Methods of Heat Transfer

If you have been following along since the beginning of this lesson, then you have been
developing a progressively sophisticated understanding of temperature and heat. You should be
developing a model of matter as consisting of particles which vibrate (wiggle about a fixed
position), translate (move from one location to another) and even rotate (revolve about an
imaginary axis). These motions give the particles kinetic energy. Temperature is a measure of the
average amount of kinetic energy possessed by the particles in a sample of matter. The more the
particles vibrate, translate and rotate, the greater the temperature of the object. You have
hopefully adopted an understanding of heat as a flow of energy from a higher temperature object
to a lower temperature object. It is the temperature difference between the two neighboring
objects that causes this heat transfer. The heat transfer continues until the two objects have
reached thermal equilibrium and are at the same temperature. The discussion of heat transfer has
been structured around some everyday examples such as the cooling of a hot mug of coffee and
the warming of a cold can of pop. Finally, we have explored a thought experiment in which a
metal can containing hot water is placed within a Styrofoam cup containing cold water. Heat is
transferred from the hot water to the cold water until both samples have the same temperature.

Now we should probe some of the following questions:

 What is happening at the particle level when energy is being

transferred between two objects?
 Why is thermal equilibrium always established when two
objects transfer heat?
 How does heat transfer work within the bulk of an object?
 Is there more than one method of heat transfer? If so, then how are they similar and
different than one another?

Conduction - A Particle View

Let's begin our discussion by returning to our thought experiment in which a metal can containing
hot water was placed within a Styrofoam cup containing cold water. Heat is transferred from the
hot water to the cold water until both samples have the same temperature. In this instance, the
transfer of heat from the hot water through the metal can to the cold water is sometimes referred
to as conduction. Conductive heat flow involves the transfer of heat from one location to another
in the absence of any material flow. There is nothing physical or material moving from the hot
water to the cold water. Only energy is transferred from the hot water to the cold water. Other
than the loss of energy, there is nothing else escaping from the hot water. And other than the
gain of energy, there is nothing else entering the cold water. How does this happen? What is the
mechanism that makes conductive heat flow possible?

A question like this is a particle-level question. To understand the answer, we have to think about
matter as consisting of tiny particles atoms, molecules and ions. These particles are in constant
motion; this gives them kinetic energy. As mentioned previously in this lesson, these particles
move throughout the space of a container, colliding with each other and with the walls of their
container. This is known as translational kinetic energy and is the main form of kinetic energy for
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gases and liquids. But these particles can also vibrate about a fixed position. This gives the
particles vibrational kinetic energy and is the main form of kinetic energy for solids. To put it more
simply, matter consists of little wigglers and little bangers. The wigglers are those particles
vibrating about a fixed position. They possess vibrational kinetic energy. The bangers are those
particles that move through the container with translational kinetic energy and collide with the
container walls.

The container walls represent the perimeters of a sample of matter. Just as the perimeter of your
property (as in real estate property) is the furthest extension of the property, so the perimeter of
an object is the furthest extension of the particles within a sample of matter. At the perimeter,
the little bangers are colliding with particles of another substance - the particles of the container
or even the surrounding air. Even the wigglers that are fixed in a position along the perimeter are
doing some banging. Being at the perimeter, their wiggling results in collisions with the particles
that are next to them; these are the particles of the container or of the surrounding air.

At this perimeter or boundary, the collisions of the little bangers and wigglers are elastic collisions
in which the total amount of kinetic energy of all colliding particles is conserved. The net effect of
these elastic collisions is that there is a transfer of kinetic energy across the boundary to the
particles on the opposite side. The more energetic particles will lose a little kinetic energy and the
less energetic particles will gain a little kinetic energy. Temperature is a measure of the average
amount of kinetic energy possessed by the particles in a sample of matter. So on average, there
are more particles in the higher temperature object with greater kinetic energy than there are in
the lower temperature object. So when we average all the collisions together and apply the
principles associated with elastic collisions to the particles within a sample of matter, it is logical to
conclude that the higher temperature object will lose some kinetic energy and the lower
temperature object will gain some kinetic energy. The collisions of our little bangers and wigglers
will continue to transfer energy until the temperatures of the two objects are identical. When this
state of thermal equilibrium has been reached, the average kinetic energy of both objects'
particles is equal. At thermal equilibrium, there are an equal number of collisions resulting in an
energy gain as there are collisions resulting in an energy loss. On average, there is no net energy
transfer resulting from the collisions of particles at the perimeter.

At the macroscopic level, heat is the transfer of energy from the

high temperature object to the low temperature object. At the
particle level, heat flow can be explained in terms of the net
effect of the collisions of a whole bunch of little bangers.
Warming and cooling is the macroscopic result of this particle-
level phenomenon. Now let's apply this particle view to the
scenario of the metal can with the hot water positioned inside
of a Styrofoam cup containing cold water. On average, the particles with the greatest kinetic
energy are the particles of the hot water. Being a fluid, those particles move about with
translational kinetic energy and bang upon the particles of the metal can. As the hot water
particles bang upon the particles of the metal can, they transfer energy to the metal can. This
warms the metal can up. Most metals are good thermal conductors so they warm up quite quickly
throughout the bulk of the can. The can assumes nearly the same temperature as the hot water.
Being a solid, the metal can consists of little wigglers. The wigglers at the outer perimeter of the
metal can bang upon particles in the cold water. The collisions between the particles of the metal
can and the particles of the cold water result in the transfer of energy to the cold water. This
slowly warms the cold water up. The interaction between the particles of the hot water, the metal
can and the cold water results in a transfer of energy outward from the hot water to the cold
water. The average kinetic energy of the hot water particles gradually decreases; the average
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kinetic energy of the cold-water particles gradually increases; and eventually, thermal equilibrium
would be reached at the point that the particles of the hot water and the cold water have the
same average kinetic energy. At the macroscopic level, one would observe a decrease in
temperature of the hot water and an increase in temperature of the cold water.

The mechanism in which heat is transferred from one object to another object through particle
collisions is known as conduction. In conduction, there is no net transfer of physical stuff between
the objects. Nothing material moves across the boundary. The changes in temperature are wholly
explained as the result of the gains and losses of kinetic energy during collisions.

Heat Transfer by Convection

Is conduction the only means of heat transfer? Can heat be transferred
through the bulk of an object in methods other than conduction? The
answer is yes. The model of heat transfer through the ceramic coffee
mug and the metal skillet involved conduction. The ceramic of the
coffee mug and the metal of the skillet are both solids. Heat transfer
through solids occurs by conduction. This is primarily due to the fact
that solids have orderly arrangements of particles that are fixed in place. Liquids and gases are
not very good conductors of heat. In fact, they are considered good thermal insulators. Heat
typically does not flow through liquids and gases by means of conduction. Liquids and gases are
fluids; their particles are not fixed in place; they move about the bulk of the sample of matter.
The model used for explaining heat transfer through the bulk of liquids and gases involves
convection. Convection is the process of heat transfer from one location to the next by the
movement of fluids. The moving fluid carries energy with it. The fluid flows from a high
temperature location to a low temperature location.

To understand convection in fluids, let's consider the heat

transfer through the water that is being heated in a pot on a
stove. Of course the source of the heat is the stove burner. The
metal pot that holds the water is heated by the stove burner. As
the metal becomes hot, it begins to conduct heat to the water.
The water at the boundary with the metal pan becomes hot.
Fluids expand when heated and become less dense. So as the
water at the bottom of the pot becomes hot, its density
decreases. Differences in water density between the bottom of
the pot and the top of the pot results in the gradual formation
of circulation currents. Hot water begins to rise to the top of the
pot displacing the colder water that was originally there. And the colder water that was present at
the top of the pot moves towards the bottom of the pot where it is heated and begins to rise.

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These circulation currents slowly develop over time, providing the pathway for heated water to
transfer energy from the bottom of the pot to the surface.

Convection also explains how an electric heater placed on the

floor of a cold room warms up the air in the room. Air present
near the coils of the heater warm up. As the air warms up, it
expands, becomes less dense and begins to rise. As the hot air
rises, it pushes some of the cold air near the top of the room
out of the way. The cold air moves towards the bottom of the
room to replace the hot air that has risen. As the colder air
approaches the heater at the bottom of the room, it becomes
warmed by the heater and begins to rise. Once more,
convection currents are slowly formed. Air travels along these
pathways, carrying energy with it from the heater throughout
the room.

Convection is the main method of heat transfer in fluids such as water and air. It is often said
that heat rises in these situations. The more appropriate explanation is to say that heated fluid
rises. For instance, as the heated air rises from the heater on a floor, it carries more energetic
particles with it. As the more energetic particles of the heated air mix with the cooler air near the
ceiling, the average kinetic energy of the air near the top of the room increases. This increase in
the average kinetic energy corresponds to an increase in temperature. The net result of the rising
hot fluid is the transfer of heat from one location to another location. The convection method of
heat transfer always involves the transfer of heat by the movement of matter. This is not to be
confused with the caloric theory discussed earlier in this lesson. In caloric theory, heat was the
fluid and the fluid that moved was the heat. Our model of convection considers heat to be energy
transfer that is simply the result of the movement of more energetic particles.

The two examples of convection discussed here - heating water in a pot and heating air in a room
- are examples of natural convection. The driving force of the circulation of fluid is natural -
differences in density between two locations as the result of fluid being heated at some source.
(Some sources introduce the concept of buoyant forces to explain why the heated fluids rise. We
will not pursue such explanations here.) Natural convection is common in nature. The earth's
oceans and atmosphere are heated by natural convection. In contrast to natural
convection, forced convection involves fluid being forced from one location to another by fans,
pumps and other devices. Many home heating systems involve force air heating. Air is heated at a
furnace and blown by fans through ductwork and released into rooms at vent locations. This is an
example of forced convection. The movement of the fluid from the hot location (near the furnace)
to the cool location (the rooms throughout the house) is driven or forced by a fan. Some ovens
are forced convection ovens; they have fans that blow heated air from a heat source into the
oven. Some fireplaces enhance the heating ability of the fire by blowing heated air from the
fireplace unit into the adjacent room. This is another example of forced convection.

Heat Transfer by Radiation

A final method of heat transfer involves radiation. Radiation is the transfer of heat by means
of electromagnetic waves. To radiate means to send out or spread from a central location.
Whether it is light, sound, waves, rays, flower petals, wheel spokes or pain, if
something radiates then it protrudes or spreads outward from an origin. The transfer of heat by
radiation involves the carrying of energy from an origin to the space surrounding it. The energy is
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carried by electromagnetic waves and does not involve the movement or the interaction of matter.
Thermal radiation can occur through matter or through a region of space that is void of matter
(i.e., a vacuum). In fact, the heat received on Earth from the sun is the result of electromagnetic
waves traveling through the void of space between the Earth and the sun.

All objects radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. The rate at which this energy is
released is proportional to the Kelvin temperature (T) raised to the fourth power.

Radiation rate = k•T4

The hotter the object, the more it radiates. The sun obviously radiates off more energy than a hot
mug of coffee. The temperature also affects the wavelength and frequency of the radiated waves.
Objects at typical room temperatures radiate energy as infrared waves. Being invisible to the
human eye, we do not see this form of radiation. An infrared camera is capable of detecting such
radiation. Perhaps you have seen thermal photographs or videos of the radiation surrounding a
person or animal or a hot mug of coffee or the Earth. The energy radiated from an object is
usually a collection or range of wavelengths. This is usually referred to as an emission spectrum.
As the temperature of an object increases, the wavelengths within the spectra of the emitted
radiation also decrease. Hotter objects tend to emit shorter wavelength, higher frequency
radiation. The coils of an electric toaster are considerably hotter than room temperature and emit
electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum. Fortunately, this provides a convenient warning
to its users that the coils are hot. The tungsten filament of an incandescent light bulb emits
electromagnetic radiation in the visible (and beyond) range. This radiation not only allows us to
see, it also warms the glass bulb that contains the filament. Put your hand near the bulb (without
touching it) and you will feel the radiation from the bulb as well.

Thermal radiation is a form of heat transfer because the

electromagnetic radiation emitted from the source carries energy
away from the source to surrounding (or distant) objects. This
energy is absorbed by those objects, causing the average kinetic
energy of their particles to increase and causing the temperatures
to rise. In this sense, energy is transferred from one location to
another by means of electromagnetic radiation. The image at the
right was taken by a thermal imaging camera. The camera detects
the radiation emitted by objects and represents it by means of a color photograph.
The hotter colors represent areas of objects that are emitting thermal radiation at a more intense
rate. (Images courtesy Peter Lewis and Chris West of Standford's SLAC.)

Check Your Understanding

1. Consider Object A which has a temperature of 65°C and Object B which has a temperature of
15°C. The two objects are placed next to each other and the little bangers begin colliding. Will any
of the collisions result in the transfer of energy from Object B to Object A? Explain.

2. Suppose that Object A and Object B (from the previous problem) have reached a thermal equilibrium.
Do the particles of the two objects still collide with each other? If so, do any of the collisions result in the
transfer of energy between the two objects? Explain.