UNIT I NETWORKING CONCEPTS : Peer To Peer Vs Client-Server Networks. Network Devices.

Network Terminology. Network Speeds. Network throughput, delay. Osi Model. Packets,
Frames, And Headers. Collision And Broadcast Domains. LAN Vs WAN. Network Adapter. Hub.
Switch. Router. Firewall, IP addressing.

Peer To Peer Vs Client-Server Networks:

lient-Server Network: This model are broadly used network model. In Client-Server
Network, Clients and server are differentiated, Specific server and clients are present.
In Client-Server Network, Centralized server is used to store the data because its
management is centralized.In Client-Server Network, Server respond the services
which is request by Client.

Peer-to-Peer Network: This model does not differentiate the clients and the servers,
In this each and every node is itself client and server. In Peer-to-Peer Network, Each
and every node can do both request and respond for the services.

 Peer-to-peer networks are often created by collections of 12 or fewer machines. All

of these computers use unique security to keep their data, but they also share data
with every other node.
 In peer-to-peer networks, the nodes both consume and produce resources.
Therefore, as the number of nodes grows, so does the peer-to-peer network’s
capability for resource sharing. This is distinct from client-server networks where
an increase in nodes causes the server to become overloaded.
 It is challenging to give nodes in peer-to-peer networks proper security because
they function as both clients and servers. A denial of service attack may result from
this.
 The majority of contemporary operating systems, including Windows and Mac OS,
come with software to implement peer

Difference between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer Network:

S.NO Client-Server Network Peer-to-Peer Network

In Client-Server Network, Clients and server are

differentiated, Specific server and clients are In Peer-to-Peer Network, Clients and server are
1. present. not differentiated.

Client-Server Network focuses on information While Peer-to-Peer Network focuses on

2. sharing. connectivity.

In Client-Server Network, Centralized server is While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each peer has its
3. used to store the data. own data.

4. In Client-Server Network, Server respond the While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every
services which is request by Client. node can do both request and respond for the
 services.

Client-Server Network are costlier than Peer-to- While Peer-to-Peer Network are less costlier than
5. Peer Network. Client-Server Network.

Client-Server Network are more stable than Peer- While Peer-to-Peer Network are less stable if
6. to-Peer Network. number of peer is increase.

Client-Server Network is used for both small and While Peer-to-Peer Network is generally suited
7. large networks. for small networks with fewer than 10 computers.
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Network Devices.:

Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are

physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to communicate
and interact with one another. For example Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch,
Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.
1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate
the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or
corrupted to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the
same network. An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do
not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit
and regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting if original strength.
It is a 2-port device.
2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires
coming from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology
which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are
sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts
connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to
find out the best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and
wastage.
Types of Hub

 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can
clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a
repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used to extend the maximum
distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power
supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network
without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance
between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote
management capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network
 devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing
through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with
add on the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the
source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on
the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a
2 port device.

Types of Bridges :
 Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are
completely unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is
added or deleted from the network, reconfiguration of the stations is
unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge
forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed
by the source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host
can discover the frame by sending a special frame called the discovery
frame, which spreads through the entire network using all possible paths to
the destination.
4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can
boost its efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance.
A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking
before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward
packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct
port only. In other words, the switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but
the broadcast domain remains the same.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based
on their IP addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers
normally connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing
table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. The
router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it
6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two
networks that may work upon different networking models. They work as
messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to
another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate
at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switches or
routers. A gateway is also called a protocol converter.
7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines
features of both bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a
network layer. Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets across
networks and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network
traffic.
8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to
connect the computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish
a LAN. It has a unique id that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to
connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the computer
and the router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device which means that it
works on both the physical and data link layers of the network model.

Network Terminology:
For a specific purpose if things are connected together, are referred to as a NETWORK. A
network can be of many types, like a telephone network, television network, computer
network, or even a people network.

Similarly, a COMPUTER NETWORK is also a kind of setup, where it connects two or more
devices to share a range of services and information in the form of e-mails and
messages, databases, documents, websites, audios and videos, telephone calls, and
video conferences, etc. among them.

A PROTOCOL is nothing but a set of defined rules, which has to be followed by every
connected device across a network to communicate and share information among them. To
facilitates End to End communication, a number of protocols worked together to
form Protocol Suites or Stacks. .

Some basic Protocols are:

 IP : Internet Protocol
 FTP : File Transfer Protocol
 SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
The Network reference models were developed to allow products from
different manufacturers to interoperate on a network. A network reference
model serves as a blueprint, detailing standards for how protocol
communication should occur.
The most widely recognized reference models are the Open Systems
Interconnect ( OSI ) Model and Department of Defense ( DoD, also known
as TCP/IP ) model.

 LANs (Local Area Networks)

 MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks)
 WANs (Wide Area Networks)
An Internetwork is a general term describing multiple networks connected
together. The Internet is the largest and most well-known internetwork.

 SAN (Storage Area Network): A SAN provides systems with high-speed,

lossless access to high-capacity storage devices.
 VPN (Virtual Private Network): A VPN allows for information to be securely
sent across a public or unsecured network, such as the Internet. Common
uses of a VPN are to connect branch offices or remote users to the main
office.

 A host can act as a Client when he is requesting information.

 A host can act as a Server when he provides information.
 A host can also request and provide information, which is called Peer.
  Open system:
A system which is connected to the network and is ready for
communication.
 Closed system:
A system which is not connected to the network and can’t be
communicated with.
 Computer Network:
An interconnection of multiple devices, also known as hosts, that are
connected using multiple paths for the purpose of sending/receiving data
or media. Computer networks can also include multiple devices/mediums
which help in the communication between two different devices; these are
known as Network devices and include things such as routers, switches,
hubs, and bridges

OSI:
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model that specifies
standards for communications protocols and also the functionalities of each layer. The
OSI has been developed by the International Organization For Standardization and it
is 7 layer architecture. Each layer of OSI has different functions and each layer has to
follow different protocols.
The 7 layers are:-
1. physical layer
2. Data link layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer
 Protocol:
A protocol is the set of rules or algorithms which define the way how two entities
can communicate across the network and there exists different protocol defined at
each layer of the OSI model. Few of such protocols are TCP, IP, UDP, ARP,
DHCP, FTP and so on.

UNIQUE IDENTIFIERS OF NETWORK

Host name:
Each device in the network is associated with a unique device name known as
Hostname.
Type “hostname” in the command prompt(Administrator Mode) and press ‘Enter’,
this displays the hostname of your machine.

IP Address (Internet Protocol address):

Also known as the Logical Address, the IP Address is the network address of the
system across the network.
To identify each device in the world-wide-web, the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA) assigns an IPV4 (Version 4) address as a unique identifier to each
device on the Internet.
The length of an IPv4 address is 32-bits, hence, we have 232 IP addresses available.
The length of an IPv6 address is 128-bits.
Type “ipconfig” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the IP address
of the device.

MAC Address (Media Access Control address):

Also known as physical address, the MAC Address is the unique identifier of each
host and is associated with its NIC (Network Interface Card).
A MAC address is assigned to the NIC at the time of manufacturing.
The length of the MAC address is : 12-nibble/ 6 bytes/ 48 bits
Type “ipconfig/all” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the MAC
address.

Port:
A port can be referred to as a logical channel through which data can be sent/received
to an application. Any host may have multiple applications running, and each of these
applications is identified using the port number on which they are running.

Socket:
The unique combination of IP address and Port number together are termed as
Socket.

DNS Server:
DNS stands for Domain Name system.
DNS is basically a server which translates web addresses or URLs (ex:
www.google.com) into their corresponding IP addresses. We don’t have to
remember all the IP addresses of each and every website.
The command ‘nslookup’ gives you the IP address of the domain you are
looking for. This also provides the information of our DNS Server.

Throughput is the number of messages successfully transmitted per unit time.

It is controlled by available bandwidth, the available signal-to-noise ratio and
hardware limitations. The maximum throughput of a network may be
consequently higher than the actual throughput achieved in everyday
consumption. The terms ‘throughput’ and ‘bandwidth’ are often thought of as
the same, yet they are different. Bandwidth is the potential measurement of a
link, whereas throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send
data.

Throughput is measured by tabulating the amount of data transferred between

multiple locations during a specific period of time, usually resulting in the unit of
bits per second(bps), which has evolved to bytes per second(Bps), kilobytes per
second(KBps), megabytes per second(MBps) and gigabytes per second(GBps).
Throughput may be affected by numerous factors, such as the hindrance of the
underlying analogue physical medium, the available processing power of the
system components, and end-user behaviour. When numerous protocol
expenses are taken into account, the use rate of the transferred data can be
significantly lower than the maximum achievable throughput.
Let us consider: A highway which has a capacity of moving, say, 200 vehicles
at a time. But at a random time, someone notices only, say, 150 vehicles
moving through it due to some congestion on the road. As a result, the capacity
is likely to be 200 vehicles per unit time and the throughput is 150 vehicles at a
time.

Example:
Input:A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of
12, 000 frames
per minute where each frame carries an average of 10, 000 bits. What
will be the
throughput for this network?

Output: We can calculate the throughput as-

Throughput = (12, 000 x 10, 000) / 60 = 2 Mbps
The throughput is nearly equal to one-fifth of the bandwidth in this
case.

LATENCY
In a network, during the process of data communication, latency(also known as
delay) is defined as the total time taken for a complete message to arrive at the
destination, starting with the time when the first bit of the message is sent out
from the source and ending with the time when the last bit of the message is
delivered at the destination.
The network connections where small delays occur are called “Low-Latency-
Networks” and the network connections which suffer from long delays are
known as “High-Latency-Networks”.
High latency leads to the creation of bottlenecks in any network communication.
It stops the data from taking full advantage of the network pipe and conclusively
decreases the bandwidth of the communicating network.
The effect of the latency on a network’s bandwidth can be temporary or never-
ending depending on the source of the delays. Latency is also known as a ping
rate and is measured in milliseconds(ms).
In simpler terms: latency may be defined as the time required to successfully
send a packet across a network.
 It is measured in many ways like round trip, one way, etc.
 It might be affected by any component in the chain which is utilized to
vehiculate data, like workstations, WAN links, routers, LAN, servers and
eventually may be limited for large networks, by the speed of light.

Latency = Propagation Time + Transmission Time + Queuing Time +

Processing Delay

Osi Model:

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO
– ‘International Organization for Standardization‘, in the year 1984. It is a 7
layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All
these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to
another across the globe.
 1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for
the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains
information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one
node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and
convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame
back together.

The functions of the physical layer are as follows:

1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the
bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e.
the number of bits sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data
flows between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known
as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from
one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a
network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC
address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also
encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address
Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?”
and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

The functions of the Data Link layer are :

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a
sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can
be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end
of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC address) of the sender and/or receiver in the
header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in
which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data
may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can
be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine
which device has control over the channel at a given time.
* Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and
device drivers of host machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of
the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer.
The functions of the Network layer are :
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender &
receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such
an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
* Segment in Network layer is referred to as Packet.
** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as
routers.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services
from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete
message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper
layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to
ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port
numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s
application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually. For example, when a web application makes a request to a web
server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port
assigned to web applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and
forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also
performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
The functions of the transport layer are as follows:
1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at
the destination station reassembles the message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called service
point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport
layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
The services provided by the transport layer :
A. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement,
back to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.
B. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data
Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge
receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS
and communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of

sessions, authentication, and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :
1. Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows
the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are
considered synchronization points into the data. These synchronization
points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly,
and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single
layer in the TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”.
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself.
These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

Scenario:

Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through

some Messenger application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts
as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the
data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure
data), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format
to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another
form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the
decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on
the network.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
**Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

The functions of the Application layer are :

1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet
because of its late invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP
model.
Packets:

A packet is a data fraction transmitted over the network layer.

The network layer encapsulates segments from the transport layer. Its primary
aim is to forward packets to routers within interconnected, heterogeneous
networks.
A network packet is originated from a logical address and transferred to
another one. Therefore, its header contains the source and destination
addresses.
On the Internet, the Internet Protocol (IP) of the TCP/IP model is analogous to
the network layer of the OSI model. On the network layer, the routers forward
the packets towards their destination based on the IP addresses on the IP
packet’s header:

Frames:

A frame is a unit of data transmitting over the data link layer.

The data link layer header and the payload data come together to construct a
frame. The data part of a frame is a packet from the network layer. In other
words, a frame encapsulates a packet.
Its source and destination addresses are physical medium access
control (MAC) addresses. So, the header part contains these physical
addresses.

HEADERS:
The three lower layers of the OSI model, transport, network and data link all group the data in
some way and add headers and sometimes trailers to the data. A header contains
information which is attached to the front of data, while a trailer is information attached to
the tail end.
Collision And Broadcast Domains:

1. Collision Domain:

A Collision Domain is a scenario in which when a device sends out a

message to the network, all other devices which are included in its collision
domain have to pay attention to it, no matter if it was destined for them or
not. This causes a problem because, in a situation where two devices send
out their messages simultaneously, a collision will occur leading them to wait
and re-transmit their respective messages, one at a time. Remember, it
happens only in the case of a half-duplex mode.

2. Broadcast Domain:

A Broadcast Domain is a scenario in which when a device sends out a

broadcast message, all the devices present in its broadcast domain have to
pay attention to it. This creates a lot of congestion in the network, commonly
called LAN congestion, which affects the bandwidth of the users present in
that network.
From this, we can realize that the more the number of collision domains and
the more the number of broadcast domains, the more efficient is the network
providing better bandwidth to all its users.
 HUB

We start with a hub because we should get rid of it as soon as possible. The
reason being, it neither breaks a collision domain nor a broadcast domain,i.e
a hub is neither a collision domain separator nor a broadcast domain
separator. All the devices connected to a hub are in a single collision and
single broadcast domain. Remember, hubs do not segment a network, they
just connect network segments.

 SWITCH

Coming to switches, we have an advantage over the hub. Every port on a

switch is in a different collision domain, i.e a switch is a collision domain
separator. So messages that come from devices connected to different ports
never experience a collision. This helps us during designing networks but
there is still a problem with switches. They never break broadcast domains,
which means it is not a broadcast domain separator. All the ports on the
switch are still in a single broadcast domain. If a device sends a broadcast
message, it will still cause congestion.
 ROUTER

Last, but not least, we have our savior. A router not only breaks collision
domains but also breaks broadcast domains, which means it is both
collisions as well as broadcast domain separators. A router creates a
connection between two networks. A broadcast message from one network
will never reach the other one as the router will never let it pass.

Also, as repeaters and bridges differ from hubs and switches only in terms of
the number of ports, a repeater does not break collision and broadcast
domains, while a bridge breaks only collision domains.

LAN (Local Area Network)

A LAN is a group of computers and other network devices attached within a limited area
like a house, a building, an office, an entire campus, etc. It is a widely used network of
devices and can be set up in a limited geographical area without investing a huge cost
like other networks. In most cases, LAN is used to form a network to share resources like
printers, scanners, or files like audio, video, movies, software, games, etc. The simplest
kind of LAN example is a connection formed between a computer and a printer within a
house. Typically, it is a medium that helps transfer data across devices in a limited range
area.

Advantages:

Few advantages of using a LAN are listed below:

 o Data can be transferred from one device to another networked device without
any issue.
o Data can be stored centrally in a single storage disk of the server computer. It will
be a lot easier to secure the data in a single disk than all the separate disks. This
also helps in data management.
o LANs allow administrators to share a single internet connection across all the
other connected devices.
o Instead of purchasing any paid software for each system, users from different
systems can use the same software from the server's main computer over the
network.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

WAN is an essential computer network that extends over a large geographical area. It
can cover distances between states or countries. WAN is comparatively much larger
than LAN or MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) and relatively more expensive. Because
of its cost and complex setup, WANs are not usually owned by one organization. Wide
area networks are established using several LANs attached by telephone lines or radio
waves. Typically, these types of networks are organized using high-end
telecommunication circuits. The Internet, a kind of public network, is an example of the
largest wide area network.

Advantages:

Few advantages of using a WAN are listed below:

o WAN enables users to establish a connection over a large geographical area. This is
helpful for the organizations having offices at a large distance. They can communicate
with other offices easily.
o The data is organized in a centralized manner. It helps users to access or manage the
data easily. This is helpful when using emails, files, or backup servers. Users don't have to
pay for these resources for each office or branch separately.
o WAN allows users to communicate over the instant messaging system. Applications like
Whatsapp, Telegram, and Skype, have made it easier for people to connect with their
friends or family.
o Using WAN, companies work on the live server. Thus, the developers and programmers
have instant access to the updated files within seconds. This helps in increasing
productivity.
o Due to a public network, people can organize their business over the Internet globally.
 Key Differences between LAN and WAN
Few key differences between LAN and WAN are listed below:

o LAN is a computer network established within a small geographic area, such as a house,
office or buildings. WAN, on the other side, is a computer network that covers a broad
geographical area.
o LANs allow users to transfer the data faster, whereas WANs have a comparatively slower
data transfer rate.
o LAN has a higher speed, whereas WAN has a slower speed.
o Designing, setup and maintenance in LANs are relatively easy while designing, setup,
maintenance is difficult in WANs.
o Fault tolerance is high in LANs, whereas WANs have less fault tolerance.

ttributes LAN WAN

Complete The complete form of LAN is 'Local Area Network'. The complete form of WAN is the 'Wide Area Network'.
Form

Definition LAN is a group of devices connected in a small geographic area, WAN is an arrangement of several devices attached over a network covering a br
such as houses, offices, or buildings. network having communication links crossing the regional, metropolitan, or nationa
over a large distance is an example of WAN.

Geographical LAN covers a small geographical area, and it does not require any WAN covers a large distance geographical area that usually crosses regional or m
Area leased telecommunication lines. boundaries and requires leased telecommunication lines.

Speed LAN provides a comparatively higher speed. WAN has a slower speed as compared to LAN.

Data Transfer LAN provides a high data transfer rate than WAN. It can reach up WAN provides a relatively slower data transfer rate. It can reach up to 150mbps.
Rate to 1000 Mbps.

Propagation In LANs, the propagation delay is short. In WANs, the propagation delay is comparatively long.
Delay

Ownership LAN is owned, managed, and used by an individual or an WAN can be either private or public. The Internet is the best example of public WAN
organization. Therefore, it is a private network.

Congestion LAN has low congestion than WAN. WAN has relatively higher congestion as compared to LAN.

Fault LAN has higher fault tolerance. WAN has a lower fault tolerance as compared to LAN.
Tolerance

Technologies LANs tend to use some particular connectivity technologies, WANs tend to use Frame Relay, MPLS, and ATM along with X.25 for connectivity
 mainly Ethernet and Token Ring. distances.

Connection LANs can be attached over any distance using telephone lines In WAN, the devices are connected through public networks, such as the telephone s
and radio waves. Typically, co-axial or UTP cable is used as the can also be connected via leased lined or satellites.
transmission medium.

Components The main components of LAN include Layer 1 devices (e.g., hubs, The main components of WAN include Layer 3 devices (e.g., Routers, Multi-layer sw
repeaters) and Layer 2 devices (e.g., switches, bridges). technology-specific devices (e.g., AM, Frame-relay switches).

Bandwidth LAN offers high bandwidth for the transmission. WAN offers low bandwidth for the transmission.

Maintenance Designing and maintenance of LANs are easy. Designing and maintenance of WAN are complex.

Core Principle It works on the principle of broadcasting. It operates on the principle of point-to-point.

Cost Since LAN covers a small area, it can be set up very cheaply. The setup for WAN is high because of its wider geographical area.

Scalability If there is a requirement to connect more devices in a LAN, it can When it comes to WAN, the setup of additional devices will cost high because
be easily done. It will not cost much. remote areas must be connected. Besides, WANs using public networks are easy to
are not expensive.

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Firewalls prevent unauthorized access to networks through software or firmware. By utilizing a

set of rules, the firewall examines and blocks incoming and outgoing traffic.

Key Uses of Firewalls

 Firewalls can be used in corporate as well as consumer settings.

 Firewalls can incorporate a security information and event management strategy (SIEM) into
cybersecurity devices concerning modern organizations and are installed at the network
perimeter of organizations to guard against external threats as well as insider threats.

 Firewalls can perform logging and audit functions by identifying patterns and improving rules
by updating them to defend the immediate threats.

 Firewalls can be used for a home network, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), or cable modem
having static IP addresses. Firewalls can easily filter traffic and can signal the user about
intrusions.

 They are also used for antivirus applications.

 When vendors discover new threats or patches, the firewalls update the rule sets to resolve
the vendor issues.

 In-home devices, we can set the restrictions using Hardware/firmware firewalls.

Functions of Firewall

 The most important function of a firewall is that it creates a border between an external
network and the guarded network where the firewall inspects all packets (pieces of data for
internet transfer) entering and leaving the guarded network. Once the inspection is
completed, a firewall can differentiate between benign and malicious packets with the help of
a set of pre-configured rules.

 The firewall abides such packets, whether they come in a rule set or not, so that they should
not enter into the guarded network.

 This packet form information includes the information source, its destination, and the content.
These might differ at every level of the network, and so do the rule sets. Firewalls read these
packets and reform them concerning rules to tell the protocol where to send them.

How Does a Firewall Work?:

A firewall welcomes only those incoming traffic that has been configured to accept. It
distinguishes between good and malicious traffic and either allows or blocks specific
data packets on pre-established security rules.

These rules are based on several aspects indicated by the packet data, like their
source, destination, content, and so on. They block traffic coming from suspicious
sources to prevent cyberattacks.

For example, the image depicted below shows how a firewall allows good traffic to pass
to the user’s private network.
Types of Firewalls:

 Packet Filtering

 Proxy Service Firewall

 Stateful Inspection

 Unified Threat Management (UTM) Firewall

 Threat-Focused NGFW
 Advantages of Using Firewalls:

 Firewalls play an important role in the companies for security management. Below
are some of the important advantages of using firewalls.

 It provides enhanced security and privacy from vulnerable services. It prevents

unauthorized users from accessing a private network that is connected to the
internet.

 Firewalls provide faster response time and can handle more traffic loads.

 A firewall allows you to easily handle and update the security protocols from a single
authorized device.

 It safeguards your network from phishing attacks.

IP ADDRESSING:

An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a local

network. IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules governing the format
of data sent via the internet or local network.

1. Your device indirectly connects to the internet by connecting at first to a network

connected to the internet, which then grants your device access to the internet.
2. When you are at home, that network will probably be your Internet Service Provider
(ISP). At work, it will be your company network.
3. Your IP address is assigned to your device by your ISP.
4. Your internet activity goes through the ISP, and they route it back to you, using your IP
address. Since they are giving you access to the internet, it is their role to assign an IP
address to your device.
5. However, your IP address can change. For example, turning your modem or router on
or off can change it. Or you can contact your ISP, and they can change it for you.
6. When you are out and about – for example, traveling – and you take your device with
you, your home IP address does not come with you. This is because you will be using
another network (Wi-Fi at a hotel, airport, or coffee shop, etc.) to access the internet
and will be using a different (and temporary) IP address, assigned to you by the ISP of
the hotel, airport or coffee shop.
Types of IP addresses:

1.Consumer IP addresses 2. Private IP addresses 3. Public IP addresses