$2 Conpn BL gj Thi Dg i, bathroom towel «, bathroom towel coltection 4, bathroom towel collection set ©, Tuskish cotton towel collection sets printer ink {laser printer ink cartridges 1, dry-cleaner i, overcook je sing-along. 23° Summary In this chapter we looked athe structure of our mental Lexleon, We proposed tht the Lexicon has fo components a Catalog and an Extended Catalog, The Catalog contin ali fl the morphemes necesito crete words in a lnguage: Generative Momblogy eens thee words and stores them in te Extended Catalog making thom valle forthe syatan, whichis responsible for puting words together to erent phrases and sentences, ‘The morphemes in the Catalog will contsin all the phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic information we will need in the syntax. All this information is included in the lexieal entry or lexleal grid. Some of this information necessary for the syntax is the categorization, e-sclection, s-seleetion, and the semantic restrictions, The lexical entries also contain information about the meaning, ‘and the phonetics/phonology for these morphemes as well as any special properties or exceptions that these roots or morphemes may undergo, Three principles are necessary to guarantee that a verb respects its ¢- and its selection in the syntax: (40) ‘The Projection Principle ‘The e-selection of a verb must be respected at every syntactic level. (Al) Extended Project Every sentence must have a subject. mn Principle per Fos Smt &UnerlGommar_ 43 CHAPTER 3 THE PRINCIPLES AND PARAMETERS MODEL AND X'-SYNTAX Remember that our objective in theoretical linguistics is to create a model for I- language. The basic relation we are trying to capture in our syntactic model is how a particular sequence of words in the correct order ean have meaning. To explain this we will propose a model known as the Principles and Parameters model. This model as introduced by Noam Chomsky in 1981 in his book Lectures on Government and ‘Binding and has been revised since then to what now we call the Minimalist Program. 3.4L The modular system of the P ciples and Parameters model ‘The Principles and Paramenters model has 6 modules: the Lexicon, X'syntax, D- Stor 8 Stare, FhnscPhmloged Foon) 28 Li system is shown in (1); : om a Phonetie/Phonological Form (PF) interfaces with our sound-creating system (our Sensory-Motor system) while Logical Form (LF) interfaces with our system of meaning,Aor Caper i Hah Tay Tu (ou Coneeptuet-Iatentional system). Thus we see that sound anil meaning are connected, but this connection is not direct, it is mediated by other modules. Jn Chapter 1 we studied the structure ofthe LEXICON, which is the first module atthe top tight. We saw that the Lexicon had two components: a Catalog and an Extended Catalog, All the morphemes necessary to ereate words are stored in the Catalog, Generative Morphology ereates words combining these morphemes in the appropriate order. The result of this is that the Lexicon will provide the other modules in (1) with the words that are necessary to create structures, As we saw in the previous chapter, only tense (present and past) and possessive —'s morphology are not attached in the Lexicon, They will be attached in the syntax. ‘Where do the structures come from? They come from the first module on the left: X'- syntax 32 Introduction to X'-syntax: The basic architecture of syntactic structures ‘syntax is the module that will provide us with the structures that we will use to “ereate phrases and sentences. X’syntax has a very simple model or template to create structures. X-syntax will distinguish three functions: complement, modifier and specifier, For structures that have no complements, modifiers or specifiers we will use the structure in (2): Q) minimal structure, with no complements, modifiers or specifiers X in (2) ean represent any category: verb, noun, adjective, preposition, etc, We will show how this works with the individual categories in the next chapters. We say that X is the head of XP, We call XP the maximal category. X' is the intermediate category, For structures that have complements, complements will be merged or generated (i.e. added) under X'. Ifa structure has more than one complement, they will all be merged under X', as shown in (3b) Prk Ste rv Grommar__ 48 oe 1. Structure with one complement >, Structure with two complements xP xP 1 x i —T X compl 2X complt Compt2 ‘As we can sec in (3), if @ head takes one complement, we merge it under X'. fa head takes two complements, both complements are merged under X'. Structures may also include modifiers. To distinguish modifiers from complements, we will add one additional intermediate X' for each modifier, as shown in (4). When the structure contains no modifiers, we will only include one intermediate X’, as shown in the structures in (3), @ a. Structure with one modifier b. Structure with 2 modifiers xe xP i I i x os Pat nea 1 o~ 4 sa 1 x ‘Notice that we have not attached anything tothe lowest X'. Ths is because this structure ‘has no complement. In (4b), each modifier is merged under a separate X'. As we saw in @), when the structure has no modifier, we do not project any additional intermediate categories. If our structure were to have one complement and two modifiers, we would have the structure in (5): (5). Structure with one complement and two modifiers$6 cor Conor & Beek Ty Tas oN & moe2 on a) “~ & compl Finally, structures may also contain specifiers. Specifiers are merged directly under XP. (6) Structure with one specifier xP —., Spediier X 1 x [A specifier may be added to any of the structures we have shown above. ‘Summarizing, the basic structure that we will assume throughout this book is shown in (7) (Basie X*syntax schema xP <—™~, Specifier (X) a“—™~ Modifier ——~ XX complements In (7) we see that complements are merged under the lowest X' 1F more than one ‘complement, they will all be merged under the lowest X’, We can see that modifiers are ‘optional. We only project an additional intermediate category if we have modifiers, Different from complements which ate all generated under the first X', modifiers are ‘generated in additional X' projections, one modifier per additional X'-projection. ‘This is what the asterisk "*" means in (7), Think of modifier as being "fat". Thus only ‘one fits in the additional X'-projection that we ereate for them when they are present. Finally, specifies are generated immediately under XP. Engh Ser Ute Grammar 47 PRACTICE 1 Diagram the following structures, Just replace X by the appropriate category using the correct diagram: {. a noun phrase with a specifier . a noun phrase with a specifier and a modifier ©. a verb phrase with two complements 4. a prepositional phrase with a complement and a specifier an adverb phrase with no complements, modifiers or specifiers (a bare adverb) 33 From the Lexicon and X"-syntax to D-Structure and S-Structure Going back to our diagram in (1) we can soe thatthe two modules atthe top interact to ‘create a level of syntactic representation that we eall D-Strueture. Models previous to the Principles and Parameters model that we are studying here used to have a level of deep structure and another level of surface structure. These levels, however, were tevised considerably in Chomsky (1981)'s Lectures on Government and Binding, so itis better to refrain from using that old terminology. We could have called them "Level 1" and "Level 2” since they are so different from the original levels, but we will use the ‘names that are typically used in the syntactic literature. How do we form D-Struetures? The Lexicon creates the words and X'-syntax creates the structures, So We must insert our words from the Lexicon into these structures created by X-syntax. The principle that regulates this insertion is called the Lexical Prineiple: (8) Lexicalization Principle ts tes ch acon apie rae cy, ronnie seteaton fe oe ay | Incorporating this principle into our modular system we would get (9):M8 Hier Comps & Bi ih Thy Tne Lexicalization Principle D-Structureswill be "transformed" into $-Structures by different operations. As we ‘will see in the following chapters, these transformations will allow us to perform only three operations: insert, move and delete, These three basic operations are also known, as AFFECT ALPHA, where AFFECT can be any of the three aforementioned ‘operations (insert, move or delete), and ALPHA can be any element in the structure as Jong as that element is a unit or constituent. In this text we will use the general term TRANSFORMATIONS to refer to these three operations. We will see that by applying these basic operations to our D-Structures we will be able to generate many ‘constructions in English and in other languages. We will study these transformations or ‘operations in the following chapters. Some of the constructions we will study in detail are: indirect objects, pre- and post-nominal complements, adjective modification, adverbial modification, modal and auxiliary verbs, the dummy verb do, phrasal and prepositional verbs, specific questions, wh-questions, relative clauses, ete. (10) shows. the basie structure of our model, (19) 34 Constituents Before we start exploring the structure of phrases, you must learn to distinguish the different groups of words that form larger units called constituents, You already have this knowledge, Consider (11) (11) The teacher wrote the example on the board How many units larger than @ word (constituents) can you find in (11)? Try to do this exercise before you read on! In (11) we would have at least 7 constituents. Some of them are noun phrases (NP), ‘others are prepositional phrases (PP), others are verb phrases (VP) and finally we have a sentence (S). (02) Constituents of the sentence in (11) {vethe board]. {eronthe board] [ypthe example] [vr wrote the example] {verwrote the example on the board) _(ypthe teacher] [the teacher wrote the example onthe board] How do we know that the elements in brackets in (12) are in fact constituents? Constituents are independent units. As such we are able to move them around, to replace them with pronouns, to replace them with interrogative words. Consider the ‘examples in (13): (13). The teacher wrote the example oni b. Where did the teacher write the example? ©. IypThe example), the teacher wrote onthe board ©. Who wrote the example on the board? Low the teacher] 4. What did the teacher do on the board? What= [yr wrote the example] ©. What did the teacher do? What [ye wrote the example ‘onthe board] £ What happened? Happen [the teacher wrote the example on the board) Sometimes its possible for constituent to be analyzed as being part of different constitusnis:{0c Co Bi ak hip Pe (14) 4. She seat pastearde from Spain b._ She sent [yp posteards (yp ftom Spain] ce. She sent [ypposteards] [ye from Spain) ‘As we can see in (14), the PP [vp from Spain] can either be part of the NP with postcards (0 what she sent were posteards from Spain) or modify the verb send (the country here she sent the posteards from was Spain). We will look at these structures in more etal in the next couple of chapters. PRACTICE 2 1. Watch the video by Dr. Caroline Heycock, "Generative Syntax 1.2: On constituency” (hutps:/-wwy,youtube.com/wateh?v=bve9erKrLUO) and then answer the following question 1. What is the main point ofthe video? 2, What isa "polar question”? Give two original examples. 3. What is a constituent? “4, What argument does Dr. Heyeock use to prove that sentences have internal structure? ‘5. Show all the constituents in the following sentences: a. Khuong read the book. | ’, Nguyen bought a nice present for his girlfriend «. Phuoe sent flowers to his mother yesterday. | Il. Watch the video by Dr. Caroline Heyeock, "Generative Syntax 1.3: Constituent Recursion” (https://wwm:youtube.comhvatch?v-mO4VOBIBIq0) and then answer the following questions: 1. What isthe main point ofthis video? | 2. What is recursion? 3. Give an original example of recursion where a sentence is recursive 4. Give an original example of recursion where @ noun phrase is recursive, 5, Why can't we find sentences that have infinite recursion? at Prk Ste & ivr Grammar 5 35° Summary In this chapter we explored the basic architecture of our syntactic model. We saw that ‘our model is modular. Each module has its own characteristics and rales. We saw that the Lexicon and X'-syntax interact (via the Lexicalization Principle) to produce D- structures, ‘These D-Structures are transformed into S-Structures by three basic ‘operations (usually referred to as "Affect a”): insert, move and delete, S-Structure then ‘maps onto Phonetie/Phonologieal Form, which interfaces with our sound production/perception system (also called Sensory-Motor system) and, at the same time, it maps onto Logical Form, which interfaces with our mental system that assigns meaning (called the Conceptual-Intentional system). This is the way that our ‘model connects sound with meaning We also saw the basic architecture that our structures will have, We saw that the ‘minimal structures will have a minimum of three levels: a head, an intermediate category and a maximal category, which we represented as X, X' and XP, respectively. We saw that complements will he merged under X', Ifa structure has modifiers, they will be merged in additional X’ projections, one per modifier, Finally, speeifiers are merged direetly under XP. X in X'syntax stands for any of our syntactic category. In the next chapters we will show thatthe basie template or scheme in (7) can be applied to the different categories to form phrases and, eventually, full sentences CHALLENGE 1. Watch the video by Dr. Caroline Heycock, "Generative Syntax: 2.1: Substituting Constituents” (hips:/aww.youtube.com/vatch2v=94NezE-Je3re) and then answer the questions. 1, What isthe main point of this video? 2. Go to googletranslate (hipsil/iranslate.gooule.com) and translate the following sentences from English into Spanish: 1. Juan's brother is tall. 2. ohnis sister is tall. 3, John's brothers are tall. 4. Foh’s sisters are tall 5, John's brothers and sisters are tall 6. John’s sisters and brothers are tall.52H Compe Bi ab hip Te We also saw the basic architecture that our structures will have, We saw that the minimal structures will have a minimum of three levels: a head, an intermediate category and a maximal category, which we ropresented as X, X' and XP, respeotively. We saw that complements will be merged under X'. If a structure has modifiers, they will be merged in additional X’ projections, one per modifier. Finally, specifiers are merged dircetly under XP. X in X-syntax stands for any of our syntactic category, In the next chapters we will show that the basic template or schema in (7) can be applied to the different categories to form phrases and, eventually, full sentences. f CHALLENGE 1. Watch the video by Dr. Caroline Heycock, "Generative Syntax 2.1: Substituting Constituents" (https:/www.youtube.com/watchv=94NexE-Je3re) and then answer the questions. 1. What isthe main point of this video? 2. Go to googletransiate (hips:/ranslate google.com) and translate the following sentences from English into Spanish: 1, Juan's brother is tall, 2. John's sister is tal. 3. Jobn's brothers are tall, 4, John’s sisters are tall, 5. John's brothers and sisters are tall 6, John’s sisters and brothers are tall. (a) Explain the different forms that the adjective “tall” takes in Spanish. (8) The definite articles in Spanish are EL, LA, LOS, LAS. Explain hove these are used in the examples above. (©) What are the main differences between English and Spanish regarding possessive constructions? (@) Are Vietnamese possessive constructions similar to English, Spanish or neither? 3. Consider the sentence: Flying planes can be dangerous () Is this sentence ambiguous? Explain how. Translate into Vietnamese. (b) How can verbal agreement show thatthe sentence above is ambiguous? Engh Utena Gramr 5B 4. Consider the three following sentences 44, Linow [the girl who is going out with Quan} ». [know her. ©. know the gil who is going out with him. What phrases do the pronouns him and her replace? Explain why this is possible. 5. Consider the following sentence: ‘Tuoi came to Saigon in 2008. Replace the two prepositional phrases by a pro-form, What does this replacement show? 6. a. Adjectives can be attributive or predicative, Give an example of each type. b, For some speakers "so" ean replace an adjective. Give an original example Does this test apply to both types of adjectives you described in (a)? Justify your 7. What does the form "do replace? Give your own examples, 1, Watch the video by Dr. Caroline Heycock "Generative Syntax 2:2: Moving Constituents" (htips:/swnw.youtube.com/watch?v=kWCUCSbpaYs&t~6s) and then answer the questions. 1. What is the main point of this video? 2. What is topicalization? What is it used for? Give an original example of topicalization 3. Give an original example ofa phrase that cannot be replaced by a pro-form but ‘which can be topicalized, 4. Give original examples of NP, PP, AP and VP that have been topicalized. 5. Give an original example in English where you have applied replacement and ‘displacement for NP, AP, PP and VP. What docs this operation prove?SA Her Camp i ed Tay Tos CHAPTER 4 THE VERB PHRASE In Chapter 2 we saw that there are different syntactic categories: nouns (N), determiners (D), adjectives (A), verbs (V), adverbs (ADV), prepositions (P), auxiliary verbs (AUX), modal verbs, negation (NEG), quantifiers (Q), etc. In this chapter we will lear how ‘verbs combine or merge with other categories. Let us first lam how to combine verbs, with their complements 4.1. Complements of the verb phrase Im this chapter we will consider 5 types of verbs: (a) intransitive verbs, (b) transitive verbs, (©) prepositional verbs, () verbs that take NP-PP complements and (e) Aitransitive verbs. Other types of verbs will be considered later in this book. 4.1. Inteansitive verbs. An intransitive verb is one that takes no complements, as in the examples in (1). The corresponding structures for (Ia) and (1b) are shown below Notice that we do not include tense with the verb in the trees below. In the tree structures below we incorporate verbs in the simple infinitive form (the infinitive form, ‘but without the particle TO; thus forthe vetb ro sleep, we enter sleep), (18) John sleeps, (1b) Tom worked. ve vp i v v i i v v 1 l oop work 4.12, ‘Transitive verbs. Transitive verbs are those that take @ direct object, also called a direct complement. As we sav in Chapter 2, direct objects typically bear the semantic or thematic role of PATIENT. The structures for the verbs in (2a, 2b) are shown below, We will draw a triangle to represent the intemal structure of a phrase that ‘we have not discussed yet, As in the structures in (1), notice that we do mot include tense in the VP: nga yaa iol Grammar _ SS (2a) Mary baked a cake. (2b) Susan studied the lesson ve ve 7 1 - v eke ‘a cake 1 ‘suay “eresson PRACTICE 1 Drave the structure for the VP in the following sentences: (a Mary opened the door. (b) Susan sneezed, ***Remember to waite the verbs in thee simple forms. 4.1.3. Prepositional verbs. Consider prepositional verbs next. These are verbs that take prepositional complements. Consider the examples in (3a, 3b) Ga) Alice talked about linguistics. (3b) We complained about the work. ve ve I v v — —— v Pe v Be | I talk “about inguistes complain “about the work 4.14 Verbs with NP-PP complements. Some verbs may take (0 complements Consider verbs that take NP + PP complements, as those shown in (4). Notice that all ‘complements are merged (or generated, or inserted) under V' (4a) Quan withdrew money from the bank. (4b) Ha put the books on the table 4 wee ween “aey tont ba 1.56 Hist Conos Bok Tip Toe _ PRACTICE 2 Diagram the VPs forthe following sentences: 1. Mark dreamt abou his gilftiend b. Susan took the leter tothe post office. | «. Tom lives in Saigon. 4.1.8, Ditransitive verbs. Ditransitive verbs are those that take two NP-complements, ‘a ditect object and an indirect object. Typically the complements may appear in cither order: (5) @ Johnsent some flowers to his girlfriend. (rect object) > (indirect object) bb. John sent is girliriend some flowers (indirect abject) > (Cirect object) In (5) we can see that the verb SEND takes two complements: a dircet object (the PATIENT, what gets sent) and an indireet object (the RECIPIENT, the one who actually "receives" the direct object). Since these constructions typically involve a recipient, they appear with verbs of transfer. But there are two strange facts about the cexamples in (5). Fist, we see that the direct object may precede (52) or follow (5b) the indirect object. Second, we also see that when the indireet object follows the iroct object, as in (Sa), the indirect object is preceded by the “word” TO. “The question we need to tackle frst is whether the "word" TO that we see in front of the indirect object in (Sa) is a preposition or not. If it tums out not to be a preposition, We need to decide what itis. Compare sentence (Sa), repeated here as (7a), with sentence (6a), which contains the preposition TO: (©) a Lwent[to Pars} b. — Iwent[there) (1) ohn sent some flowers {to his gitfriend , ohn sent some flowers {there} ‘As we can see in (6), the prepositional phrase [10 Paris) may be replaced by the adverb [there]. This isthe typical behavior ofthe preposition TO when it implies movement or direction. The preposition TO adds meaning to the sentence. Although TO in (7a) may also imply some sort of movement or direction since the indirect object is typically @ i np Sre Uniene Grammar _ ST RECIPIENT, this replacement of the TO-phrase by the adverb THERE is not possible in (7), as shown (by the asterisk in front of the sentence) in (7b), thus showing that the indirect object in (7a) is not a prepositional phrase, as the one in (6a). So, if TO in (6a) is not a preposition, what is it? ‘We will assume that the e-selection forthe lexical entry for SEND is [ _ NP NP]. This cescleetion captures the two constructions in (5), which have the same meaning, We do ‘not want to claim that the indirect object is a PP complement in (Sa) but an NP- complement in (Sb). Ideally, the indirect object should have the same eategory in both (6a) and (50)! To understand the analysis that we will propose here, we need to consider a language like Japanese. Japanese is language that "marks" syntactic functions distinctly: IVA is used to mark the subject (SUBJ) ot topic of a sentence, -O is used to mark the direct object (DO) of a sentence and -N/ is used to mark the indirect object (10) of sentence. Apart from marking those particular syntactic functions, these markers do not have any ‘meaning or further role in the syntax of Japanese: (8) John-wa—Mary-ni_fegami-o okurimas-ita John-SUBJ Mary-10 lette-DO send-PAST "John sent a letter to Mary. We will analyze the word TO that appears in front of indirect objects as an INDIRECT OBJECT MARKER, similar to the Japanese markers shown in (8). As we can see in (5), this marker appears when the indirect object does not appear adjacent to the verb. If the indirect object follows the verb directly, then TO does not appear. ‘We will say that ditransitive verbs always take two NP-complements, whether the direct object precedes or follows the indirect abject. We ean see this in (9a) and (9b) below, In English, if the indirect object does not immediately follow the verb, the indirect object is marked by TO. If the indivect object is adjacent to the verb, no marker is necessary, Jn Chapter 2 we saw that insertion is one of the transformation operations that transform D-Structures into $-Structures. We will claim that TO is the result of an insertion operation in English. We say that the TO that precedes an indirect object is a pseudo-preposition. Prepositions form PPs and they appear as such at D- Structure. Pseudo-prepositions do not form PPS, they do not appear at D-Strueture and they are inserted into the structure. In the case of the pseudo-preposition TO,‘38 cer Cant Bi ih Tip Pons “TO is inserted to mark that a nown phrase is an indirect object. Thus we claim that ‘TO is an INDIRECT OBJECT MARKER. The structures for (5), repeated here as (62, 9b) are shown below. We will revisit these constructions in Chapter 5, after we get ‘more background on the licensing of noun phrases. For the moment, we will indicate this insertion process by putting the marker in parenthesis in the structure and by inserting a double arrow under it to indicate that this element has been inserted (6a) _Jokn sent some flowers to his gitfrien. vw ve I i v v ——7 a vo ne. v Ne NP. It send “tome Towers his giltiend send “same flowers (TO) Rs gilfiend D-Structure S-Structure (0b) John sent his girlfriend some flowers D-Structure and S-Structure: ve 1 v —7—. vw we send “Tis gilfiend come Towers Japanese would have the same structure es English, with the exception that in Japanese the verb projects its complements to the left, We say that Japanese isa verb-final or ‘an SOV language since the order is typically subject (S) ~ object (0) ~ verb (V), with the verb at the end of the verb phrase. As in English, at D-Structure, Japanese would ‘have no markers. Markers are inserted at the level of S-Structure. ‘The structure for Japanese is shown in (10): (10) John-wa — Mary-ni tegami-o okurimas-ita John-SUBJ Mary-IO letter-DO send-PAST ‘John sent a letter to Mary ngat Ss Uae Grammar 59 D-Structure: S-Strictare ve ve 1 v b <7 — — NB NP OW Ne oNP Vv Tarr IND TegamF(O) owas o? 6¢ We see that at D-Structure, Japanese has no object markers (just as English 9a, 9b). (Object markers are inserted at S-Structure. When discussing structures in this book, we will typically use the S-Structure representation since itis relatively easy to read off both the D- as well as the S-Structure from it, The arvows indicate the elements that have been inserted at $-Structure, If we eliminate those elements we ean read off the D- Structure. Ifno elements are inserted (as in 9b), that means that the D- and S-Structure are the same, ‘Mary “tegami okurimasu 4.1.5.1. ‘Types of indirect objects in English. In (9a) we saw an example ofan indirect, ‘object preceded by the marker TO. The examples in (11) show some verbs that take TO. in front oftheir indirect object. Verbs that take TO as a marker for their indirect objects will be classified as belonging to CLASS 1. Notice thatthe verbs in (11) also allow for the order Indirect Object 10) > Direct Object (DO): (11) Class 1: Indirect object takes TO as a marker. 10 > DO order is possible ‘& John seat some flowers TO his gisftiend,/ John sent his gtlitiend some flowers. 'b. Mary gave a present TO her boyftiend./ Mary gave her boyftiend a present, Some indirect objects in English cannot be marked with TO; they need to be marked ‘with FOR, as shown in (12). We will say that these verbs belong to CLASS 2: (12) Class ‘Thomas baked a cake FOR/*t his gilfiend./ Thomas baked his giffiend a cake, b. Denisse found a job FOR/to her son. / Denisse found her son a job, Indirect object takes FOR as a marker, IO > DO order is possible TO is by far the most productive marker for indirect objects in English. Thus those verbs that take FOR as a marker for indirect objects will have to be marked as ‘Some verbs that ke FOR with indict objec: book, by, catch, choose, cook fetch, ind, et, mak, onder, pou, sve, ete(0 Hor Canaria Thi Thame suel in he Tesivou. This means that the child (and otudente of English as a foreign language) will have to memorize these verbs that take FOR rather than TO. ‘The two structures for (12a) are shown in (13): a3) ve vp I i v v —7 —_ Tt vNP Ne v NP NP —————— I bake “a cake (fon his giffiend bake “his gilfiend a cake Some verbs may take either ‘TO or FOR in front of the indisect object, as shown in (14) We will classify these verbs as CLASS 3: (14) Class 3: Indirect objects with either TO or FOR as a marker. 10 > DO onder is possible? 1. [brought the money TO/FOR ty friend, / I brought my friend the money. b. [read the essay TO/FOR my teacher. / Tread my teacher the essay ‘The two structures for (14a) are shown in (15): as) ve ve i i v v ao ve NP wv NP NP \ \ lag “Rernoney ten mv end veg “Stand hemor o ‘There is a CLASS 4 of verbs. These are verbs that ean take either TO or FOR with an indirect object but which cannot switch the ofder of théir complements, that is, they will always appear in the order DIRECT OBJECT > INDIRECT OBJECT: © Some verbs with either TO or FOR: bring, lave, pay play, past, read sll send, ing, take. rg ye Url Granny 6 (16) Class 4A: Verbs that take TO but which cannot appear inthe order JO > DO? 4. The teacher explained the lesson TO the students, ». *The teacher explained the students the lesson, (17) Class 4B: Verbs that take FOR but which cannot appear in the order 10 > DO" 4. He repaired the car FOR his friend, /*He repaired his friend the ear. b. She collected stamps FOR her brother. /*She collected her brother stamps, ‘The structures for (16a) and (17a) are shown in (18). ce) ve ve I v v —_F See Seer ve Te vw Te I explain “the lesson (o) the students “he car (foo ie ends o a Finally, there is a CLASS 5 of verbs that only allow the order 10 > DO, that is, they cannot be used with ether TO or FOR:S a9) a Lenvy John his lifestyle, /*T envy his lifestyle to/for Joa b. They refused him entrance tothe club. / "They refused entrance to the club tolfor him, ‘The structure for (19a) is shown in (20) 20) ve fl v rT, WNP Ne | ~——_ envy “Toni his Hoste ‘Vests that ake TO as an indirect object marker and donot alow the onder 10> DO: admit announce, demonsoate, explain, hiroduce, mention, pint ot, prove, report, sey, suggest, Verbs that take FOR asin inirect object marker and do aot allow the onder 10> DO : collec, mend, repair. Other verbs that do not allow TO oe FOR and only appcar wih the onder 10 > DO ar: allow; ah ens deny forgive, guarantee, permit, reise.(62s omg i ah Diy Ths ‘Summarizing, we have seen that there are five clases of verbs when we study the behavior oftheir indirect objects. The following chart represents the different classes DO>I0 10> DO Class 1 DO 10-10) a Chass 2 DO for eee Class3 | _DO tofor10 v Chass 4 DO #010) - DO for-1O : [Glass § : ae The most productive class of verbs is Clas 1. With these verbs we use TO as an indirest abject marker and we allow forthe indirect object to precede the direct object. These properties need not be marked in the Lexicon as they will be assumed fo be the default {or unmarked) case for indirect objets. All the aher classes, however, wll have to be rarked in the Lexicon (under "Special Properties") as such. Unless a verb is marked searing a special clas of indirect object (any class other than Class 1), the syntax will tssume that the indirect object marker is TO and will also assume that the indirect ‘Object may precede the direct object. Thomas Payne (2011) in his book Understanding English Grammar, notes that, 8 a rele of thumb, only monosyllabic verbs allow the ‘order Inditect Object > Direct Object. vRACTICES | L. Classify the following verbs according to the classes above: find, afer over | eas "| (CHALLENGE | ‘Tid dua mot quyén sich so John | ’. Toi ting mbt quyén sich cho John ©. C6 Tuoi ging bai cho sinh vién | | conse te tong xa fom amen: “AIL three verbs appear in the order DO>IO. Do these verbs also allow the one 10>D0? begat Ste Lara Gran 6B @) Are the verbs that allow the 1wo possibilities DO > 10 and 10 > DO the same in English and Vietnamese? Give examples. (© How would you go about teaching these structures to students who are trying to learn English, on the one hand, and Vietnamese, on the other? 42, Modifiers in the verb phrase In section 1 we saw that complements are projected under V". In this section we will ‘explore how to incorporate modifiers into our VP structure, Complements are typically obligatory elements. In examples where we omit them, our ‘minds still have a generic complement replacing that complement, Take for instance the verb read, I can say both J am reading « book and I am reading. The verb read c-selects an NP-complement. The complement is present inthe first example, but itis missing in the second example. But even though it is missing, I still understand that | am reading, something. Thus my mind fills in a complement in spite of the fact thatthe complement {is missing inthe second example, Different ffom complements, which are usually obligatory and if absent, still understood, modifiers are optional. While complements are necessary to complete the meaning of the verb, modifiers just give ade reference to time, place, manner, ete. mal information making 42.1 Postverbal modifiers. ‘To incorporate modifiers into the VP structure discussed in section 1, we will add them. as additional projections of V', as shown in (21) (21) a. John did the homework ', John did the homework in his room. ve vp i i v v —— ——— v ne v PP | —— do “the homework WNP “inhisroom do Te homenork4 Conon i Pg ip Tare Notice that in (21b) we have ereated an additional V" to invysporate the PP-modifier, ‘What do we do if the verb phrase contains more than one modifier phrase? Consider (22): (22) John did the homework in his rom in the moming. ve I v — BP ¥ Bp “ihe morning Hest Wie “nhistoom 0 “he homework [As we can sce in (22), the second modifier is incorporated as a second add If there are any additional modifiers, they will slso be incorporated as additional V'. We call these additional V's adjunctions, that is the reason why modifiers are also referred to.as adjunets, Consider now (23) which contains three modifiers (23) John did the homework in his room in the morning at 7 o'clock. we i v _—— ¥ BP Peters ¥ Bp “eT ecock —— ¥ Be “inthe moming ~~ a co — oo The homework Notice thatthe tree in (23) has 4 V bars (V"). The lowest one is reserved for the direct ‘object (the homework); each modifier appears in its own V™- projection. Special attention must be paid when we modify an intransitive verb, Remember that the Towest Vis "reserved" for complements, Thus Ifa verb takes no complement, that V" level must be left empty and the modifier must be projected under an additional V's shown in (24): nga ye 6s (24) Jobo slept. John slept in his room. vp ve : I v v \ —~ v ve 1 | steep V hibroom 1 steep Ia verb does not include or take any complements, modifiers must be projected in additional and separate V's. Notice that we do not attach any category to the lowest V" sinee this space is reserved for complements and intransitive verbs do not take complements: 25) John slept in his room at night at 11 o'clock, ——~, = ¥ Pp “at aeiock —~, <> Be “atnignt ae i vy “Whieroom i sleep 42.1.1 Order of postverhal adverbs. When adverbs or prepositional phrases are incorporated into the VP, are they incorporated or merged in any particular order? The answer seems to be yes, although the order may be changed when we want to emphasize 1 particular adverb. Typically we incorporate adverbs or prepositions of manner, then place, then time MANNER > PLACE > TIME (25) He worked quietly at home in the morning Manner> Place > Time(6 Hltr Cano sod Tay Poe ve i v oe SS ¥ Be “ithe momng oS WF Ab vP “ethome (—_ vy “iat Il work ‘We can see that we have merged the adverbs in the order MANNER > PLACE > TIME. “This is the most natural and unmarked order for adverbs. ‘Verbs of movement typically take complements that indicate place, so with these verbs the order is usually PLACE > MANNER > TIME (26) A weat to Cambodia by bus in the sum PLACE > MANNER> TIME vp i v _——~, ¥ BP ——~, ¥ Bp “the summer —~, <> Be “bybue = go “to Cambodia 4.22 Preverbal modifiers We can see in (25) that adverb and prepositional phrases can appear postverbally as modifiers. Adverb phrases may also appear preverbally (27) Ha always visits Quan. 7 v ——~ PO 1 watt “Guan Eli & tint Grammer _ 67 ‘Adverbs that typically appear in preverbal position are: 28) a. degree adverbs:® b, adverbs of frequency.” c. adverbs that indicate order:* ‘Thomas hardly visits me. Angel usually visits me. | first met them in 2015 PRACTICE 4 Form VPs using the verb and the indicated adverb or prepositional phrases. Then diagram the corresponding phrases. 4. suffer (from headaches, always, at night) b. differ (significantly, from his brothers) 90 (by bus, to school, in the morning) CHALLENGE, Diagram the VPs for the following sentences. Use A for categories other than VP. Remember that TREES REPRESENT CATEGORIES, NOT FUNCTIONS! 1. Ha bought wine from Chile atthe supermarket, b. Co Chi borrowed some Russian books from the library yesterday. ©, Trieu sent a bouquet of flowers to his girlfriend for her birthday last week, 4. Thuong bought a very nice present for her son on Saturday. . They finally decided on the boat. (ambiguous) £. Ha cooked Chinese food for her boyftiend yesterday. (ambiguous) | g. The syntax professor invited the students of Linguistics to his house on the beach. (ambiguous) (te dese ads hat appear in VP anos hardy, near ute, ater scarcely. These may so ape pestebaly (Tsai apprsne our ba. +. i) Teppreint your peel tirade of feguncy ta appear in VP: aun hardy evr ewer ofl, rar, rego seldom te avers that indent orf ecu wha poe dieting i, hy (Thick materia 2015, {3 tet tem itn 2018 nex, These can also appear postverally, andi they co ly precede the ine expression:(8 or Capon Bi aah Thi Tone 42.3 An important note on NPs that funetion as adverbs. In English (and in many languages) we have NPs that have an adverbial funetion. However, you must remember that TREES REPRESENT CATEGORIES, NOT FUNCTIONS. This these NPs will have to be represented as NPs and not as ADVPs. 29) a. Khiem will goto Europe next year ’. Khiem calls Quan every day. (80) a. The structure for 29a, b) is shown in (30) ve vp Yi v Heese —— ¥ We ¥ we ~~ ~ Smee Ne “Grenyaay | (0 “oEiwope cat “Guan Modifiers like yesterday and today, on the other band, willbe treated as adverbs: (30). We went to the movies yesterday. ve I v ——— ¥ AVP —™ v Be “yesterday go “tothe movies 43° Phrasal versus Prepositional verbs In section 1.3 we discussed prepositional verbs. We saw that prepositional verbs like G1) take « prepositional phrase as a complement. There isa second class of verbs called phrasal verbs that look like prepositional verbs and should not be confused with prepositional verbs: G1) Prepositional verbs Khim talks about syntax all the time. b. Tuoi believes in ghosts, lsh ie ers! Gamma _ 69 (32) Phrasal verbs a. Khiem looked up the word inthe dictionary. '. Tuoi put on a beautiful ao dai for the party. In (31-32) we can see that both prepositional and phrasal verbs exhibit the sequence V- -NP. (33) shows the structure we will propose for these two classes of verbs: @3) 2. talk about syntax, . look up a word ve 1 v — ve —— tak “Shout syntax lookup “sword Prepositional verb Phrasal verb ‘As we can see in (33a) ‘alk takes a PP complement. In (33b) we see that the verb is actuelly look-up and this verb takes NP as a complement We could break up the phrasal verb Look up into its component parts: the verb (V) fook and the particleipreposition (P) up. As we ean see in (34) below, ook up is sill analyzed asa word since it has the category V. (G4) full representation for a phrasal verb ve i —— vo We ~ VP ord Lot took up How can we distinguish these two classes of verbs? A very simple diagnostic test isto try 10 put the noun phrase between the verb and the preposition: G5) Prepositional verb: Khiem always talks about syntax, ‘"Khhiem always talks symtax about b. Phrasal verb: Khiem always looks up words, Khiem always looks words upO_o Camp i oa Tip Thome 'As we can see in Q5), only phrasal verbs like Jook up allow ns to put the noun phrase ‘between the verb and the paticle/preposition. "Another simple diagnostic test is to replace the NP by a pronoun, as shown in (36): (36) 8, Prepositional verb: Kiem always talks about syntax Khiem always talks about it ». Phrasal verb: Khiem always looks up words, ‘*Khhiem always Looks up them, Khem always looks them up. ‘As we can see in (36), prepositional verbs allow for the pronoun to go after the preposition (36a). Phrasal verbs must put the pronoun between the’ verb and theparticle/preposition, as shown in (36b) [As we can see in (33), the P and P form a unit or constituent (PP) only with prepositional verbs, Thus we expect P and NP to be able to move as a unit, This is what swe observe in (37) G7) a. Prepositional verb: [About syntax] Kiem always talks b. Phrasal verb: *[Up words] Khiem always looks. ‘As we can see in (37), only prepositional verbs allow P to move along with the NP. Phrasal verbs do not allow this movement because P and NP do not form a constituent We ean clearly see this difference in (33). Finally we ean try the "shared constituent” test. Only constituents can be shared. Thus \we get a difference between the two verbs: 8) a Propositional verb: Khiem always talks and Quan also talks (about syntax] », Phrasal verb: *Khhiem always looks and Qua also looks [up the new words} ‘Only in (38a) is the P + NP a constituent and thus ean be shared. This i exaetly what structure (33) predicts Pk Ste & ivr Grammer 71 PRACTICE 5 | 1 Identify the following verbs as Phrasal or Preposiional. Then draw the corresponding structures forthe VP. 4. Ha [thought abou the problem) . Khiem ftook off his shir) © Toan fate up all the eake} 4. Tuoi [put on a beautfl ao da} €. An wrote down the structures). I, Diagram the following VPs. Pay attention as to whether the verbs ought to ‘be analyzed as phrasal or prepositional verbs. Also be careful distinguishing complements from modifiers. 1. She threw away her old books last week ’. They took off their jackets before the meeting, ‘. Thuong always looks after her baby. 4, She tured in her homework late, £ zg She turned up the volume atthe party ‘She turned up late forthe party. They found out the truth lastnight hh. called off my subscription to the Washington Post | RESEARCH PROJECT Consider the examples in (D) and (g) below. Propose a structure for them and ‘motivate your structure. . Quan cannot [put up with the noise) ’. Khiem will not keep up with the reading}. (CHALLENGE 1 Consider the following data for the invented verb glew up, Would you analyze ike a phrasal oF like a prepositional verb? Use the following data to write as ‘many arguments as you can. 1. She glew up the book. 2. She glew the book up. 3.__ She glew itup,72 Cp ea Thi Tens 7 a gerade ety. 2 dame devo etck © Ae Jovan eb Pa owe 4, Thebook, t dont think that Mary actualy glew up cuatience2 Explain wha the phrase did so stands for in she following sentence, Then | Pe annuus acces |r a ye | Je ean Ma i me She ew up i 44° Summary ce seen that complements are merged at the lowest V" projection In this chapter we have ‘yhile modifiers are merged at additional V' projections. We have seen that modifiers nay appear either to the lft orto the right of the verb, The general skeleton for VP is shown in 39) 69) we i o — oF wm I (Moder) 7 me) oo ¥ iP) “eatery oe, v » RP “oat Gomplemert complement 2 ‘We argued for 5 different classes of indirect objects in English, depending on whether ‘and depending on whether they allow the order 10 > they take TO or FOR as a marker, DO or not. We argued that indirect object markers are not present at D-Structure; insertion operation. indirect object markers only appear at S-Structure as a result of an i = ‘ng Sy tea Grammar 73 “To account fr SOV langage, We climes shh of V1 thei ofthe complement inthe net cher ve wl pure t more soaatd analysis for TOsnseron. We wil ty to understand why indvest objcts need fo be marked in English sine Enlist, unlike the Japanese (se example 10), snot ply Janguage that marks functions. Hi love we mage in th vet Voie a i ato! Vet, Maton do hve anual Ode eh ye ite ily flow be er Mann Plea ane eve eos ‘whose complement indicates a place, in which case the order a rder of the first two adverbs is Finally we discussed phrasal an propositions! verbs. We argued that prepositional verbs tke PP-complomen. In pra verbs the verb and te preosn analy reel 1 a8 pardl fn it In prepstiona eb, the prepostion ithe bea of PP; ina phrasal verb, the preposition sj Phere sno PP) and fms wed we ve Ph (7 7) nk tn pe omen, Eyton cs an) ne Rees PrtTor Coat Bit aah Ty Tons CHAPTER 5 THE STRUCTURE OF THE NOUN PHRASE In this chapter we will apply X"theory to noun phrases. 5.1 The structure of noun phrases ‘The simplest noun phrases are those where the noun appears by itself (bare nouns). “Examples can be found in (1). Following the X'syntax model we introduce in Chaprer 2, these nouns would have the minimal structure in (1) (Mary, apples, ‘icecream NP NP NP. i IL w _ l i N N Il 1 apples loecream 52. Determiners as specifiers of NP. Nouns may appear with a determiner (D). Definiteand indefinite articles, possessives ‘and demonstratives will be considered determiners: Jha ar language where proper ames ike John ot Mary apesr with determiner, Take Gree, for (0 Giamis, | Maria thetohy he Mary “oa, May conte pane Hike French, may have special determiner to mark indefinite hale (PL-INDEF): i des teas, des enfants PLINDEF eakes,” PL-INDEF childsen ‘ales, chide! aot & Union Gramar 7S @ —thesin sboy Ne ne < “™ iv iit te ha 1 Hf a wy my house thas books ie ne cs ~ ao ow 1 1 I I el tase i 1 i vodka sa rs. Adjectives typically modify nouns. As we did with verbs, we will {include all modifiers in additional N’ projections, as shown in (3); ; @) a asmartgiet ». a beautiful smart girl NP Ne ——™~ ——™ ow 6 v AN 1 eae ane w al > oe Beau ABW 1 a! a ‘Smart N \ ott [Notice that in the examples in (3), each adjective is merged in a separate N' projection ‘on top of the lowest N'. The lowest N' conta N' contains no projection since these examples do not include complements, aisle Js there an order in the way we merge modifiers to the noun? Yes, there is, and in ‘general, we can posit that subjective adjectives precede objective adjectives. In our ‘example in (3b) we have two adjectives: beautiful and smart. Beautiful precedes smart since beautiful may be considered more subjective than smatt. ‘We can take the following template asa guide for merging prenominal adjectives:16 en Canps& HaodTiy Tao (4) Opinion size> age> shape > color origin > raterat~ vod forlabout > N ‘A Jovely small old round red Vietnamese wooden storing box A big black school bag A. spectacular red lain evening dress [All the examples with adjectives we have discussed so far are prenominal modifiers “This is by far the most common position of adjectives in English. However, adjectives ‘nay also appear in postnominal positon. Ths is typically the case when the adjective appears before a fo-infinitive of with a prepositional phrase which is « complement of the adjective itself (5) @ aprogram [intended to facilitate learning} ’. the minister {responsible for health services} . amovie [suitable forall audiences) In these cases, we project the adjective phrase to the right ofthe noun. The structure for (6b) is shown in 6) © NP. a 5 we 1 the ae 1 IN. “Teaponsibie for health services 1 ricister — oe Eee eee PRACTICE 1 1. Diagram the following noun phrases: a. Susan », the teacher c the American teacher 4, the coffee with mill. «the victims involved in the accident the visible stars, the stars visible (what isthe difference?) i Sie Lier Geanmar TT I. Order the following noun and adjectives. Then diagram the phrases: a. bedroom (elegant, big, modern) b. 1ug (expensive, woolen, Persian, antique) ‘ML The foloning phrase ls ambiguous. Explain the amiga and propose 00 structures to account for the ambiguity. iii eat the eold coffee with milk: See SA Complements of NP: PP-complements. Consider the following verbal phrases and their corresponding deverbal nouns (.e., nouns that detive from verbs) in (7): (Da They traveled ro Cambodia, the travel to Cambodia . They argued about money. an argument abou! money . They applied for the job, = an applicant for the job The structure for the deverbal nouns in (7a), (7b) is shown ia (8) @ ee travel “fo Camboda argument “Sbaut mney Notice that the deverbal nouns in (7) maintain the aintain the same preposition as the corvesponding verb. A = We observe a perfect parallelism between the VP and the corresponding NP. (9) They argued about money an argument about money at Het 4 yh alee Pe 1 oe 2 ie argue “about money argument sbout money78 tor Capo In (), both the verb and its derived nominal tke the suune PP complement. This structural parallelism i ealled isomorphism. Isomorphism simplifies the process of language acquisition. Once the child feams that the verb takes a PP complement, the child may assume that the corresponding devel noun will take the same prepositional phrase as its complement, Our model should try to preserve isomorphism where possible. 55. NP complements: non-PP complements, Let us now look st complements of owns, Nouns that derive from verbs (deverbal nouns) may typically appear with complements, As with modifiers, complements in English may appear prenomsinally or postnominally. (10) Verbalphrase_Prenomtinal complement Postnominal complement the student OF chemistry the student OF languages 4, He studies chemistry 1, She studies languages. the chemistry student the language student AAs we ean see in (10), complements may appear either pre- or postnominally in English, I the complement appears prenominally, notice that the noun Tose its plural form (as seen in (104) On the other hand, ifthe complement appears postnominsly> CF precedes the complement, How can we account fr these two facts? Let us tke one problem ata time. 1551 Prenominal complements. Why do we need a singular form in (LOb) when the complement appears prenominall? Facts like the language stent seem fo suggest hak sve may be outside the domain of syntax proper. Language stent can be analyzed as 2 Compound word, whichis the domain of Generative Morphology (see Chenier 2) Other examples where the plural bas been lost in the compound word ean be found i: an opener fr bales >a batle opener, a trap for mice — 4 mouse trap, ce. Novice that in these compound words, not only does the frst oun appear in the singular form, but stress always falls on the first noun: « BOttle opener, s MOUSE trap. The same is “observed with our phrases in (10): the CHEmistry student, the LANguage student “where the syllable in eapital eters isthe sable that bears the phrase stress, Thus thee ye evidence that prenominal complements of nouns should be treated ‘morphologically rather than syntactically, thus accounting for the fact dat these complement ate always singular. ‘Notwithstanding these facts, we will treat these constructions syntactically. projecting the complement of N tothe left of N, in prenominal posi 7 1 (Ib). Since we know the intemal structure of NP now, we can project the structure both for student and chemistry as shown on the diagram in (11¢) (11) @. the chemistry student an) Ne aig, NP — ——~ 5 Ww sw -—~, a tee —— 1 tot Ghemiaty student NN student 4 I chomisty ‘One argument in favor of treating prenominal complements as syntactic rather than morphological complements is the fact that pres it that prenominal nouns may be modified, as suggested by the phrase the modern chemistry student, shown in (114), (116), the modem chemistry student Ww 1 modem If chemistry student were a word, we should not be able to modify part of the word, ‘Take, for instance, the word football. Imagine there is a special bal for people who kick ith thei left foot. We would never be able to have a left-football. Thus we are justified in treating constructions like (11) as constructions containing a prenominal syntactic Sa even ats thn) st allo CE on STUdent. if edPRACTICE 2 ‘The following phrases are ambiguous. Discuss their ambiguity and propose “structures 0 explain the respective readings: 1 the foreign car importers a Buropean book publisher 552 Postnominal Of-complements. Let us consider now the more complex ease of ‘complements of nouns in postnominal position: the student of chemistry. To understand “why ‘of appears in these construction we need to have a brief discussion about Case. English only shows Case with pronouns, as shown in (12) st (19) Mary speaks Fnglish wel b. Lknow Mary very well, ce. Lalways study with Mary. 4, Lalways go to Mary's house ¢, This is my house and that is Mary's. She speaks Fnglish well Tknow her very well always study with her. always go to her house. ‘This is my house and that is hers. Phase We can see that while Mary does not change in form in (13). If we replace Mary with the corresponding pronoun, the pronoun must take the appropriate Case depending, fon the function that Mary has in the sentence. We say that nouns in English are not declined for Case, only pronouns are, as shown in the table in (12). In (13) we see the different declensions for the pronoun she. In other languages, nouns and not just pronouns may be infleeted for case. We can see this example with Albanian in (14). Notice the different forms that Martin may take {depending on the different functions it plays in the sentence: @) (04) a.” Martini flet shqip. ‘Martin speaks Albanian. SoamcT | OnvECT OF POSSESSIVE. [ POSSESSIVE bUntkam uae Martini {have invited Martin, , DETRIMINER | PRONOU ©) Un kam dérguar Martini er. have sent Martin alter. Nominative Case | (Objective Case) (Genitive Cate) 4 Un eto} prané Martint, Live near Matin Lt me my, mine | fe. —_ Kjo &sht6 shtépia e Martin This is Martin's house, a yo our yours fu we fue ie 1m (4a) Martin sa subject, n (146) a direct object, in (14) an indirect object, n (140) —_ oc ue the object of proposition and in (Ide) a possessor. As evidenced by the data from L is = pronouns in English, nous and pronouns from ATbaian in (14) and in many other it ny | Tangages, we will thus assume tht all noun phrases must bear Case. We will call we w owe ours this the CASE CONDITION: Son ms you Sour Sours Peer errr eeaeeeeere crea (they te cE their sie (15) THE CASE CONDITION NOMINATIVE Case is typically used with subjects"; OBJECTIVE Case is used with complements of the verb; OBLIQUE case is used with complements of prepositions and GENITIVE case is used to indicate possession. We can see in the table in (12) that pronouns with OBJECTIVE and OBLIQUE ease bear the same form in English ‘The examples in (13) show the different forms that the pronoun SHE may take when it replaces Mory, which appears in different functions in (13): as @ subject in (133), as @ direct object in (13b), as object of a preposition in (13e), as a possessive in (134.¢h: 7K bauer ame foe this Case would have been SUBJECTIVE Case since Nominative Case is just ome acne poublerealzaons of Case. Thus many languages also exhibit Exgative or Absotive Case ‘wth subject. All noun phrases must bear Case. We will assume that this condition is universal, Some languages may bave highly inflected nouns and pronouns (like Albanian); others may have more restricted systems, like English, where we oaly see inflection in pronouns. In yet other languages, like ‘Vietnamese, we may see no inflection on nouns or pronouns at all In those forms where Case is not obvious or transparent, we will say that they have zero-infleetion Lat us go back to (10), Now we have a way to explain why OF appears with ‘postnominal complements. Compare (16a) with (16b) (16) a He studies chemistry. b. _thestudent OF chemistry.82 _ ier Campo it ok Tip Ta up ». we Np 1 I v " ~ a a2 he \ ‘tidy “SOT Oective Case student “Shey (17a) and (176) show perfect isomorphism: both the verb study and the noun student take the NP chemistry as its complement, In (17a), the verb is able to assign Objective Case to its complement chemistry. Thus we are able to say (he) studies chemistry. But wwe are not able to say tthe student chemistry. Instead we must say the student OF ‘chemistry, We will claim that OF is a pseudo-preposition which is inserted into the structure in (17) s0 that chemistry is able to receive (Oblique) Case to satisfy the Case Condition in (15). The structure for (16b) is shown in (170) (76) In (170), the pseudo-preposition OF assigns oblique case to the noun phrase chemistry and thus chemistry satisfies the Case Condition in (15). IFOF assigns Oblique Case to chemistry in (17e) thus helping chemistry satisfy the Case Condition in (15), how does chemistry in the phrase the chemisnry student satisfy the ‘Case Condition in (15)? We suggested above that she chemistry student may be outside the realm of syntax proper, the compound chemistry student being formed in the ‘morphology rather than in the syntax. If so, chemistry (and prenominal complements in ‘general) may be exempt from the Case Condition in (15). In general, we will say that prenominal complements are exempt from the Case Condition, These prenorinal ‘complements are at the morphology-syntax interface. ag yt irl Gramar_B 5.6. PP-modifiers. Prepositional phrases may also modify nouns. When they do, they always appear postnominally, as shown in (18): (18) the students of inguistis [from Saigon] the student [from Saigon] ne “the [ftom Saigon] student Sac NP 1 Pattie te oF Re w pee tease Ye Fam saigen te Be 1 students 1 N. “fom Saigon \ \ 4 student 1 {oP tngistes However, the PP-modifier in (18) may also be reali modi as a prenominal noun phrase (19) the [Saigon] students of linguistics the [Saigon] student ne ne -—™~, 6 ¥ fe eter te Ley ¥ te NOW wo We to IEEE EH eee Ni sdents oot i j N student Saigon N ! : Saigon (CE) instos [Notice that in (19) the preposition has disappeared. This may suggest again that we may be in the realm of morphology rather than syntax since syntax docs not allow the deletion of elements that have meaning. Furthermore, notice that the noun phrase Saigon in (19) escapes the Case Condition since nothing seems to assign Case to it Once again, facts like this suggest that we may be in the realm of morphology rather than syntax or at the interface marphology-syntax. Trying to keep these structures inthe realm of syntax, we need to claim that prenominal complement- and modifier- NPs are allowed to escape or constitute an exeeption for the Case Condition in (15).84 hor Campari oh Ti Te ‘expecia, bul he complement end the modifier may appear in prenominal position: 20) The Saigon linguistics student Ne —— 5 ww 1 =~ the Ne Looe™N won OW DESHI NON student (HHT SaigenN ' linguists [reactices | Diagram the following NPs: 1. the syntax teacher from America ’. the American teacher of syntax c. the taxi driver from Hanoi 4, the Hanoi taxi driver ©. cold coffee with ice 5.7. Explaining some ambiguous noun phrases. Now we have enough knowledge about structures to start explaining some basic ambiguities within the noun phrase, Consider the NP in (21), which is ambiguous between the readings in (21a) and (216) (21) anBnglish teacher a. a teacher who teaches English . ateacher from England ‘We can represent this ambiguity with the two following structures: (22) a, an English teacher >, an English teacher {a teacher who teaches English) {a teacher from England) uh Se Ul amar _ 8S 1 ' teacher English ‘We can see that in 228), English is a noun phrase and it is merged as a (prenominal) complement of N. In 2b), English isan adjective phrase and itis merged as a modifier of N, PRACTICE 4 1. The following phrase is ambiguous. Diagram ovo structures that correspond with each of the readings: the Vietnamese teacher 1. the teacher teaches Vietnamese b. the teacher is from Vietnam ML The following phrase is at least three times ambiguous. Diagram three structures that correspond with each of the indicated readings: the old Vietnamese teacher 1, the teacher is old and is from Vietnam b. the teacher is old and teaches Vietnamese | . the teacher teaches old Vietnamese | The word old may also mean "former", Would we have a different structure for this particular reading? Justify your answer. Would this be considered a syntactic or @ lexicalsomantic ambiguity?6 or Conor i Hod Tip Tuo canine | 1. Diagram the following structures. Briefly explain your structures justifying your choice of "complement" versus "adjunet™. ‘a a possible missile attack on our bases in Korea . aigenorous property bess to charity forthe etery | | 6. aspy exchange with the Russians a | ifiers, In section 1.1 we saw that articles (definite as well as 58, A note on quan wel iuefsite),possessves and demonstatives merse 0s specifiers t the NP, Some Gqantiiers also seem to behave like determiners since they cannot co-oocur wi doterminers (23) any students, each student, either student, every student, nether student, no student, some students similar to the way we tested articles, demonstratves and possessives in section 1-1, we ‘will treat these quantifies as determiners (D): (24) some students every student Ne NP “ “~, ow oN it Io some N every N ! 1 students student [Numerical quantifiers, however, will be treated like modifiers, As we can see in (25), they may co-oceur with determiners: agate Groner _ 87 25) my two sons the fit chap Ne 2 —™, ee ow oy EEE Teen my oh a ow Al meet peletan first oN , \ aad chapter ARCH PROJECT 1 1. Consider the quantifiers MANY, FEW, MUCH, LITTLE. Would you analyze them as determiners similar to some, every, etc in 24) oF similar to the numerical | OPs discussed in (25)? Justify your answer. 2 How would you analyze the universal quantifier ALL in the phrase all the students? 59. Partitives [Nouns ean be classified into [+count] (count nouns) and (-count] (mass nouns), Count nouns are those that may be counted and may appear inflected for plural: dogs, books, cities, fet, etc. Mass nouns do not have a plural form, but we can use partitive phrases to measure them: 26) a drop of water, some slices of bread, a word of ad of gas, ete a pair of scissors, a gallon NP i DO, as shown in (8): (8) a. The teacher explained the lesson tothe students b. *The teacher explained the students the lesson, The lesson was explained tothe students by the teacher. 4. *The students were explained the lesson by the teacher, ‘As we soe in (8), the indirect object cannot precede the direct object when we use the verb explain. In (8a), the students receives Oblique Case from the pseudo-preposition TO, Since the passive operation requires an objective complement to become a subject, wwe predict that only the lesson could be a possible subject for a passive construction, This is bore out, as we ean see in (8) und (84), ‘Thus we conclude that the pseudo-preposition that appears in front of indircet objects in English has two functions, namely, (a) to mark the indirect object when It is not adjacent to the verb and, (b) to assign Case to the indircet object so it ean satisfy the Case Condition.96 or Cp jh hi Dao a" ‘As we can see in (4) and (5), an indireet ubject has two possible ways to receive Case ‘and both ways are last resort operations: (a) it may be assigned Case by the inserted ‘pseudo-preposition TO, as in 2) oF (B) it may move next to the verb, where it will be adjacent to receive Objective Case from the verb, as in (5). “The analysis presented in this Appendix allows us to understand and explain why TO appears in front of indirect objects wien these are Far away ftom the verb. This aovount provides us with a deeper analysis of indirect objects than the analysis presented in the previous chapter. CHAPTER 6 THE STRUCTURE OF AP, PP AND ADVP In this chapter we continue to apply the X’-syntax model to adjectival, prepositional and adverbial phrases. We will shovr that the simple model we proposed in Chapter 2 ean be easily applied to these categories as well Gal. ‘The structure of AP “The simplest AP will be those adjectives phrases that contain a bare (1) pretty smart AP I x i 1 A A Il I pretty smart Adjectives may be modified by adverbs. We will ake adverbs to be the specifiers of AP: 2) veryprety so smart ap a aN, ~~. wR oy tot ro vey 8 oA i I pretty ‘mart Can adjectives take coraplements? Indeed they cant And they are typically PP, as we can see in 3) 3)” absent from school, accustomed to the weather, addicted to work, adjacent f0 the bank, clever at math, impressed with the situation, busy with my homework, crazy ‘about her, ee.98 or Conor & ah Ty Tne o a ap I A k —~ ~~ x Be Kee | —=—— | absent “fom school clever “at math ‘Where the adjective is related to or derives from a verb, notice the perfect isomorphism between verb and adjective: (5) a John concentrates on rhe problem —+ concentrated on the problem '. Susan succeeded in business —+ successful in business © we ap fl I i" K _——. —_— v PP a ms ‘concentrate “on te problem concentrated on te problem In spite ofthe perfect isomorphism observed in (6), notice that OF appears in front of ‘some adjectives derived from verbs: fearful OF heights ignorant OF the results ‘understanding OF the situation (Da, John fears heights. = ’, Johan ignores the results, - c, John understands the situations. —> We can see that in (7) the verbs take their complement directly, while in the ‘comesponding derived adjective form require the pseudo-preposition OF, similar to what we observed with derived nouns in the previous chapter. As with deverbal nowns, ‘we need OF-insertion for these constructions to be well-formed: ngak Si Una Grae _ 99 o a. (John) fears heights b. fearful of heights 7 | 1 t h oN ie Ye Lon (iseee fle feat tt I | {4 4 I (OF) heights seearisciare LAD oolique case ‘We saw in Chapter 4 thet only verbs and prepositions assign Case, The complement heights may receive Case fim the vetb fear in (8a, but it cannot receive Case from the aujective fearful in (8b). OF-insertion is @ last-esort operation necessary to avoid Violating the Case Condition. Thus OF-insertion saves our AP steture in (8b) from crashing, We wil thus assume that whenever OF appears infront of « complement of at jective, OF is an inserted pseudo-prepo o mn. Some if these adjectives are listed in: (9) capable of, conscious of afraid of, ashamed of. fond of, frightened of. ignorant of understanding of, regardless of shy of, sick of. tired of, proud of, et. (10) ashamed of his grades proud of her parents eat x Ne a ashamed © OW pou 5 OW I bod (OF) hs (OF)herN usr Opens Inthe previous discussion, we saw that adjectives ean appear bare (1), they can be ‘modified by an adverb (2) and they ean appear with a complement, as in (6) and (10), Can adjectives contain a modifier?100 strony oh Ty Tons Adjectives tay contin # modifier, This is the structure we find with resultative constructions, where the sentence expressing result is a modifier to the adjective. This js « correlative structure, since the sentence cannot appeat without the adverb in the structure so A thar... For the moment we will represent the sentence as a CP structure, where CP stands for a “complementizer phrase”, (11) sored that he cannot move AP —— ov x | ——— wo & oF — A “athe cannot move | teed Tein 7 I. Diagram the following APs: 1a, quite acquainted withthe culture b. pretty certain ofthe date amused with his funny jokes 4, so busy that I forgot to call her. Tl, Diagram the following NPs which contain AP. Expand all nodes: 4, the girl proud of her mother ’. the people busy with their work «. the com fields covered with snow 4. young man angry at his syntax teacher IIL, Diagram the VPs in brackets: Expand all nodes. 1, She [invited the students present) b, She [discussed the present situation with her boss}. . I [need a list ofthe doctors available for consultation} 4d, The teacher [answered the questions for the students curious about syntax}. nth Smt Uninet Grammar _101 62. The structure of PP English has over 100 prepositions.’ Prepositions are typically transitive, that is, they take a complement: (12) near the house, after the class, under the tale, on the floor, et, PP | A —— & Ne LAN rear 6 OW ater &OW Io 4 te ON the oN I 1 house lace Prepositions may be modified by an adverb. As with adjectives, we take this adverb to bea specifier of PP: (13) very near the house, right atthe comer, immediately after the bank Pe PP a —~ ay ay a LN vey Re vt Re LAN 1 oA~ rer SOW a5 ¥ it 11 te oN the ON 1 1 house comer ‘Some prepositions are complex prepositio they take another PP as a complement: (14) close tothe bank, away fiom home, contrary to her wishes, far from your house, ete, ‘See ht éetionary cambridge. or/grammar Tors granmarforeposions.102 cer Cane 4B gn Thi Tone : PP Lag | I a oe oe 1 I i oN tot & ON mee I I the oN i" 1 | bank ae ‘Some prepositions may funtion as adverbs. Typically, when used intransitively, they are considered adverbs (15) a. She lives close, ». They went very far ‘Traditional English grammar considers these forms adverbs. Other grammars consider them as prepositional adverbs and yet others as adverbial prepositions. Given our early condition that trees represent eategories, not functions, we will assume thot these forms are actually prepositions, When used intransitively, as in (15a), they function as adverbs. But in both instances in (16) near isa preposition: (16) a, She ives (near) >, She lives [near the house} pa PP. 1 I e i a t &ONe 1 1 oom™~ Ht near © OW H te ON house So far we have seen prepositions that take specifies (13) and complernents (12, 13, 14). Can prepositions take modifiers? As with adjective phrases, PP may include a modifier ‘with resultative clauses: Eng Syne Uriel Gmmar 108 (17) so far from school that he cannot walk PP ——. av e to o F cP. PRACTICE 2 Diagram the structures in brackets. Expand all categories. She is [very worried about the problem with her parents) ‘My sister will [visit her boyfriend right after class) ‘She is (quite afraid of big black spiders}. | [put the book right on the table near the window}. He [appeared from behind the big black curtain), H. The following sentences are ambiguous. Propose structures to account for the different readings and briefly explain the readings. a. She sent postcards from Spain . She waved to the gist with her scart 63. ‘The structure of ADVP. Bare adverbs are very common in English, Adverbs may be modified by another adverb as in (18b). As adverbs modifying adjectives, we will take adverbs modifying other adverbs to be specifies, as you can seein (19) (18). a. Ha speaks French {well b. Ha speaks French [very well}104 ewe Canpr& oh Ty Mone a9) a well b. veay well ADvP ‘DvP 1 o~ nov aby ABV \ eee av vey 20 ; wet wel A logical question to ask at this pont is whether the ADY in the speifer pasion 2 (9b) (as well as the adverb that appears as a specifier for AP in examples 2 and 13) be expanded as fll adver, The same question may be asked forthe determines in 8 oun phase like (the gil], where we have Inbeled the determiner as, nat Following XeSyntax, We will discuss determiner phrases in Chapter 8 and we wil show th determiners can be made to follow X'-syntax, No such claim las been made for adverbs in specifier positon yet, so we will continue to assume that (196), (2) and (13) isthe ‘correct structure for adverb specifiers for the moment. “Applying X'Syntax to adverbs, the next logical question to ask is whether adverbs can take complements? The answer is positive: 6) Tua opt ea ne ive i 'b. This device will operate [ independently of your computer ‘skills). 21) & separately from the university b, independently of your computer skills ADVP ae \ a av — Boy ape anv NP Ie Indepshay x separately | o™

V) b, _Losestudiantes hacen siempre la tarea, (Spanish: V>ADV) ‘The students do-PRES,IIISG always the homework : e *Mary does always her homework (English: *V>ADV) 4. Los estudiantes siempre hacen la tare (Spanish: *ADV>V) The students always do the homework [Notice that in English the adverb must precede the verb while in Spanish the verb must precede the adverb. In English the adverb may not appear between the verb and its direct object but this is possible in Spanish. How can we explain this important difference between English and Spanish? We will assume thet English and Spanish haye the, same starting point at D- Structure, with the adverb merged as a modifier to the eft of the verb (13), D-Structures for English and Spanish: oF jee prestusc) pprefnry — v a! 1 sey 1 do Thetamawa whe Goa Prat Sse ie Graaar 13 We see that at D-Structure, English and Spanish have exactly the same syntactic D- structure: I precedes the VP and the ADVP, a modifier merged to the left of V, precedes the verb, How can we get the verb and the inflection together So as to satisfy the Stranded Affix Condition in (12)? ‘We saw in (12a) that in English the adverb precedes the inflected verb (i.e, the verb plus the inflection), while in Spanish it isthe inflected verb which precedes adverb, We an get the comrect word order for both languages if we assume that inflection moves to the verb in English while the verb moyes to inflection in Spanish, as shown in (14). (14) $-Structure for English and Spanish Mary always do-es her homework Los estudiantes haco-n siempre la tare e e a eee a fp Ve Teams Ve \ | ‘ vPregupy jp 1 We Sot —_ mm ot OL er XY Oe oo 7 the origin and destination of the movement), we can easily read off the corresponding D-Strucures14 Conp Maoh Mi Teme ‘our syste sm will uly allow for deletion although we have nat seen any eases yet, WE summarize our model in (15) below: as) PRACTICE 1 | 1. Diagram the following sentences in English and in Spanish: ‘a. The students seldom come to class on time. b, Los. estudiantes lega-n siempre a clase a tiempo. ‘The students arrive-PRES, INPL always to class on time I. Consider the following sentences in French and in Italian, Do we have movement of V to Lor I to V in these languages? Justify your answers. Show th icates the thematic vowel; PRES, present tense, and corresponding trees. TV indi THPL third person plural: (@) French: Les étudiants parl-e-nt ‘The students speak-TV-PRES, IIPL always with the teacher | toujours avec le professeur. (b)Ieatian: ; Gli studenti parl-a-no sempre con. il professore: Te students speak-TV-PRES\IIPL always with the teaches rah Sta Url Grmar 115 1. Consider now Vietnamese. We said before that languages with no verbal inflection will be claimed to have zero-morphology. What type of movement do we get in Vietnamese to satisfy the Stranded Affix Condition? How do your facts support the claim that Vietnamese has zero-morphology for tensed verbs? RESEARCH PROJECTS 2, Consider now Japanese. Remember that Japanese is an SOV language, How does Japanese satisfy the Stranded Affix Condition? Seito-wa hhanashimas-ita Students-SUBI always teacher with speak-PAST,IIPL "The students always speak with the teacher. tsuneni sensei to 74, Incorporating Modal Verbs into IP, In the previous section we learned how to analyze and diagram sentences that contain just one main verb. But there are constructions in English that may contain more than one verb. We will stat analyzing those construetions here, English has a series of modal verbs that are used to express different modalities like doubt, possibilty, obligation, recommendation, ability, request, necessity. prohibition, ‘uty, criticism, logical assumption, permission, suggestion, advice, et, The En modal verbs ace listed in (16): (1) MODAL VERBS IN ENGLISH can ~ could, may ~ might, will — would, shall ~ should, must Inthe next section we will learn how modals are different from main verbs: TAA. Differences between modal and main verbs, Modal verbs differ from main verbs in several respects. Here we will lst only 8 differences (there are more!), to show that main verbs vastly differ from modal verbs:116 eer Congo ajo Thi Thang un [ MAIN VERBS ‘MODAL VERBS 1, Main verbs are inflected inthe third person sng in Ue present tens: ‘a. She speaks bb. *She speak T. Modal verbs never show subject-verb agresment in the preset tense: a. *She cans/wills speak English ._She caniwll speak English 2 Armin verb may be followed by another ‘vero provided that this ver isin the infinitive, the simple infinitive or the progressive form: Ha likes to speak English A, Ha lets Quan cook for her. . Ha enjoys speaking English 2. Modal verbs must be followed by a verb in the simple infinitive form (the infinitive without the 0) «©. Quan ean spenk English very well 4. Quan will yisit America soon, © Quan should look fora job. 3. Main verbs require do-support to form negative sentences: f. Khiem doesnt lke to swim. 3. Modal verbs do not need do-suppor to om negative sentences. The negative fonm nt can sttach dieety to the modal £. Khiem ean do the front craw! stroke. “Main verbs require do-suppor to Form | inertogative sentences: 8 Doss Khiem know Ha? 1h, Where i Kiem meet Ha? | 5. Main verbs have infinitive forms: {10 speak, to lke, 0 enjoy, to meet “Modal verbs da not have inginitive Forms “Modal verbs da not require do-support to form interrogative sentences Will Ha visit Quan this summer? fh Where should Quan work next year? i. to can, *t will, “to should (6. Main verbs have progressive forms: 4, speaking, king, enjoying, meeting % Moulal verbs lack progressive forms 5. teanning, "willing, *sboulding 7 The past tense form on a main verb ‘ypieally indicates pastime: eH liked Khiem's performance 7. A past tense form on a modal verb does ‘not necessarily indicate pas time: Ha mightishould goto Nge An next form: 1. Ha asked Kihiem tel Quan to g0 fishing wit her. yesterday/*tomorrow. sear B We tay get any numberof verbs in We may only have ONE modal vet pet sequence provided that are in the right sentence: 1, “Quan will can get a job soon, 1m-*Quan will must go to the doctor soon, “Bosnuos modol verbs Ick inftve an progresive foes, we say that they are defective verbs, 2 Some American dst allow for might to co-occur wit could Gy tmight ould go. There) atdaes tal these dslests might-could maybe aunt, a complex modal Some arguments sees clam thy wl alvaye appear ia this rr, thse ae tbe only 180 modal hat eum co- ‘esr no adver may app etwooa te to meals Engh yan & Unto Gromar 117 We thas coed dat mad we te ent aera sad eerste syntactic model must thus treat modal verbs and main verbs differently. be 742 A syntactic representation for modal verbs. 1 for modal verbs. In many languages modals bound morphemes found inside the verb as shown in the fll oi = a8 sh the following examples from ti cantarés, (18) Yo cantaré, I cantar; yo cantaria, ti cantarias, Twill sing, you will sing, he willsing 1 would sing, you would sing, ‘We see in (18) that the future morpheme WILL. is a free morpheme in English while it is a bound morpheme in Spenish. Both in English and in Spanish the fature mompheme (represented as 2 modal verb or as bound morpheme) will be in Inflection. Finally, notice that when there is a modal the verb bears no tense: (19). Iwill go to Hanoi next weekend, b. #1 will went to Hanoi next weekend. ‘We will thus propose that modals are merged directly in inflection. The structure for the two sentences containing modal verbs is shown in (20): (20) a. Ha should go to Nghe An, '. Quan will go to Dalat ® Pe —~ —™ Ca, Ne any aN fe Ye ‘Sion Ve Ld iH rads wo eo mo ve Re — i wo igear ae “at In the structures in (20), the modal verb is a fe , the modal verb is a free morpheme, In Spanish, on the other hhand, itis @ bound morpheme. As we saw before, the verb would move to inflection in Spanish to satisfy the Stranded Affix Condition: @1) Quan isté siempre @ Dalat Quan go-will always to Dalat ‘Quan will always go to Dalat’TIS cr Congo 8 aah Thy ame iz ——~ we an Gan (Ve Lol “oy ioe See Fe Ue “The fact that the adverb siempre ‘always’ is between the verb and the PP complement Dalat ‘to Dalat’ suggests that the V has moved to [in Spanish, 743. A note on semi-modal verbs, Some verbs are considered semi-modals in English because they share some properties both of modal and main verbs. Some semi- rmodals are need, dare, have got to, ought, had better, used t0, et. ‘Take need, for instance. Similar to other modal verbs, it does not require do-support to form the negative form, the negative morpheme can be attached directly to it, as shown in (28). Neither do we need do-support to form questions, as shown in (226): Need as a main verb 1, You don't need to say that. B. Do you need to go now? Need as a semi-modal (22) a, You needn't say that ', Need you go now? Different from real modal verbs, however, the semi-modal need can also be used as @ ‘main verb, as shown in (22a) and (221+) without much difference in meaning. In fact, these are the structures most commonly used in American English. Different from real ‘modal verbs, the semi-modal verb need is rarely used in affirmative sentences. For affirmative sentences, we typically resort to a main verb structure, as shown in (23), ‘where the double question mark (??) indicates that this sentence is not typically said by speakers: (23) a. ?2We need go to the supermarket. . We need to go fo the supermarket. ‘To use it in the past tense, We resort to the auxiliary have, similar to what happens with real modals, as shown in (24) a Png Sas Ours Groner 119 (24) a, Peter must be at home now, Peter must have heen st home last . You needn't have called me fast night We thus see that need has @ mixed behavior, Consider next ought. Different from modals, ought requires an infinitive, but similar to ‘modal verbs, it requires the auxiliary have to express obligation/regret in the past (25) a, She ought to come tomorrow. b, She ought to have come yesterday. ‘To form a question, we typically do not use ought, but should: (26) a. 0ught Ito go to her party? b. Should I go to her party? Ought is typically not used in the negative form; we typically use shouldn't I'itis used, itis typically used with a simple infinitive or with the unrechiced negative form: 27) a *Vouought't to call her/ You shoulda’ cll her: b. You oughtn' leave/ You ought not to leave. We will not include semi-modals into our analysis and will just concentrate on niodl and auxiliary verbs. PRACTICE 2 Diagram the following sentences. Expand all nodes. 8 The syntax professor fom a foreign university teaches linguistic in the morning 5, The professor ftom Chile shoul tach generative syntax in the aftemoon. eee emcee ere ere 1, We mentioned that the verb dare is also a semi-modal, Can you show why itis typically not considered a modal verb? 2. Had better is sometimes listed as a modal verb, sometimes as a semi-modal. Can ‘you summarize its behavior and defend whether it should be considered a modal (ora semi-modal verb? Or does it exhibit a mixed behavior? 3. Discuss the behavior of used to,120 _ lr Comps i at Tip Ta 75. Auxiliary Verbs in English English has three auxiliary verbs: have (+ past participle) to show perfective aspect, bbe (= progressive form) to show progressive aspect and be (+ past participle) to show passive voice. _Auniliary verbs share some properties with modal verbs: 1. Auxiliary, like modal verbs, do not need do-support to form the interrogative or negative form: (28) a. Have you seen the movie Angry Birds yet? 'b, Phuong's not planning to go to the movies with Quan, ‘Notice that this property also distinguishes euxiliary verbs from main verbs. Main verbs ‘would require do-support in interrogatives and negatives 2. Auxiliary verbs do not need do-support to form a question tag: (29) Youhave seen the movie Angry Birds, haven't you? b. Ha is not planning to go to the movies with Khiem, is she? This property also distinguishes auxiliary verbs from main verbs, Main verbs require do-support for their question taps, 3, Auxiliary verbs have infinitive and progressive forms: 10 have gone, to be going, 10 bbe built, Ja other words, unlike modal verbs and more like main verbs, they are not defective verbs. But auxiliary verbs also differ from modal verbs in other respects: 4. We saw above that modal verbs are typically followed by verbs in their simple infinitive form (the infinitive form without fo). The perfective auxiliary HAVE is always followed by a past participle, the progressive auxiliary BE is always followed by a progressive ~ing form and the passive auxiliary BE is always followed by a past participle. §5, We save that we can typically get one modal verb per sentence, but we can get up to three auxiliaries in the same sentence. Notice that the auxiliaries need to appear in a specific order, should all three auxiliary verbs co-oecur: the perfeetive fave precedes the progressive be and, in tur, the progressive be precedes the passive be: Engh Str & intl Granar AL (30) That house has been being. built for over 10 years. PERF> PROG> PASS 6, Auxiliary vetbs precede main verbs, but they follow modal verbs: (1) Thathouse must have heen being. built for over 10 years MODAL > PERF>PROG>PASS ‘The sentence in (31) clearly shows that auxiliary verbs cannot be analyzed a8 modal verbs since only one modal verb is allowed per sentence. The fact that auxiliaries always precede main verbs and appear in a fixed order makes us conclude that they are {generated as separate categories from modal and main verbs. We will explore their structure in the next section, Consider the example in (32). We will posit that auxiliary verbs are generated as AUXP. (62) shows an example with the perfective auxiliary have. We will generate past Patticiples directly in VP. (82) Toan should have called his girlfriend, we as ‘foam i ADP Ll serous AUX ay atk Ye io have Dee We 1 calea “ha gated ‘An example with the progressive auxiliary be is shown in (33). The progressive -ing form is also generated directly in VP: 83) Toan must be calling his gilitiend122 sor Congo Bi oh Dy Te ——~ nw “ an Rae v Ne _——- caling “his grind co-oceur. Consider ‘We saw above that auniliary verbs, unlike modal verbs, may c example (34) with both a perfetive and a progressive auxiliary. We will ignore passive ‘auxiliaries here as we will disouss passives in chapter 13. G4) ‘Toan must have been calling his gilftiend. e -——~ we ar ‘foam (© ROXP Io must AUX —~ ASK AOXP 1 save AUX —~ atx VP tot been Vv —~ v Da —— cating “Fes giond ‘What happens when we have an auxiliary without a modal verb? Consider example (5) G5) Toanis calling his gitfriend. ——~ We 7 aes ean AXP 1 l [PRES, msc] AUX i 4 YP + i v o— We | caling “We geend We will claim that auxiliary verbs move to I. We know that auxiliary verbs move to 1 because the auxiliary will keep on moving up the sentence by itself when we form a ‘question: [s Toan calling his girlfiend? When we have two co-occurring auxiliaries, the highest auxiliary (the one closest to the inflection) isthe one that moves: (G6) Toan has been calling his giliriend! NP — joan 7 AUXP i 1 IPRES, mSGLgUX I 2 xe i Wave AUX’ a atx VP. to been Vi ——~ v Ne | = caling “Wis gifiend