some key semantic
concepts in Bayesian networks.
a. Node Semantics: Each node in a Bayesian
network represents a random variable. The
semantics of a node define what the variable
represents in the real world.
b. Edge Semantics: The directed edges
between nodes represent probabilistic
dependencies. The semantics of these edges
convey how the variables are related and the
direction of causality.
c. Conditional Probability Tables (CPTs): CPTs
associated with each node specify the
conditional probability distribution of that
node given its parents in the network. The
semantics of CPTs provide information on
how each variable's state depends on the
states of its parent variables.
d. Inference Semantics: Inference in
Bayesian networks involves using the
semantics of the network to make
probabilistic inferences. For example, given
observed evidence about some variables, you
can infer the probability distribution of
unobserved variables.
1
Q.
fuzzy logics
Ans:- Fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic are
fundamental concepts in artificial intelligence
(AI) that allow for the representation and
processing of imprecise or uncertain
information. They provide a framework to
deal with situations where data or knowledge
cannot be accurately described using
traditional binary (true or false) logic. Here's a
more detailed explanation of fuzzy sets and
fuzzy logic in AI:
1. *Fuzzy Sets:*
- Fuzzy sets were introduced by Lotfi Zadeh
in 1965 as a way to model and manipulate
vague or uncertain information. Unlike
classical sets, where an element is either a
member or not, a fuzzy set allows elements
to have a degree of membership ranging
between 0 and 1. This membership value
represents the degree of belongingness of an
element to the set.
2. *Fuzzy Logic:*
- Fuzzy logic is an extension of classical
(Boolean) logic that incorporates fuzzy sets
and their associated operations. It is
particularly well-suited for handling imprecise
data and making decisions based on
incomplete or uncertain information.
Applications of Fuzzy Logic in AI:-Fuzzy
logic has found applications in a wide range of
fields, including expert systems, decision
support systems, image and speech
processing, natural language processing, and
machine learning. It is particularly useful in
cases where there is ambiguity, uncertainty,
or imprecision in the data.
*Advantages and Limitations:*
- Fuzzy logic:- is valuable for handling real-
world problems where strict binary logic is
inadequate. It provides a more human-like
way of reasoning by accommodating
uncertainty and imprecision.
fuzzy sets:-it can be computationally
intensive and may require careful design of
fuzzy sets and rules. Additionally, it may not
always be the best approach for all AI
problems, and its success depends on
appropriate modeling and parameter tuning.
Q.2] what is Mean Bayesian Network .
Explain The Concept of semantic in Bayesian
network.
Ans:- Mean in Bayesian Networks:-The term
"mean" in the context of Bayesian networks
typically refers to calculating the expected
value of a random variable within the
network. In Bayesian networks, you can
propagate probabilistic information and
compute expected values (means) of variables
based on available evidence and the network
structure.
Concept of Semantics in Bayesian
Networks:- In Bayesian networks, the
concept of semantics refers to the meaning
and interpretation of the nodes and edges in
the network. Here are some key semantic
concepts in Bayesian networks.
a. Node Semantics: Each node in a Bayesian
network represents a random variable. The
semantics of a node define what the variable
represents in the real world.
b. Edge Semantics: The directed edges
between nodes represent probabilistic
dependencies. The semantics of these edges
convey how the variables are related and the
direction of causality.
c. Conditional Probability Tables (CPTs): CPTs
associated with each node specify the
conditional probability distribution of that
node given its parents in the network. The
semantics of CPTs provide information on
how each variable's state depends on the
states of its parent variables.
d. Inference Semantics: Inference in
Bayesian networks involves using the
semantics of the network to make
probabilistic inferences. For example, given
observed evidence about some variables, you
can infer the probability distribution of
unobserved variables.
1
Q.4 Write short note on Fuzzy sets and
fuzzy logics
Ans:- Fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic are
fundamental concepts in artificial intelligence
(AI) that allow for the representation and
processing of imprecise or uncertain
information. They provide a framework to
deal with situations where data or knowledge
cannot be accurately described using
traditional binary (true or false) logic. Here's a
more detailed explanation of fuzzy sets and
fuzzy logic in AI:
1. *Fuzzy Sets:*
- Fuzzy sets were introduced by Lotfi Zadeh
in 1965 as a way to model and manipulate
vague or uncertain information. Unlike
classical sets, where an element is either a
member or not, a fuzzy set allows elements
to have a degree of membership ranging
between 0 and 1. This membership value
represents the degree of belongingness of an
element to the set.
2. *Fuzzy Logic:*
- Fuzzy logic is an extension of classical
(Boolean) logic that incorporates fuzzy sets
and their associated operations. It is
particularly well-suited for handling imprecise
data and making decisions based on
incomplete or uncertain information.
Applications of Fuzzy Logic in AI:-Fuzzy
logic has found applications in a wide range of
fields, including expert systems, decision
support systems, image and speech
processing, natural language processing, and
machine learning. It is particularly useful in
cases where there is ambiguity, uncertainty,
or imprecision in the data.
*Advantages and Limitations:*
- Fuzzy logic:- is valuable for handling real-
world problems where strict binary logic is
inadequate. It provides a more human-like
way of reasoning by accommodating
uncertainty and imprecision.
fuzzy sets:-it can be computationally
intensive and may require careful design of
fuzzy sets and rules. Additionally, it may not
always be the best approach for all AI
problems, and its success depends on
appropriate modeling and parameter tuning.
Q.2] what is Mean Bayesian Network .
Explain The Concept of semantic in Bayesian
network.
Ans:- Mean in Bayesian Networks:-The term
"mean" in the context of Bayesian networks
typically refers to calculating the expected
value of a random variable within the
network. In Bayesian networks, you can
propagate probabilistic information and
compute expected values (means) of variables
based on available evidence and the network
structure.
Concept of Semantics in Bayesian
Networks:- In Bayesian networks, the
concept of semantics refers to the meaning
and interpretation of the nodes and edges in
the network. Here are some key semantic
concepts in Bayesian networks.
a. Node Semantics: Each node in a Bayesian
network represents a random variable. The
semantics of a node define what the variable
represents in the real world.
b. Edge Semantics: The directed edges
between nodes represent probabilistic
dependencies. The semantics of these edges
convey how the variables are related and the
direction of causality.
c. Conditional Probability Tables (CPTs): CPTs
associated with each node specify the
conditional probability distribution of that
node given its parents in the network. The
semantics of CPTs provide information on
how each variable's state depends on the
states of its parent variables.
d. Inference Semantics: Inference in
Bayesian networks involves using the
semantics of the network to make
probabilistic inferences. For example, given
observed evidence about some variables, you
can infer the probability distribution of
unobserved variables.
1
Q.4 Write short note on Fuzzy sets and
fuzzy logics
Ans:- Fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic are
fundamental concepts in artificial intelligence
(AI) that allow for the representation and
processing of imprecise or uncertain
information. They provide a framework to
deal with situations where data or knowledge
cannot be accurately described using
traditional binary (true or false) logic. Here's a
more detailed explanation of fuzzy sets and
fuzzy logic in AI:
1. *Fuzzy Sets:*
- Fuzzy sets were introduced by Lotfi Zadeh
in 1965 as a way to model and manipulate
vague or uncertain information. Unlike
classical sets, where an element is either a
member or not, a fuzzy set allows elements
to have a degree of membership ranging
between 0 and 1. This membership value
represents the degree of belongingness of an
element to the set.
2. *Fuzzy Logic:*
- Fuzzy logic is an extension of classical
(Boolean) logic that incorporates fuzzy sets
and their associated operations. It is
particularly well-suited for handling imprecise
data and making decisions based on
incomplete or uncertain information.
Applications of Fuzzy Logic in AI:-Fuzzy
logic has found applications in a wide range of
fields, including expert systems, decision
support systems, image and speech
processing, natural language processing, and
machine learning. It is particularly useful in
cases where there is ambiguity, uncertainty,
or imprecision in the data.
*Advantages and Limitations:*
- Fuzzy logic:- is valuable for handling real-
world problems where strict binary logic is
inadequate. It provides a more human-like
way of reasoning by accommodating
uncertainty and imprecision.
fuzzy sets:-it can be computationally
intensive and may require careful design of
fuzzy sets and rules. Additionally, it may not
always be the best approach for all AI
problems, and its success depends on
appropriate modeling and parameter tuning.
Q.3]Write a short note on Dempster starter
Theory?
Ans:- a.)Dempster-Shafer Theory (DST) is a
theory of evidence that has its roots in the
work of Dempster and Shafer. While
traditional probability theory is limited to
assigning probabilities to mutually exclusive
single events, DST extends this to sets of
events in a finite discrete space. This
generalization allows DST to handle evidence
associated with multiple possible events,
enabling it to represent uncertainty in a more
meaningful way. DST also provides a more
flexible and precise approach to handling
uncertain information without relying on
additional assumptions about events within
an evidential set.
b.)Where sufficient evidence is present to
assign probabilities to single events, the
Dempster-Shafer model can collapse to the
traditional probabilistic formulation.
Additionally, one of the most significant
features of DST is its ability to handle
different levels of precision regarding
information without requiring further
assumptions. This characteristic enables the
direct representation of uncertainty in system
responses, where an imprecise input can be
characterized by a set or interval, and the
resulting output is also a set or interval.
c.)The incorporation of Dempster Shafer
theory in artificial intelligence allows for a
more comprehensive treatment of
uncertainty. By leveraging the unique
features of this theory, AI systems can better
navigate uncertain scenarios, leveraging the
potential of multiple evidentiary types and
effectively managing conflicts. The utilization
of Dempster Shafer theory in artificial
intelligence empowers decision-making
processes in the face of uncertainty and
enhances the robustness of AI systems.
Therefore, Dempster-Shafer theory is a
powerful tool for building AI systems that can
handle complex uncertain scenarios.
2
Q.5] Explain concept of planning and
Write components of planning system.
Ans:-AI Planning is a field of Artificial
Intelligence which explores the process of
using autonomous techniques to solve
planning and scheduling problems. A planning
problem is one in which we have some initial
starting state, which we wish to transform
into a desired goal state through the
application of a set of actions.
Component :-
1.)Initial State:-a.)The initial state defines
the starting conditions or the current state of
the world or system. b.)It includes
information about the environment, objects,
their properties, and their relationships.
2.)Goal:-a.)The goal specifies the desired
state or the outcome that the planning
system aims to achieve. b.)The goal provides
the direction and purpose for the planning
process, guiding the selection of actions and
decisions.
3.)Actions:-Actions represent the executable
steps or operations that can be taken to
modify the state of the system.
4.)Transition Model:-The transition model
defines the dynamics of the system,
specifying how the state changes when an
action is applied.
5.)Search Algorithm:-The search algorithm
determines the strategy for exploring the
space of possible plans or sequences of
actions.
6.)Plan Representation:
a.)A plan is the output of the planning system
and represents the sequence of actions to be
executed.
b.)Plans can be represented in various
formats, such as action sequences, decision
trees, or graphs.
7.)Plan Execution and Monitoring:
Once a plan is generated, it needs to be
executed in the real or simulated
environment.
During execution, the actual state of the
system is monitored and compared to the
expected states described in the plan.
Q.3]Write a short note on Dempster starter
Theory?
Ans:- a.)Dempster-Shafer Theory (DST) is a
theory of evidence that has its roots in the
work of Dempster and Shafer. While
traditional probability theory is limited to
assigning probabilities to mutually exclusive
single events, DST extends this to sets of
events in a finite discrete space. This
generalization allows DST to handle evidence
associated with multiple possible events,
enabling it to represent uncertainty in a more
meaningful way. DST also provides a more
flexible and precise approach to handling
uncertain information without relying on
additional assumptions about events within
an evidential set.
b.)Where sufficient evidence is present to
assign probabilities to single events, the
Dempster-Shafer model can collapse to the
traditional probabilistic formulation.
Additionally, one of the most significant
features of DST is its ability to handle
different levels of precision regarding
information without requiring further
assumptions. This characteristic enables the
direct representation of uncertainty in system
responses, where an imprecise input can be
characterized by a set or interval, and the
resulting output is also a set or interval.
c.)The incorporation of Dempster Shafer
theory in artificial intelligence allows for a
more comprehensive treatment of
uncertainty. By leveraging the unique
features of this theory, AI systems can better
navigate uncertain scenarios, leveraging the
potential of multiple evidentiary types and
effectively managing conflicts. The utilization
of Dempster Shafer theory in artificial
intelligence empowers decision-making
processes in the face of uncertainty and
enhances the robustness of AI systems.
Therefore, Dempster-Shafer theory is a
powerful tool for building AI systems that can
handle complex uncertain scenarios.
2
Q.5] Explain concept of planning and
Write components of planning system.
Ans:-AI Planning is a field of Artificial
Intelligence which explores the process of
using autonomous techniques to solve
planning and scheduling problems. A planning
problem is one in which we have some initial
starting state, which we wish to transform
into a desired goal state through the
application of a set of actions.
Component :-
1.)Initial State:-a.)The initial state defines
the starting conditions or the current state of
the world or system. b.)It includes
information about the environment, objects,
their properties, and their relationships.
2.)Goal:-a.)The goal specifies the desired
state or the outcome that the planning
system aims to achieve. b.)The goal provides
the direction and purpose for the planning
process, guiding the selection of actions and
decisions.
3.)Actions:-Actions represent the executable
steps or operations that can be taken to
modify the state of the system.
4.)Transition Model:-The transition model
defines the dynamics of the system,
specifying how the state changes when an
action is applied.
5.)Search Algorithm:-The search algorithm
determines the strategy for exploring the
space of possible plans or sequences of
actions.
6.)Plan Representation:
a.)A plan is the output of the planning system
and represents the sequence of actions to be
executed.
b.)Plans can be represented in various
formats, such as action sequences, decision
trees, or graphs.
7.)Plan Execution and Monitoring:
Once a plan is generated, it needs to be
executed in the real or simulated
environment.
During execution, the actual state of the
system is monitored and compared to the
expected states described in the plan.
Q.3]Write a short note on Dempster starter
Theory?
Ans:- a.)Dempster-Shafer Theory (DST) is a
theory of evidence that has its roots in the
work of Dempster and Shafer. While
traditional probability theory is limited to
assigning probabilities to mutually exclusive
single events, DST extends this to sets of
events in a finite discrete space. This
generalization allows DST to handle evidence
associated with multiple possible events,
enabling it to represent uncertainty in a more
meaningful way. DST also provides a more
flexible and precise approach to handling
uncertain information without relying on
additional assumptions about events within
an evidential set.
b.)Where sufficient evidence is present to
assign probabilities to single events, the
Dempster-Shafer model can collapse to the
traditional probabilistic formulation.
Additionally, one of the most significant
features of DST is its ability to handle
different levels of precision regarding
information without requiring further
assumptions. This characteristic enables the
direct representation of uncertainty in system
responses, where an imprecise input can be
characterized by a set or interval, and the
resulting output is also a set or interval.
c.)The incorporation of Dempster Shafer
theory in artificial intelligence allows for a
more comprehensive treatment of
uncertainty. By leveraging the unique
features of this theory, AI systems can better
navigate uncertain scenarios, leveraging the
potential of multiple evidentiary types and
effectively managing conflicts. The utilization
of Dempster Shafer theory in artificial
intelligence empowers decision-making
processes in the face of uncertainty and
enhances the robustness of AI systems.
Therefore, Dempster-Shafer theory is a
powerful tool for building AI systems that can
handle complex uncertain scenarios.
2
Q.5] Explain concept of planning and
Write components of planning system.
Ans:-AI Planning is a field of Artificial
Intelligence which explores the process of
using autonomous techniques to solve
planning and scheduling problems. A planning
problem is one in which we have some initial
starting state, which we wish to transform
into a desired goal state through the
application of a set of actions.
Component :-
1.)Initial State:-a.)The initial state defines
the starting conditions or the current state of
the world or system. b.)It includes
information about the environment, objects,
their properties, and their relationships.
2.)Goal:-a.)The goal specifies the desired
state or the outcome that the planning
system aims to achieve. b.)The goal provides
the direction and purpose for the planning
process, guiding the selection of actions and
decisions.
3.)Actions:-Actions represent the executable
steps or operations that can be taken to
modify the state of the system.
4.)Transition Model:-The transition model
defines the dynamics of the system,
specifying how the state changes when an
action is applied.
5.)Search Algorithm:-The search algorithm
determines the strategy for exploring the
space of possible plans or sequences of
actions.
6.)Plan Representation:
a.)A plan is the output of the planning system
and represents the sequence of actions to be
executed.
b.)Plans can be represented in various
formats, such as action sequences, decision
trees, or graphs.
7.)Plan Execution and Monitoring:
Once a plan is generated, it needs to be
executed in the real or simulated
environment.
During execution, the actual state of the
system is monitored and compared to the
expected states described in the plan.
Q.6] Explain Goal Stack Planning with
Example ?
Ans:-a.)Planning is process of determining
various actions that often lead to a solution.
b.)Planning is useful for non-decomposable
problems where subgoals often interact.
c.)Goal Stack Planning (in short GSP) is the
one of the simplest planning algorithm that is
designed to handle problems having
compound goals. And it utilizes STRIP as a
formal language for specifying and
manipulating the world with which it is
working. d.)This approach uses a Stack for
plan generation. The stack can contain Sub-
goal and actions described using predicates.
The Sub-goals can be solved one by one in
any order.
Algorithm:
*Push the Goal state in to the Stack
*Push the individual Predicates of the Goal
State into the Stack
*Loop till the Stack is empty
*Pop an element E from the stack
*IFE is a Predicate
*IF E is True then
*Do Nothing
*ELSE
*Push the relevant action into the Stack
*Push the individual predicates of the
Precondition of the action into the Stack
*Else IF E is an Action
*Apply the action to the current State.
*Add the action 'a' to the plan
Explanation:-The Goal Stack Planning
Algorithms works will the stack. It starts by
pushing the unsatisfied goals into the stack.
Then it pushes the individual subgoals into
the stack and its pops an element out of the
stack. When popping an element out of the
stack the element could be either a predicate
describing a situation about our world or it
could be an action that can be applied to our
world under consideration. So based on the
kind of element we are popping out from the
stack a decision has to be made. If it is a
Predicate. Then compares it with the
description of the current world, if it is
satisfied or is already present in our current
situation then there is nothing to do because
already its true.
3 changes in the environment or goals.
Q.7]Explain the concept of Hierarchical
Planning with Example?
Ans:- a.)Hierarchical planning in artificial
intelligence (AI) is a planning approach that
involves organizing tasks and actions into
multiple levels of abstraction or hierarchy,
where higher-level tasks are decomposed into
a sequence of lower-level tasks. It provides a
way to efficiently reason and plan in complex
domains by utilizing a hierarchy of goals and
subgoals. Hierarchical planning allows AI
systems to make decisions at different levels
of abstraction, enabling them to tackle
complex tasks and environments effectively.
b.)In hierarchical planning, the high-level task
is represented as the ultimate goal, and it is
decomposed into subgoals or actions at lower
levels of the hierarchy. The hierarchy can be
organized as a tree or a directed acyclic graph
(DAG), with the high-level goal as the root
node and the lowest-level tasks or actions as
leaf nodes. Planning can occur at different
levels of the hierarchy, with the system
selecting goals and generating plans for
achieving subgoals or actions. The plans
generated at different levels are then
synthesized into a cohesive plan for
execution.
Components of Hierarchical Planning:-
High-level goals: The overall objectives or
tasks that the AI system aims to achieve.
Task decomposition: Breaking down high-
level goals into lower-level tasks or subgoals.
Planning hierarchy: The organization of
tasks or subgoals into a hierarchical structure,
such as a tree or a directed acyclic graph
(DAG).
Plan generation at different levels:
Reasoning and planning at different levels of
the hierarchy, with plans generated for
achieving subgoals or actions.
Plan synthesis: Combining the plans for
achieving subgoals or actions into a cohesive
plan for execution.
Plan execution: Carrying out the actions or
subgoals in the plan in the correct order.
Plan adaptation: Revising plans at different
levels of abstraction to accommodate
Q.6] Explain Goal Stack Planning with
Example ?
Ans:-a.)Planning is process of determining
various actions that often lead to a solution.
b.)Planning is useful for non-decomposable
problems where subgoals often interact.
c.)Goal Stack Planning (in short GSP) is the
one of the simplest planning algorithm that is
designed to handle problems having
compound goals. And it utilizes STRIP as a
formal language for specifying and
manipulating the world with which it is
working. d.)This approach uses a Stack for
plan generation. The stack can contain Sub-
goal and actions described using predicates.
The Sub-goals can be solved one by one in
any order.
Algorithm:
*Push the Goal state in to the Stack
*Push the individual Predicates of the Goal
State into the Stack
*Loop till the Stack is empty
*Pop an element E from the stack
*IFE is a Predicate
*IF E is True then
*Do Nothing
*ELSE
*Push the relevant action into the Stack
*Push the individual predicates of the
Precondition of the action into the Stack
*Else IF E is an Action
*Apply the action to the current State.
*Add the action 'a' to the plan
Explanation:-The Goal Stack Planning
Algorithms works will the stack. It starts by
pushing the unsatisfied goals into the stack.
Then it pushes the individual subgoals into
the stack and its pops an element out of the
stack. When popping an element out of the
stack the element could be either a predicate
describing a situation about our world or it
could be an action that can be applied to our
world under consideration. So based on the
kind of element we are popping out from the
stack a decision has to be made. If it is a
Predicate. Then compares it with the
description of the current world, if it is
satisfied or is already present in our current
situation then there is nothing to do because
already its true.
3 changes in the environment or goals.
Q.7]Explain the concept of Hierarchical
Planning with Example?
Ans:- a.)Hierarchical planning in artificial
intelligence (AI) is a planning approach that
involves organizing tasks and actions into
multiple levels of abstraction or hierarchy,
where higher-level tasks are decomposed into
a sequence of lower-level tasks. It provides a
way to efficiently reason and plan in complex
domains by utilizing a hierarchy of goals and
subgoals. Hierarchical planning allows AI
systems to make decisions at different levels
of abstraction, enabling them to tackle
complex tasks and environments effectively.
b.)In hierarchical planning, the high-level task
is represented as the ultimate goal, and it is
decomposed into subgoals or actions at lower
levels of the hierarchy. The hierarchy can be
organized as a tree or a directed acyclic graph
(DAG), with the high-level goal as the root
node and the lowest-level tasks or actions as
leaf nodes. Planning can occur at different
levels of the hierarchy, with the system
selecting goals and generating plans for
achieving subgoals or actions. The plans
generated at different levels are then
synthesized into a cohesive plan for
execution.
Components of Hierarchical Planning:-
High-level goals: The overall objectives or
tasks that the AI system aims to achieve.
Task decomposition: Breaking down high-
level goals into lower-level tasks or subgoals.
Planning hierarchy: The organization of
tasks or subgoals into a hierarchical structure,
such as a tree or a directed acyclic graph
(DAG).
Plan generation at different levels:
Reasoning and planning at different levels of
the hierarchy, with plans generated for
achieving subgoals or actions.
Plan synthesis: Combining the plans for
achieving subgoals or actions into a cohesive
plan for execution.
Plan execution: Carrying out the actions or
subgoals in the plan in the correct order.
Plan adaptation: Revising plans at different
levels of abstraction to accommodate
Q.6] Explain Goal Stack Planning with
Example ?
Ans:-a.)Planning is process of determining
various actions that often lead to a solution.
b.)Planning is useful for non-decomposable
problems where subgoals often interact.
c.)Goal Stack Planning (in short GSP) is the
one of the simplest planning algorithm that is
designed to handle problems having
compound goals. And it utilizes STRIP as a
formal language for specifying and
manipulating the world with which it is
working. d.)This approach uses a Stack for
plan generation. The stack can contain Sub-
goal and actions described using predicates.
The Sub-goals can be solved one by one in
any order.
Algorithm:
*Push the Goal state in to the Stack
*Push the individual Predicates of the Goal
State into the Stack
*Loop till the Stack is empty
*Pop an element E from the stack
*IFE is a Predicate
*IF E is True then
*Do Nothing
*ELSE
*Push the relevant action into the Stack
*Push the individual predicates of the
Precondition of the action into the Stack
*Else IF E is an Action
*Apply the action to the current State.
*Add the action 'a' to the plan
Explanation:-The Goal Stack Planning
Algorithms works will the stack. It starts by
pushing the unsatisfied goals into the stack.
Then it pushes the individual subgoals into
the stack and its pops an element out of the
stack. When popping an element out of the
stack the element could be either a predicate
describing a situation about our world or it
could be an action that can be applied to our
world under consideration. So based on the
kind of element we are popping out from the
stack a decision has to be made. If it is a
Predicate. Then compares it with the
description of the current world, if it is
satisfied or is already present in our current
situation then there is nothing to do because
already its true.
3 changes in the environment or goals.
Q.7]Explain the concept of Hierarchical
Planning with Example?
Ans:- a.)Hierarchical planning in artificial
intelligence (AI) is a planning approach that
involves organizing tasks and actions into
multiple levels of abstraction or hierarchy,
where higher-level tasks are decomposed into
a sequence of lower-level tasks. It provides a
way to efficiently reason and plan in complex
domains by utilizing a hierarchy of goals and
subgoals. Hierarchical planning allows AI
systems to make decisions at different levels
of abstraction, enabling them to tackle
complex tasks and environments effectively.
b.)In hierarchical planning, the high-level task
is represented as the ultimate goal, and it is
decomposed into subgoals or actions at lower
levels of the hierarchy. The hierarchy can be
organized as a tree or a directed acyclic graph
(DAG), with the high-level goal as the root
node and the lowest-level tasks or actions as
leaf nodes. Planning can occur at different
levels of the hierarchy, with the system
selecting goals and generating plans for
achieving subgoals or actions. The plans
generated at different levels are then
synthesized into a cohesive plan for
execution.
Components of Hierarchical Planning:-
High-level goals: The overall objectives or
tasks that the AI system aims to achieve.
Task decomposition: Breaking down high-
level goals into lower-level tasks or subgoals.
Planning hierarchy: The organization of
tasks or subgoals into a hierarchical structure,
such as a tree or a directed acyclic graph
(DAG).
Plan generation at different levels:
Reasoning and planning at different levels of
the hierarchy, with plans generated for
achieving subgoals or actions.
Plan synthesis: Combining the plans for
achieving subgoals or actions into a cohesive
plan for execution.
Plan execution: Carrying out the actions or
subgoals in the plan in the correct order.
Plan adaptation: Revising plans at different
levels of abstraction to accommodate
 Q.8] Write short note on other
planning Techniques?
Ans:- Hierarchical Planning: In hierarchical
planning, at each level of hierarchy the
objective functions are reduced to a small
number of activities at the next lower
level. So the computational cost of finding
the correct way to arrange these activities
for the current problem is small.
Hierarchical methods can result in linear
time. The initial plan of hierarchical
planning describes the complete problem
which is a very high level description. The
plans are refined by applying action
decompositions.
2) Conditional Planning: It deals with the
planning by some appropriate conditions.
The agents plan first and then execute the
plan that was produced. The agents find
out which part of the plan to execute by
including sensing actions in the plan to
test for the appropriate conditions.
handle any unfavorable circumstances in
the environment.
6) Multiagent Planning: In multiagent
planning some other new agents may
involved with our single agent in the
environment. This may lead to a poor
performance because dealing with other
agents is not the same as dealing with the
nature. It is necessary when there are
other agents in the environment with
which to cooperate, compete or
coordinate.
7) Multibody Planning: This planning
constructs joint plans, using an efficient
decomposition of joint action descriptions,
but must be augmented with some form
of co-ordination of two cooperative agents
are to agree on which joint plan to
execute.

3) Exact Planning: It is also called as

conformation planning. It ensures that the
plan achieves the goal in all possible
circumstances regardless of the true initial
state and the actual actions outcome. This
planning is based on the idea that the
world can be forced into a given state
even when the agent has only partial
information about the current state.

4) Replanning: It occurs when there is any

wrong information regarding with the
planning. The agent can plan the same
plan as the conditional planner or some
new steps.

5) Continuous Planning: In this planning,

the planner at first achieves the goal and
then only can stop. A continuous planner 4
is designed to persist over a lifetime. It can
 Q.8] Write short note on other
planning Techniques?
Ans:- Hierarchical Planning: In hierarchical
planning, at each level of hierarchy the
objective functions are reduced to a small
number of activities at the next lower
level. So the computational cost of finding
the correct way to arrange these activities
for the current problem is small.
Hierarchical methods can result in linear
time. The initial plan of hierarchical
planning describes the complete problem
which is a very high level description. The
plans are refined by applying action
decompositions.
2) Conditional Planning: It deals with the
planning by some appropriate conditions.
The agents plan first and then execute the
plan that was produced. The agents find
out which part of the plan to execute by
including sensing actions in the plan to
test for the appropriate conditions.
handle any unfavorable circumstances in
the environment.
6) Multiagent Planning: In multiagent
planning some other new agents may
involved with our single agent in the
environment. This may lead to a poor
performance because dealing with other
agents is not the same as dealing with the
nature. It is necessary when there are
other agents in the environment with
which to cooperate, compete or
coordinate.
7) Multibody Planning: This planning
constructs joint plans, using an efficient
decomposition of joint action descriptions,
but must be augmented with some form
of co-ordination of two cooperative agents
are to agree on which joint plan to
execute.

3) Exact Planning: It is also called as

conformation planning. It ensures that the
plan achieves the goal in all possible
circumstances regardless of the true initial
state and the actual actions outcome. This
planning is based on the idea that the
world can be forced into a given state
even when the agent has only partial
information about the current state.

4) Replanning: It occurs when there is any

wrong information regarding with the
planning. The agent can plan the same
plan as the conditional planner or some
new steps.

5) Continuous Planning: In this planning,

the planner at first achieves the goal and
then only can stop. A continuous planner
is designed to persist over a lifetime. It can 4
 Q.8] Write short note on other
planning Techniques?
Ans:- Hierarchical Planning: In hierarchical
planning, at each level of hierarchy the
objective functions are reduced to a small
number of activities at the next lower
level. So the computational cost of finding
the correct way to arrange these activities
for the current problem is small.
Hierarchical methods can result in linear
time. The initial plan of hierarchical
planning describes the complete problem
which is a very high level description. The
plans are refined by applying action
decompositions.
2) Conditional Planning: It deals with the
planning by some appropriate conditions.
The agents plan first and then execute the
plan that was produced. The agents find
out which part of the plan to execute by
including sensing actions in the plan to
test for the appropriate conditions.
handle any unfavorable circumstances in
the environment.
6) Multiagent Planning: In multiagent
planning some other new agents may
involved with our single agent in the
environment. This may lead to a poor
performance because dealing with other
agents is not the same as dealing with the
nature. It is necessary when there are
other agents in the environment with
which to cooperate, compete or
coordinate.
7) Multibody Planning: This planning
constructs joint plans, using an efficient
decomposition of joint action descriptions,
but must be augmented with some form
of co-ordination of two cooperative agents
are to agree on which joint plan to
execute.

3) Exact Planning: It is also called as

conformation planning. It ensures that the
plan achieves the goal in all possible
circumstances regardless of the true initial
state and the actual actions outcome. This
planning is based on the idea that the
world can be forced into a given state
even when the agent has only partial
information about the current state.

4) Replanning: It occurs when there is any

wrong information regarding with the
planning. The agent can plan the same
plan as the conditional planner or some
new steps.

5) Continuous Planning: In this planning,

the planner at first achieves the goal and
then only can stop. A continuous planner
is designed to persist over a lifetime. It can 4