Topic 1 Importance of Post-harvest Processing of Fruits and

Vegetables

Post-harvest technology / post-harvest management – may be defined as the

branch of agriculture that deals with all the operations right from harvesting or
even the pre-harvest stages till the commodity reach the consumer, either in
fresh (grains, apple, mango, tomato fruits) or processed form (flour, juice,
nectar, ketchup) and utilization of the wastes (pomace, peel, seed, skin, etc.) in a
profitable manner (manufacture of fermented beverages, colour extraction,
pectin extraction, etc.)
Importance of post-harvest technology:
 Quite possibly the main contemplations of the planet today is to give
nutritious food to around 7.8 billion populace in the world.
 Fruits and vegetables, being a rich source of vital nutrients constitute an
important component of human nutrition.
 The concerted efforts made in the horticulture sector have been amply
rewarded with a tremendous increase in the production of various fruits and
vegetables, throughout the world. Inconsistent with the global trend, India
has emerged as the second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables, and 20-
40% of this hard-earned valuable produce goes waste due to inadequate post-
harvest infrastructure and poor utilization (1.8%) by the processing industry.
 Moreover, there is little point in growing more if much of it is to be lost.
Besides quantitative losses, the problem of quality and safety of produce is
also significant to the consumers. The whole scenario thus reflects a very
gloomy picture. Unless post-harvest technology gets its due recognition and
proper growth, the horticulture industry cannot thrive.
 World production of fruits and vegetables at present is 1450 million metric
tonnes (fruit production- 656.48 million metric tonnes and vegetable
production- 794.23 million metric tonnes).
 Worldwide post-harvest fruit and vegetable losses are as high as 30 to 40%
and even much higher in some developing countries.
 Reducing post-harvest losses is very important; ensuring that sufficient food,
both in quantity and in quality is available to every inhabitant on our planet.
 The prospects are also that the world population will grow from 5.7 billion
inhabitants in 1995 to 8.4 billion in 2025.
 World production of vegetables amounted to 794 million ton, while that of
fruits reached 656 million tonnes.
 Reduction of post-harvest losses reduces the cost of production, trade, and
distribution lowers the price for the consumer and increases the farmer’s
income.
 Whereas in India production of fruits and vegetables are 259.3 million metric
tons.
 It includes fruit production of 90.2 million metric tonnes which is about 15 %
of world production and second-largest producer after China in the world and
vegetable production of 169.1 million metric tonnes which is about 11% of
world production and second-largest producer after China in the world.
 But India loses about 30-40% of the product due to improper Post Harvest
Management. India wastes fruits and vegetables every year equivalent to the
annual consumption of the United Kingdom.

The following points shall highlight the importance of Post-harvest

technology
1. Reduction in post-harvest losses:
Post-harvest technology ensures the reduction of losses in what has already
been produced. So; reduction of post-harvest losses is an alternative way of
increasing the production of agricultural and horticultural crops.
2. Reduction of cost of production:
Post-harvest technology reduces the cost of production, packaging, storage,
transportation, marketing, and distribution, lowers the price for the consumer
and increases the farmer’s income.
3. Reducing malnutrition:
Proper post-harvest technology ensures the availability of sufficient food to all
thus reducing malnutrition and ensuring healthy growth of the nation. It also
extends the season of availability of a particular commodity.
4. Economic loss reduction:
Reduces economic losses at the grower level, during the marketing, and at the
consumer’s end.
5. Availability:
Had there been no knowledge of post-harvest technology, apples would not
have ever reached Kerala and Banana in H.P. or Kashmir today. Today we can
get perishable commodities like bananas, tomato, etc. throughout the year and in
almost every place in the country. Apples can be made available throughout the
year although the cropping season is just for 2-3 months. Thanks to the
advancement made in the field of post-harvest technology. The increasing
exports of fruits and vegetables have become possible only by the interventions
made in post-harvest technology.
6. Employment generation:
The food processing industry ranks first in terms of employment generation
with approximately 15 lakhs persons employed. Employment potential in the
post-harvest and value addition sector is considered to be very high. Every one
crore rupee invested in fruit and vegetable processing in the organized sector
generates 140 persons per year of employment as compared to just 1050 person-
days of employment per year in small-scale investment (SSI) units. The SSI unit
in the food industry employs 4, 80,000 persons, contributing 13% of all SSI
units employed.
7. Export earnings:
Export of fresh and processed horticultural commodities also attracts valuable
foreign exchange.
8. Defense and astronaut’s requirements:
Defense forces posted in remote border areas as well as astronauts who travel
into space have special requirements of ready-to-eat and high-energy low-
volume food. The requirements are fulfilled by processing industries.
9. Infant and sports preparations:
Today special infant and sports drinks and other processed preparations are
available for use, especially by these people. These preparations are done
especially to meet the specific nutritional requirements of their body.

Topic 2 Extent and Possible Causes of Post-harvest Losses

The causes of post-harvest losses can be classified into two main categories.
 Physical Loss
Physical losses can be caused by mechanical damage or insect or disease
damage resulting in damage to the product’s tissue to an extent where it is no
longer acceptable for presentation, feeding, or processing.
Physical damage can also arise from the evaporation of water in the cells,
causing direct loss of weight. As a result, there is an economic loss due to the
less quantity of available products for marketing, sometimes a whole set of
goods can also be rejected because it contains some amount of wasted items.
Physiological Losses
Loss of quality after harvesting is the second cause of loss, and may be due to
physiological and compositional changes that change in appearance, taste,
texture, and become less aesthetic as they reach the consumer.
Changes can also arise from the normal metabolism of the produce (eg
senescence) or abnormal events (eg crop injury) that arise from after post-
harvest environment.
This leads to economic losses as such products get lower prices. In many
markets, even at low prices, there is no demand for second-tier production,
causing a total economic loss, although second-tier goods may still be edible.
The causes of post-harvest losses can be divided into different categories:
1. Metabolic
2. Mechanical
3. Developmental
4. Parasitic diseases
5. Physiological deterioration
6. Lack of market demand
7. Consumption
8. Others

1. Metabolic
All fresh horticultural crop products are living organisms. These include the
breakdown of food stores by the natural process of respiration and the aging of
these organs.
2. Mechanical
Due to their soft texture and high moisture, fresh fruits and vegetables are
susceptible to mechanical injury. Poor handling, inappropriate containers,
improper packaging, and transportation can easily cause injury, cut, break,
bruise, and other forms of injury.
3. Developmental
These include sprouting, roots, and seed germination, which lead to a decline in
quality and nutritional value.
4. Parasitic Diseases
Most of the post-harvest damage is caused by the invasion of fungi, bacteria,
insects, and other organisms.
 Microorganisms readily attack fresh produce and spread quickly, as the product
lacks a natural defense mechanism and contains enough nutrients and moisture
to encourage microbial growth.
5. Physiological deterioration
Fruit and vegetable cells are alive after harvesting and continue their
physiological activities. Physiological disorders can occur due to mineral
deficiency, low or high-temperature damage, or undesirable atmospheric
conditions, such as high humidity, physical degradation can also occur
spontaneously by enzymatic action leading to over ripening and senescence,
simple aging the occurrence.
6. Lack of market demand
Poor planning according to production and market misinformation can lead to
overproduction of some fruits or vegetables that cannot be sold on time. This
situation often occurs in areas where transportation and storage facilities are
inadequate. If the farmers are unable to take it to the far-flung people, the
produce may rot in the production areas.
7. Consumption
These losses can be due to inadequate preservation methods at home, cooking
methods, and preparation such as peeling, consumption style, etc.
8. Others
 Lack of clear concept of packing house operation.
 Lack of awareness among producers, contractors, and even policymakers.
 lack of infrastructure.
 Inadequate post-harvest quality control.
 Unorganized Marketing.
 Lack of pre-cooling.
 Inadequate market facilities, market knowledge, and market information
service (MIS)
 Poor storage facility.
Effects of post-harvest losses
1. Nutrition
 Fruits and vegetables are rich sources of vitamins and minerals necessary for
human nutrition.
 These are wasted in transit from crop to consumer, and represent a loss in the
quantity of valuable food.
 It is important not only from the quantitative point of view but also from the
point of view of quality nutrition.
2. Economy
 Careless harvesting and improper handling lead to scratches on the fruit and
rind which somehow reduces the quality and market value.
 Such damaged produce also fails to attract international buyers and gives less
profit and notoriety to the exporting country.
 This ultimately results in huge economic loss to the country.
Topic 3 Pre-harvest factors affecting postharvest quality of
fruits and vegetables , Maturity and Maturity Indices, Ripening,
Respiration and Factor Affecting Respiration
 The factors affecting the quality of fruits and vegetables can be divided into two
categories.
A. Environmental factor
B. Cultivating or cultural Factors
A. Environmental factors
1. Temperature – Maturity, colour, sugar, acidity, etc. High temperature
reduces the quality, e.g., citrus, radish, spinach, cauliflower, etc., and
increased the quality of grapes, melons tomatoes, etc. Low temperature cause
chilling and freezing injury.

Watch Lecture Video

2. Light – Required for the formation of anthocyanins. Lighter in weight,
thinner rind, less juiciness and acid due to exposure to sunlight, and develop
more TSS than shaded fruits, e.g., citrus fruits, mangoes, etc. Exposure to light
potatoes causes greening (solanine formation) which has toxic properties. High
sunlight intensity causes sunscald in citrus and tomatoes and reduces the pure
white color of cauliflower. Leafy vegetables tend to have thin and large leaves
due to low light intensity.
3. Rain – produces cracking (bursting) in grapes, dates, litchi, lemon, tomato,
sweet potato, etc. It reduces the appearance and sweetness.
4. Wind – causes abrasion, scratching, and corky marks on fruits (citrus fruits)
and damages leafy vegetables.
5. Humidity –High humidity reduces color and TSS and increases acidity in
citrus, grapes, tomato, etc., but on the other hand it is needed for the better
quality of banana, litchi, and pineapple.
B. Cultural factors
i) Mineral Nutrition
a. Nitrogen– High nitrogen reduces ascorbic acid content, TSS/acid ratio, and
quality but increases thiamine, riboflavin, and carotene, its deficiency reduces
fruit size.
b. Phosphorus – High phosphorus reduces size, weight, and vitamin C, like
citrus. Due to its deficiency, the appearance of fruits is poor.
c. Potassium – Increases size, weight, and vitamin C, like citrus. Its deficiency
leads to uneven ripening.
d. Calcium – Increases the firmness of many fruits, such as apple, mango,
guava, tomato, etc.
e. Magnesium – Increases size, weight, and Vitamin C, eg, citrus.
f. Zinc – Increases size, weight, and Vitamin C, eg, citrus. Its deficiency causes
scattered bunches in the grapes.
g. Boron – Deficiency causes brownish pulp in fruits, for example, sticky
discoloration of albedo in gooseberry and citrus fruits. Fruits and vegetables
 become tough and perishable. Cabbage, turnips, and cauliflower are sensitive
to boron deficiency.
h. Copper– Deficiency of this causes irregular spots on citrus fruits and their
appearance becomes distorted.
ii) Growth regulator
a. Auxin increases size in loquat (2, 4, 5-T), oranges (NAA), and TSS in
mango (2, 4, -D).
b. Gibberellic Acid – Increases the size and weight of grapes, apricots, and
strawberries and produces parthenocarpic fruits in figs, guavas, grapes,
tomatoes, etc. It reduces the discoloration of fruits, e.g., water spots and cork
spots in citrus.
c. Cytokinins – Maintains green color of leafy vegetables and produces
parthenocarpic fruits in figs.
d. Ethylene – Ethephon increases anthocyanins (colored grapes, plums, apples,
peppers, brinjal), carotenoids (mango, guava, papaya, citrus, tomato etc.),
ascorbic acid and TSS and reduces tannins (grapes, dates, etc.) and acidity
(grapes, mangoes, tomatoes, etc.).
e. Growth retardant – Alar (B9) Increases color in fruits, e.g., apple, cherry,
apricot, etc. Maleic hydrazide (MH) inhibits germination in onion bulbs.
iii) Rootstock – Citrus Troyer and Carizzo (citrange) Rootstocks produce fruits
of excellent quality in sweet oranges, mandarins, and lemons. Fruit sugar
from P. pumilum rootstock and P. cujavillis in guava increase the content of
ascorbic acid.
iv) Irrigation – Over irrigation leads to high acidity and lack of moisture
reduces fruit size, juice content, and increases peel thickness.
v) Pruning- It affects the size, colour, acidity and sugar content of grapes,
phalsa, ber, peach, apple etc.
vi) Thinning – In grapes, dates, peaches, plums, etc., increases the size, colour,
acidity and sugar content of the fruit.
vii) Girdling – In grapes it increases the size, color and sugar content of the
berry.
viii) Varieties – Varieties differ in size, shape, color and chemical composition.
High yield, bright appearance and good shipping qualities are the most
important characteristics of the varieties.
ix) Diseases and pests – Both are harmful to fruits and vegetables
x) Pesticides – Pesticide spray residues may contaminate the taste of the
processed product. Excessive use of pesticides can also produce harmful
metabolites and their toxicity is not necessarily destroyed during processing.
xi) Maturity- Over and under maturity of vegetables reduces the quality of
fruits and shortens the shelf life of fruits
xii) Harvesting – Fruits and vegetables should not be injured or damaged under
any circumstances otherwise injury, such as abrasion of the skin and tearing of
tissue, will reduce the appearance and may lead to infection.
Maturity
“Maturity is the attainment of a particular size or stage followed by ripening,
called maturity.”
“It is also defined as the stage of development at which the product has
completed its natural growth and is ready for harvesting.”

This step will ensure the proper completion of the ripening process.
The word maturity is derived from the Latin word ‘maturus’ which means to
ripen. This is the stage of fruit development that ensures maximum edible
quality at the completion of the ripening process.
The principles that determine at what stage of maturity a fruit or vegetable
should be harvested are critical to its subsequent storage and marketable life and
quality. Fruits harvested too early may lack flavor and may not ripen properly
after harvest; When the produce is harvested too late they will be fibrous or
have a very limited market life.
Physiologists divide the life span of fruits and vegetables into three stages after
harvesting: maturity, ripening, and senescence.
Maturation is a sign that the fruit is ready for harvesting. At this point, the
edible portion of the fruit or vegetable is fully grown in size, although it may
not be ready for immediate consumption.
Ripening follows or overlaps maturity, making the product edible, as indicated
by the taste.
Senescence is the last stage in the ontogeny of the plant organ, Senescence is
the final stage in the ontogeny of a plant organ, characterized by the natural
degradation of a fruit or vegetable, as in loss of texture, taste, etc. (aging ends
with the death of fruit tissue).
Maturity is divided into four categories.
Horticultural maturity
This is the developmental stage of the fruit on the tree, which will result in a
satisfactory product after harvesting.
Physiological maturity
It refers to the stage of development of fruits and vegetables when maximum
growth and maturity have occurred. It is usually associated with full ripening in
fruits. After physiological maturity comes senescence.
Commercial Maturity
This is the state of essential plant organs for a market. It usually has little to do
with physiological maturity and can occur at any stage during the
developmental stage.
Harvest Maturity
It can be defined in terms of physiological maturity and horticultural maturity, a
stage that will allow the fruit/vegetable to reach its peak state when it reaches
 the consumer and develop an acceptable taste or appearance and has a sufficient
shelf life.
Methods of Determination of Maturity
The maturity of the crop can be determined in different ways:
1. Computation methods: (1) calendar date, (2) Days from Full bloom to
Harvest, (3) Mean heat units.
2. Physical Methods: (1) Fruit retention strength, (2) Fruit size and surface
morphology (3) Weight, (4) Specific gravity, (5) Colour, (6) Flesh firmness,
(7) T- Stage.
3. Chemical Methods: (1) Titral Acidity (2) TSS/Acid Ratio, (3) Sugar-(Total
and Reducing), (4) Sugar/Acid Ratio, (5) Bioelectrical Conductivity, (6)
Starch-Iodine Test (7) Tannin content (8) Oil content, (8) Juice content, (9)
Total Soluble Solids (TSS).
4. Physiological Methods: (1) Respiration Rate and (2) Ethylene evolution
Rate
Determination of maturity
No one method of maturity indices is satisfactory, a combination of the
following may be better than relying on one.
1. Peel colour: The change in color of many fruits is a valuable guide to
maturity. Initially, the dark green color gradually decreases in intensity and
the color becomes lighter in many fruits. The green disappears completely
with the development of yellow, red, or purple pigments. Some fruits do not
show any visible colour change during maturity. Assessing crop maturity by
skin color depends on the decision of the grower, but colour charts are
available for varieties in apple, tomato, peach, chilli, capsicum, etc. Although
the human eye is used to evaluate colour outcomes, it can be quite different
from human differences in color perception. Therefore, a special device is
used to assign a specific color value based on the amount of light reflected
from the surface of the object or the light transmitted through the object. This
instrument can measure small differences in color accuracy and can be used
automatically in the packing line. This instrument is popularly known as
colour difference meter. This instrument uses the colorimetric method for
colour measurement. This method is not completely reliable as it is affected
by factors other than maturity.
2. Shape: The shape of the fruit changes during maturity and can be used as a
feature to determine the maturity of the crop. For example, a banana becomes
more rounded in cross-section and less angular as it develops on the plant.
Mangoes also change shape during maturity. As the mango matures on the
tree, the relationship between the shoulders of the fruit and the point at which
it attaches to the stalk may change. The shoulders of immature mangoes are
bent away from the fruit stalk; However, on more mature mangoes the
shoulders become flat with the point of attachment, and on even more mature
mangoes the shoulders may rise above this point.
3. Size: Variation in fruit/vegetable size is often used to determine the maturity
time of harvesting. Size is generally of limited importance as a maturity
index in fruits, although it is widely used for vegetables, especially those
marketed at the time of their development. For products, size is often
specified as a quality standard, with a larger size generally indicating a
commercially mature product and a smaller size indicating an immature
product. However, this assumption is not always a reliable guide for all
purposes.
4. Optical methods: The light transmission properties can be used to measure
the degree of maturity of fruits. These methods are based on the chlorophyll
content of the fruit, which decreases during maturity. The fruit is exposed to
a bright light, which is then turned off so that the fruit is completely dark.
Next, a sensor measures the amount of light emitted from the fruit, which is
proportional to its chlorophyll content and thus its ripeness.
5. Heat units/degree days: It is the value of time required for the maturity of
fruit after flowering by measuring degree days or heat units in a particular
environment. It has been found that a crop usually requires a specific number
of heat units or degree days to mature under warm conditions, and maturity
will be quicker and maturity will be delayed in colder conditions. The
number of degree days to maturity is determined over a period of several
years by obtaining an algebraic sum, plus or minus the difference between
the daily average temperature and a fixed base temperature (usually the
minimum temperature at which growth occurs). The average or the specific
number of degree days is used to forecast the likely date of maturity for the
current year.
6. Aroma: Most fruits synthesize volatile chemicals during ripening. Such
chemicals give the fruit its distinctive odor and can be used to determine
whether it is ripe. These odors can only be detected by humans when the fruit
is fully ripe, and therefore have limited use in commercial situations.
7. Leaf changes: The quality of foliage often determines when fruits and
vegetables should be harvested. In root crops, the position of the leaves can
also indicate the position of the crop below the ground. For example, if
potatoes are to be stored, the appropriate time to harvest is immediately after
the leaves and stems die off. If dug earlier, the peel will be less resistant to
harvesting and handling damage and more prone to storage diseases. Apple
leaves turn green to light green and yellow at maturity.
8. Abscission: As a stage of the natural development of the fruit, an abscission
layer is formed in the pedicel. For example, in melons, the fruit does not taste
as good when harvested before the abscission layer, as compared to fruits left
on the vine for the entire period.
9. Firmness: The fruit changes in texture during maturity, especially during
ripening when it can become increasingly soft. Excessive loss of moisture
can also affect the texture of crops. These texture changes are detected by
 touch, and the grower may be able to determine by simply pressing the fruit
gently. Nowadays, sophisticated instruments have been developed to measure
texture in fruits and vegetables, for example, texture analyzers and pressure
testers; They are currently available in various forms for fruits and
vegetables. A force is applied to the surface of the fruit, allowing the probe of
the penetrometer or texturometer to penetrate the flesh (pulp) of the fruit,
which then gives a reading on their firmness. Two commonly used pressure
testers to measure the firmness of fruits and vegetables are the Magness-
Taylor and the UC Fruit Firmness Tester.
10. Quantity of juice: As the fruits ripen on the tree, the amount of juice
increases in many fruits. To measure the amount of fruit juice, a
representative sample of the fruit is taken, and then the juice is extracted in a
standard and specified manner. The amount of juice is related to the original
mass of the juice, which is proportional to its maturity. The minimum values
for citrus juices are presented in the table.
Minimum juice values for mature citrus

Mi
nimum juice values for mature citrus

11. Oil content and dry matter percentage: Oil content can be used to
determine the ripeness of fruit, such as an avocado. According to the
California Agricultural Code, at the time of harvest and at any time
thereafter, avocados must contain not less than 8% oil per avocado, excluding
the skin and seeds, similarly, the oil content of an avocado is related to the
moisture content. The oil content is determined by weighing 5–10 g of
avocado pulp and then extracting the oil with a solvent (eg, benzene or
petroleum ether) in a distillation column. This method has been successful for
those crops which have naturally high oil content.
12. Moisture content: During the development of avocado fruit, the oil content
increases, and the moisture content decreases rapidly. The required moisture
levels for different types of avocados grown in Chile are listed in the table
below.
 Moisture content in some varieties of avocado

13. Sugars: In seasonal fruits, carbohydrates are stored as starch during maturity.
As fruits ripen, starch breaks down into sugars. In off-season fruits, sugars
are stored during maturity. A quick way to measure the amount of sugar in
fruits is with a refractometer. A drop of fruit juice is placed in the sample
holder of the refractometer and a reading is taken; It is equal to the total
amount of soluble solids or sugars. This factor is used to specify maturity in
many parts of the world.
Refractometer

1. Starch content: Measurement of starch content is a reliable technique for

determining ripeness in pear and apple varieties. The method involves cutting
the fruit into two halves and dipping the cut pieces in a solution containing
4% potassium iodide or 1% iodine. The cut surface turns a bluish-black color
in places where starch is present. As harvest time approaches, starch turns
into sugar. Harvesting begins when samples show that 65-70% of the cut
surface has turned blue-black.
2. Acidity: In many fruits, acidity changes during maturity and ripening, and in
citrus and other fruits, the acidity progressively decreases as the fruit matures
on the tree. Taking samples of such fruits, extracting the juice, and titrating it
with a standard alkaline solution, is one measure that can be related to the
optimum time of harvest. Generally, acidity is not taken as a measure of fruit
maturity, but in relation to the soluble solids, called the Brix: acid ratio.
3. Specific Gravity: Specific gravity is the relative gravity, or the weight of a
solid or liquid, compared to pure distilled water at 62 °F (16.7 °C), which is
considered to be unity. Specific gravity is obtained by comparing the weight
of the equivalent bulk of other bodies with the weight of the water. In
practice, the fruit or vegetable is weighed in air, then in purified water. The
weight in air divided by the weight in water gives the specific gravity. This
will ensure a reliable measure of fruit maturity. As the fruit matures, its
specific gravity increases. This parameter is rarely used to determine harvest
time. However, it is used after harvest to grade crops according to different
maturities. This is done by placing the fruit in a water tank, in which the
swimmers are less mature than the sinkers.
Topic 4 Respiration and Factor Influencing Respiration

Respiration
It is the major biological process of decay of harvested fruits and vegetables by
the oxidative breakdown of complex materials (CHO or carbohydrates/acids)
into simpler molecules (CO2, H2O) with the production of energy. Since the
products are still alive after harvested, their living cells respire for secure
energy.

enzymes
Stored foods + H2O——-soluble foods + O2—————CO2 + H2O + Heat and
useful energy.
Factor Influencing Respiration
The rate of respiration during storage is affected by many factors. These factors
are divided into two groups. (A) Plant factors (B) Environmental factors.

A) Plant Factors:
1) Soluble Sugars:
Soluble glucose is the major sugars used especially in respiration. Therefore, the
higher the concentration of soluble sugars within living tissues, the higher the
rate of respiration.
2) Ratio of living cells:
Living cells have a constant need for energy. Respiration releases the necessary
energy. So, the rate of respiration will be directly proportional to the number of
living cells.
3) Water content of the product:
The rate of respiration varies directly with the water content of the product.
Succulent products generally respire more rapidly than non-succulent products.
Thus, lettuce heads breathe more rapidly than potatoes or sweet potatoes, or
even peppers.

B) Environmental factors:
1. Concentrations of O2 and CO2: The higher the concentration of O 2 the
higher the respiration rate and conversely the higher the CO 2 concentration,
the lower the respiration rate.
2. Temperature: Higher the temperature, the higher will be the respiratory rate

Topic 5 Harvesting and Field Handling

Harvesting
This is the separation of a product from its original place. This point of origin
can be part of the plant above ground i.e. shoot example apple, tomato, etc., or
an underground plant part-like potato, carrot, etc.
This involves separating the product from the parent plant by hand or with a
tool or machine.

Harvesting Methods
Several factors are considered in deciding the appropriate harvesting method.
There are two methods of harvesting. They are (1) hand harvesting and (2)
mechanical harvesting.

1. Hand harvesting
All horticultural crops have been harvested by hand since ancient times. Some
crops eg. Even today flowers are plucked by hand. Hand harvesting is still the
most common method for horticulture produce in India due to inadequate
mechanization, smallholdings, and the diversity of crops grown by a small
farmer. In developing countries, most products for internal rural and urban
markets are harvest by hand.
Advantages of hand-harvesting:
 Hand harvesting is common in those crops in which the product has to be
harvested at different stages of maturity and the crop is harvesting several
times.
 Ripe fruits can be precisely selected
 Precise grading (removing of damaged, diseased fruits at the time of
harvesting)
 Less expensive
 Minimal damage to the product
 The rate of harvesting can be increased by employing more persons.
 Minimum capital investment.
 The same worker can be used for harvesting different types of crops viz.
Apple and gladiolus can be plucked by the same person but cannot be
harvested by the same machine.
 Immature or small-sized fruits can be left on the plant for the next crop like
peas, capsicum.
Disadvantages of hand-harvesting:
 More time consuming
 Dependent on availability of labour.
2. Mechanical Harvesting
It is very useful in the low cost and fast harvesting of a particular crop. Special
harvesting machines are designed for specific crops. Mechanical harvesting is
common for most crops in developed countries but is still uncommon in India.
Machine harvesting is usually viable only when the entire crop is to be plucked
or harvested at once.

Advantages of mechanical harvesting:

 Fast harvesting thus saves time
 Less dependency on labor availability
 Improving working conditions for the worker.
 Dis-advantages of mechanical harvesting:
 Requirement of skilled manpower for use of machine, hence dependence on
trained manpower.
 Improper use of the machine can cause huge economic losses
 The machine requires regular maintenance
 May damage perennial crops (bark of tree branches)
 Social impact from lower labor requirements and employment

Harvesting Machine
Mechanical harvesting devices employ direct contact methods such as combing,
cutting, pulling, snapping, twisting, stripping, and compacting.

1. Shake-Catch and Collect System

It was designed for harvesting fruits of deciduous trees, grapes, and blueberries.
The system consists of a vibrator to move the fruit off the plant and the fallen
fruit is caught in a built-in frame and collected in boxes.

2. Pick and collect system

It picks up fruit from the ground surface and was designed for harvesting
walnuts, almonds, pecans, and filberts. Fruits, which naturally fall on the ground
or which are plucked by shaking, are collected by this system. It is a labour-
saving device.

3. Once-over harvesters
These were designed to harvest vegetable crops grown for canning and pickling,
such as peas, snap beans, tomatoes and cucumbers. All the fruits on the plant
are harvested in one operation. The type of machine used varies with the crop.
As with peas, the vines are cut at the base and the pods are separated in a
machine called a “viner”. With snap beans, rotary tines, or fingers attached to a
reel or chain work from top to bottom of the plants as the machine progresses.
The tines-like fingers separate the beans from the plants and place them on a
moving conveyor belt, which carries them to the boxes. The base stems along
with the tomatoes and cucumbers are cut off and are moved to the tops
compartment of the machine, which shakes the fruit off the vine. All ripe and
other unwanted fruits are removed by hand.

Preparing to harvest
 A poor harvesting operation will result in poor quality yield and low selling
price. The producer should plan the harvesting operation/work very carefully,
especially when the enterprise is at a commercial scale. Arrangements for
 workers, equipment, and transportation should be made. Harvesting
equipment must be cleaned and prepared for operation.
 When the crop is ready for harvesting, the decision on when to start
harvesting will largely depend on this;
o Weather conditions
o Market interest
o The flexibility of marketing date. It depends on the crops. For example,
some such root crops can be harvested and stored in the field waiting for
favorable prices, and can be sold for a longer period. Other products like
soft berries should be marketed as soon as they are ready or else they will
go spoil.

Post-harvest handling of fruits and vegetables / Field Handling

Post-harvest handling is the name given to all the processes through which fruits
and vegetables are delivered from the time of harvest to the consumer.

Flow Chart for Post-Harvest Handling of Fruits and Vegetables

Flow Chart for Post-Harvest Handling of Fruits
Flow Chart for Post-Harvest Handling of Vegetables

1) Pre-cooling:
High temperatures are detrimental to maintaining the quality of fruits and
vegetables, especially when harvesting is done during hot days. Pre-cooling is a
means of removing the heat of the field. This slows the respiration of the
product, reduces the risk of micro-organism attack, reduces water loss, and
reduces the load on the cooling system of storage or transportation.
Currently used pre-cooling methods include room cooling, forced air cooling,
water cooling, vacuum cooling, and package icing.
a) Room cooling:
This is a relatively simple method that requires only one refrigerated room with
sufficient cooling capacity. Products are packaged in containers, which are
placed loosely in the cooling room, leaving enough space between the
containers to allow cool air to circulate for each. The rate of cooling is slow as
compared to other methods of cooling. All fruits and vegetables such as
bananas, beans, cabbage, coconut, garlic, ginger, lemon, onion, orange,
cucumber, pineapple, potato, pumpkin, radish, sweet potato, tomato melon are
pre-chilled with this method.

b) Forced air cooling:

This is a more rapid method of air cooling the product. Cold air is forced to
flow through the inside of each container, causing it to carry heat away from the
surface of the product rather than directly onto the surface of the container. The
containers are placed inside a covered tunnel with an exhaust fan at one end.
Highly perishable and high-value products such as grapes, strawberries, and
raspberry berries can be refrigerated in less than an hour using this method.

c) Water cooling (Hydro cooling):

This is a faster and less expensive method. The product is then exposed to cold
water through a bath or dip. The required cooling time is often minutes.
However, not all types of products tolerate hydro cooling. In hydro-cooled
products, the surface becomes wet which can encourage decay in some types of
products.
Certain leafy vegetables, artichokes, asparagus beets, broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
carrots, cauliflower, celery, Chinese cabbage, cucumber, eggplant, green
onions, kiwifruits, leeks, oranges, parsley, and peas. Pomegranates, radishes,
spinach, rhubarb, swiss chard, summer squash, etc. are pre-cooled by this
method.

d) Vacuum cooling:
This is the most efficient method for cooling leafy vegetables, especially
vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage, and Chinese cabbage. The product is placed
inside a vacuum tube with low air pressure. When the pressure is reduced to 4.6
mm Hg, the water boils over the entire surface of the leaf at 0 0 C. The effect of
boiling draws heat to vaporize and therefore cools the product. The cooling time
is usually 20-30 minutes. The equipment required for vacuum cooling is very
expensive, and may not be a good choice for doing small scale.
Some stem, leafy and flowering types of vegetables such as endive, Brussels
sprouts, carrots, cauliflower, Chinese cabbage, celery, leeks, lima beans,
spinach, sweet corn, etc., are pre-cooled by this method.
e) Package-icing or top icing:
Package-icing or top icing: This is the easiest way to cool. The product may be
cooled by adding crushed ice, flaky ice, or ice slurry to the containers.
However, this method is not suitable for products that are very sensitive to ice-
cold temperatures. Cooling by ice also inevitably moistens both the produce and
the container and generates water that needs to be removed.
Roots, stems, flowering vegetables like endive, broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
carrots, onions, Chinese cabbage, leeks, parsley, spinach, sweet corn, etc. are
pre-cooled by this method.

(2) Curing:
This is done immediately after harvesting. It strengthens the skin. The process is
induced at relatively high temperature and humidity which involves sterilization
of the external tissues followed by the development of the wound periderm
which acts as an effective barrier against infection and water loss. Potatoes,
sweet potatoes, colocasia, onions, garlic are cured before storage or marketing.
This condition occurs quickly in sweet potatoes at a high temperature of 33 0 C
and relative humidity of 95%. Potato tubers are kept at 18°C for 2 days and then
at 7°C-10°C for 10-12 days at 90% relative humidity. Curing also reduces the
moisture content, especially in onions and garlic. Drying the superficial leaves
of onion bulbs can protect them from microbial infection in storage. The
maximum safe temperature for field curing of onion is 37.8°C for 3-5 days.

(3) De-greening:
It is typically the process of using ethylene or other similar metabolic inducers
to break down the green pigment in fruits to give the fruit a distinctive color
preferred by the consumer. It is used in bananas, mango, citrus, and tomato. De-
greening is carried out in special treatment rooms with controlled temperature
and humidity using a low concentration of ethylene (20ppm) to keep CO 2 levels
below 1% (low color). Ethylene must be supplied from a gas cylinder. These
rooms are well ventilated to keep carbon dioxide levels below 1%, which
hinders high color. Ethylene accelerates the decomposition of chlorophyll
without significantly affecting the synthesis of carotenoid pigments. The
suitable de-greening temperature is 27° C. Higher temperatures delay de-
greening. Relative humidity should be 85-90%. High humidity levels cause
condensation during de-greening and slow de-greening and increase decay. Low
humidity however prevents decay, excessive shrinkage, and cracking of the
rind.

(4) Washing and drying:

Most fruits and vegetables are washed post-harvest to improve their appearance,
prevent wilting, and reduce primary infection of microorganisms. Therefore,
fungicide or bactericide should be used in washing with water. Washing delays,
the ripening of bananas thereby improving their shelf life. Excess water must be
removed after washing otherwise it will encourage infection of microorganisms.
Root and tuber crops are often washed to remove clogged soil.

(5) Sorting and grading:

Immature, diseased, and badly damaged fruits and vegetables are sorted. Most
countries have their own standards for domestic trade and also have
international trade standards.
Grades are based on size, weight, color, and shape. Grading is done manually or
mechanically.

(6) Dis-infestation:
Papaya, mango, cantaloupe, and other fruits are susceptible to fruit fly attack.
Insect infestation is carried out either by vapor heat treatment at 43 0 C (with air
saturated with water vapor for 6-8 hours), by ethylene dibromide fumigation
(with 18-22 g EDB/m3 for 2-4 hours). Inorganic bromide residue should not
exceed 10Vg/g) or by cold treatment (exposing the fruit to near freezing
temperature for a certain period of time)

(7) Postharvest treatments:

Post-harvest use of Bavistin (0.1%) and Topsin (0.1%) controls storage diseases
in mango. In Nagpur Mandarin, hot water treatment with Imazalil (0.1%),
Bavistin (0.1%) and Benalate (0.1%) are most effective. To obtain a complete
inhibition of potato germination, cool chamber (evaporatively cooled) for 4
months and 5 months before completion of the dormant period in an aqueous
emulsion of CIPC @ 50mg and 100 mg/kg tubers respectively is sprayed.

(8) Waxing:
Fruits and vegetables have a natural waxy layer on their outer surface that is
partially removed by waxing. An additional layer of wax is artificially applied
with sufficient thickness and consistency to provide the necessary protection
against decay organisms to prevent aerobic conditions within the fruit. Waxing
is especially important if small bruises and scratches are present on the surface
of the fruit.
These can be sealed with wax. Waxing also enhances the luster of fruits or
vegetables. Therefore, the form is improved to make them more acceptable.
If refrigerated storage facilities are not available, coating the protective skin
with wax extends the storage life of fresh fruits and vegetables at ambient
temperatures.
There are two types of wax emulsions. Wax ‘W’ does not add shine to fruits and
vegetables, while Wax ‘O’ gives shine too.
The use of wax emulsions for freshly harvested healthy products protects them
from excessive moisture loss, high rates of respiration, heat buildup, or thermal
decomposition. The texture and quality of fresh produce are maintained as close
to fresh conditions as possible for as long as possible.
Wax emulsions without fungicides do not protect fruits and vegetables from
spoilage by microorganisms. Therefore, suitable fungicide is added to the wax
emulsion to prevent the spoilage of fruits and vegetables due to
microorganisms.

(9) Control of ripening process:

Ripening converts a physically mature but inedible plant part into an attractive
taste and smell sensation. It marks the completion of growth and the onset of
senescence with the life of fruit and is generally an irreversible event.
An adequate amount of ethylene for ripening should be used in the ripening
room at regular intervals. Concentrations of CO2 above 1% delay ripening.
Therefore, it is necessary to be thoroughly ventilated. By use of Ethephon
commercially known as Ethrel, making it alkaline using caustic soda (3 g of
soda for 20ml of ethephon). Calcium carbide (100 g for 100 Kg of fruits) can
also be used for ripening. The ripening of fruits and vegetables can be retarded
by proper packaging, low temperatures, ethylene absorbers, waxing, growth
retardants, and using fungicides to control spoilage.
Frutox (Fungicide Vaxol) and Tal Prolong (1.0-1.5%) for delayed ripening in
mango.
Frutox Tal is more efficient than Prolong which slows down ripening.
The use of Cycocel (500 mg/l), Alar (500 mg/l), GA (250 mg/l) significantly
reduces ripening.
Application of PURFIL (alkaline potassium permanganate on silicate carrier) is
effective in complete absorption of ethylene in bananas kept in sealed polythene
bags.

(10) Pre-packaging in plastic films:

This extends shelf life by creating a modified atmosphere with increasing
CO2 concentration in the package. The packaging material should get the proper
amount of oxygen. For this, suitable breathing films such as polystyrene and
cellulose acetate are used. But rigid LDPE films that have higher O 2 and
CO2 transmission rates are more durable.
The pouch should have pores that allow the O2 and CO2 to circulate rapidly for
the respiration of fresh produce. Used pouches reduce bruising, facilitate
inspection, reduce moisture loss (weight loss) and prevent dehydration. It also
creates modified environments.

(11) Palletization:
Pallets are widely used to transport packages of fruits and vegetables in all
developed countries. Loading and unloading are very important steps in the
post-harvest handling of fruits and vegetables but are often neglected. Loading
and unloading in India are done manually. Due to the low unit load, there is a
tendency for the package to be thrown, dropped, or mishandled causing damage
to the item. This loss can be reduced to a great extent by using a pallet system.
However; This requires standardization of box dimensions. For each object, this
work must be done. Once this is accomplished, mechanical loading and
unloading become much easier with a forklift system.

The advantages of handling packages on pallets are:

 The labor cost in the work is greatly reduced.
 The cost of transportation is reduced.
 Goods are protected and damage is minimized.
 Mechanized handling is much faster.
 Due to higher stacking, storage space can be used more efficiently.
 Pallets encourage the introduction of standard package sizes.

(12) Transportation:
In selecting the mode of transport, the distance to reach the destination, as well
as the perishability of the commodity, should be considered. Highly perishable
goods must have a much lower temperature during transport. Faster transport
should be preferred for perishable goods than rail transport. Product for local
transport is towed by bullock carts or tractor trolley, the farm used carts, trailers
and trucks must have good suspension and low air pressure in tires to avoid the
excessive shock of production. They should be driven slowly. Laying straw or
leaves in the trailer can also help prevent damage.

(13) Storage:
The marketable life of most fresh vegetables can be extended by quick storage
in an environment that maintains product quality. Storage methods can be
divided into two.
Conventional methods (low-cost storage structures) – in-situ, clamps,
windbreaks, cellar storage, barns, night ventilation, sand and coir, night
temperatures cool, natural ice, and well water cooling do.
Advanced methods (low-temperature storage-cold storage): hydro cooling,
hypobaric storage, evaporative cooling, forced air cooling, controlled
atmospheric storage, and modified atmospheric storage.

(14) Irradiation:
The application of radiation to suppress germination and hence to increase shelf
life has been permitted in India. Onion sprouting can be inhibited by gamma
radiation in the amount of 0.06-0.1 kGY. Gamma irradiation 0.1 kGY in
potatoes can completely inhibit sprouting. Irradiated potatoes can be
successfully stored for 6 months at 15 °C with a loss of 10%.
In banana, guava, mango, and papaya, irradiation improves shelf life by
delaying the rate of ripening and senescence.

Lecture 6 Storage (ZECC,Cold Storage,CA,MA,and

hypobaric)

Storage
Storage improves the quality, usability of goods and also controls the market
glut. The main goal of storage is to control the rate of transpiration, respiration,
disease, and insect infestation. Harvesting at proper maturity, post-harvest
disease control, atmospheric regulation, chemical treatment, irradiation,
refrigeration, and controlled and modified environments can extend storage life.
The main goals of storage are:
 Slowing down biological activity without chilling injury.
 Slowing down the growth of micro-organisms.
 Minimizing transpiration loss.
The factors that should be kept in mind before starting crop storage are:
 Knowledge of appropriate storage conditions.
 Variety of crops suitable for storage.
 Availability of suitable storage facilities.
 Availability of appropriate management.
Causes of poor condition and marketable life of fruits and vegetables during
storage –
1) lack of moisture
2) Loss of stored energy (carbohydrates)
3) Loss of other foods
4) Physical damage caused by insect and disease attack
5) loss of quality from physical disorders,
 Fibreness (asparagus)
 Rooting (due to increased humidity)
 Seed germination
 Sprouting (potatoes, onion, ginger, garlic)
 Toughening (due to high-temperature beans and sweet corn)

Factors affecting storage:

a) Temperature
b) Relative humidity
c) Air velocity
d) Atmosphere composition
e) Light
f) Storage operations

Methods of storage: There are mainly two methods of storage, i.e. traditional
method, and the advanced method.

1. Traditional methods (Low-cost storage structures):

Traditional methods not requiring refrigeration include: in situ, sand, coir, pits,
clamps, windbreaks, cellars, barns, evaporative cooling, and night ventilation:

I. In situ:
In this method of storing fruits and vegetables, the crop is not harvested until it
is needed. It can be used with most root crops, such as cassava. Due to the
occupation of the land on which the crop was grown, a new crop cannot be
planted. In cold climates, the crop may suffer chilling injury. Some
commodities develop unwanted fibers and starches. There is also the possibility
of damage by pests and diseases.
II. Sand or coir:
This storage technique is used in countries like India for the long-term storage
of potatoes, in which the product is covered with sand or coir.

III. Pits or trenches:

These are pits or trenches dug 1.0-1.5 m deep on an elevated or high edge of the
same field (especially in areas with high rainfall) where the crop has been
grown. Straw or other organic material is laid in the pit or trench and the crop is
stored, then covered with a layer of organic material followed by a layer of soil.
Holes are made along with the pipe at the top for air movement, as lack of
ventilation can lead to crop rot. This method is suitable for the storage of ginger.
This method is not suitable for high humidity demanding fruits and leafy
vegetables as high humidity cannot be maintained in it. Stored items cannot be
repeatedly checked for decay etc.

IV. Clamps:
This has been a traditional way of storage of potatoes, cassava, etc. in some
parts of the world such as Great Britain. A typical design uses an area of land on
the side of a farm. The width of the clamp is kept at about 1 to 2.5 m. A long
conical heap of potatoes is made by marking the length and width. Sometimes
straw is laid on the soil under the potatoes. The central height of the pile
depends on the angle of its repose, which is placed approximately one-third of
the width of the clamps. At the top, the straw is folded from side to side so that
rainwater drains out of the structure. The thickness of the straw when pressed
should be from 15-25 cm. After two weeks, the clump is covered with a layer of
soil 15-20 cm thick, but this may vary depending on the climate. Yields may dry
out due to low relative humidity. Larger heaps can result in greater chances of
rot.

V. Windbreaks:
Windbreaks are created by driving wooden poles into the ground in two parallel
rows spaced about 1 meter apart. At a height of about 30 cm from the ground, a
wooden platform is made between the poles, often made of wooden planks.
Chicken wire is affixed between the poles and at both ends of the windbreak.
This method is used to store onions in Britain.

VI. Cellars:
These underground or partially underground rooms are often at the bottom of a
house. The location has good insulation, providing cooling in hot ambient
conditions and protection from extremely low temperatures in cold climates.
Usually, the temperature inside is not much lower than the outside temperature
and rarely below 15 °C. This temperature is not low enough to protect
microorganisms and plant enzymes from spoilage, although decomposition is
quite slow. Cellars are traditionally used domestically in Britain to store apples,
cabbage, onions, and potatoes during the winter. The yield may dry out due to
the low relative humidity in it.

VII. Barns:
A barn is a farm building for shelter, processing, and storage of agricultural
products, animals, and equipment. While there is no exact scale or measure for
the type or size of the building, the term barn is usually reserved for the largest
or most important structure on a particular farm. Small agricultural buildings are
often referred to as sheds or outbuildings and are typically used for small
equipment or for activities.

VIII. Evaporative cooling:

Energy is required when water evaporates from the liquid state to the gaseous
state. This principle can be used to cool the store by blowing air into the storage
room through a water pad. The amount of cooling depends on the original
humidity of the air and the efficiency of the evaporating surface. If the ambient
air is humidified to about 100% RH, a large reduction in temperature will be
achieved. It can provide cool moist conditions during storage.

IX. Zero energy cool chamber (ZECC):

It is a low-cost storage structure suitable for the short-duration storage of fruits
and vegetables. No power source i.e. electricity, diesel, petrol, etc. is required
for cooling, hence, these are named zero energy cooling chambers. Zero energy
cool chambers are based on evaporative cooling systems. Evaporation occurs
when air that is not already saturated with water moves over any wet surface.
Thus an evaporative cooler consists of a wet porous bed through which the air is
drawn, cooled, and humidified by the evaporation of water. In summer, when
the outside temperature is 44°C, the maximum temperature inside the room
never exceeds 28°C, with a relative humidity of 90%.

X. Night ventilation:
In hot weather, the difference between day and night temperatures can be used
to keep the store cool. The storage room should be well insulated when the crop
is stored inside. A fan is installed in the storeroom, which is turned on at night
when the outside temperature is lower than the inside temperature. When the
temperature is equal, the fan turns off. The fan is controlled by a differential
thermostat, which continuously compares the outside air temperature to the
internal storage temperature. This method is used to store onions in bulk.

2. Advanced (high cost) methods of storage:

I. Low-temperature storage (Refrigerated or cold storage):
Food storage at low temperatures retards microbial growth and enzyme
reactions. The lower the temperature, the greater the retardation. Planned low
temperature can be
a) Refrigeration or chilling temperature (O° C to 5°C)
b) Freezing temperature(Cold storage) (-18°C to -40°C)

a) Refrigeration or chilling temperatures (0° to 5 °C):

Refrigerated storage or low-temperature storage is the most common method of
storing both fruits and vegetables worldwide. Refrigeration is the process of
removing heat from an enclosed space or room or from a substance or object.
The primary purpose of refrigeration is to reduce the temperature of an enclosed
space or substance or object and then to maintain that low temperature.

b) Cold storage:
The growth of microorganisms and enzyme activity is minimal at temperatures
below the freezing point of water (-18°C to -40°C). Many micro-organisms can
survive this treatment and become active which can spoil the food if the food is
subsequently kept at a high temperature. Therefore frozen foods should always
be stored at a temperature below -5°C. Enzymes in some vegetables may
continue to function after early freezing and therefore must be given a heat
(above 80°C) treatment known as blanching before freezing to prevent the
development of an off flavour in vegetables. There are two methods of freezing:
1. Quick Freezing: If the temperature is reduced rapidly, it is called quick
freezing and food kept at these temperatures can be preserved for many
months. Foods can be frozen quickly in approximately 90 minutes or less by
(1) placing them in contact with coils through which the refrigerant flows (2)
Blast freezing in which cold air is passed throughout the food, (3) by
immersion in liquid nitrogen. Quick-frozen foods retain their identity and
freshness after thawing (brought to room temperature) because very small
crystals form when foods are frozen by these methods.
2. Slow Freezing: In this method, the food is frozen at a slower rate as
compared to the quick freezing, due to which large crystals are formed in the
food cells during freezing which injures their membranes. After thawing the
food loses its identity and freshness.

II. Modified Environment Storage (MAS):

In this system, the product is kept in modified atmospheric conditions by
package, overwrap, box lining, or pellet cover. In MAS the composition of the
storage environment is not closely controlled i.e. the temperature of the product
is controlled but the CO2 and O2 levels are not changed. Several types of whole
and minimally processed fruits and vegetables have been successfully stored in
modified atmosphere storage.

III. Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CAS):

The first requirement of CAS is a sufficiently gas-tight envelope around the
product and the second requirement is some means of maintaining the
concentration of CO2 and O2 at the desired level. This method, along with
refrigeration, significantly extended the storage life of the fruits. The best
environment for storing mango in CAS is 5% CO 2 and 5% O2 at 13OC. CAS
improves the appearance of pineapple fruit by reducing the growth of
superficial mould. Keeping green banana fruits in an environment of 1-10% O 2,
5-10% CO2, or a combination of low O 2 and high CO2 While banana ripening
can be delayed for weeks or months, in general, the response to citrus fruits has
been disappointing in CAS.

IV. Hypobaric (sub-atmosphere) storage:

The product is placed in a vacuum-tight (1.3 to 13 kPa) and refrigerated
container and the pressure is lowered to the desired level by a vacuum pump.
The process of ripening and aging is greatly slowed down by the removal of the
ethylene given by the product and by decreased respiration. This is an expensive
method.
Lecture 7: Principles and Methods of Food
Preservation

Preservation:
Preservation only means to protect food items from spoilage, but scientifically it
can be defined as a science that deals with the process of prevention of decay or
spoilage of food, this is called preservation.
In other words, preservation simply means controlling the physical, chemical, or
microbial changes in the food.

1. Physical changes: Colour, flavour, texture, taste, etc.

2. Chemical changes: Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals.
3. Microbial changes: mold, yeast, and bacteria.

Why do we preserve food?

 To increase the supply of food by increasing the shelf life.
 Providing fruits and vegetables throughout the year.
 To diversify the diet.
 Preparing with fire saves consumers time and energy.
 To stabilize the prices of food in the market.
 To improve the health of the population.
Principles of preservation–There are three main principles:
1. Preventing or delaying the microbial decomposition of food.
2. Preventing or delaying the self-decomposition of food.
3. Prevention of damage caused by insects, animals, and mechanical.
1. Preventing or delaying the microbial decomposition of food:
 By keeping out the micro-organisms – Asepsis
 By removal of micro-organisms – Filtration
 By hindering the growth and activity of micro-organisms –Anaerobic
condition
 By killing the micro-organisms- Exposing at high temperature.
A. Asepsis: It means preventing the entry of microorganisms, enhancing their
quality, and thereby improving the quality of the finished product by
maintaining general hygiene while picking, grading, packing, and transporting
fruits and vegetables.
B. Filtration: Fruit juice, beer, soft drink, wine, etc. are filtered through
bacteria-proof filters which are made of asbestos pad or unglazed porcelain type
material.
These filters contain microorganisms and allow water or juice to seep through,
with or without pressure.
C. Anaerobic Conditions: It can be maintained by:
 Replacing O2 with CO2 ———- Carbonation
 Evacuating (remove air) the sealed container (fruit juice)
 Use of oil on food (pickle)
D. Exposure to high temperature: Fruits can be exposed to high temperatures
eg;
 Canning: Food is exposed to high temperatures (>100 OC) which reduce
spoilage and inactivate enzymes present in the food. The process of sealing
food items in containers by sealing them tightly (airtight, protecting from
outside agencies) and sealing them with heat for long-term storage is called
canning.
 Irradiation: In the case of radiation, food is exposed to radiation to kill
living microorganisms by ionizing and non-ionizing radiation such as α, β,
and rays. Here, the food is exposed to various frequencies ranging from
electromagnetic or ionizing radiation or low-frequency electromagnetic rays
to high frequency i.e. gamma rays which destroy the microorganisms present
in the food.

2. Prevention/delay the self-decomposition:

 By destroying or deactivating enzymes –blanching
 Prevention/delay of non-enzymatic chemical reactions – Antioxidants
A. Blanching: Treatment of fruits and vegetables with boiling water or steam
for short periods followed by cooling prior to canning is called” blanching”.
 It is a primary treatment in which tissues are softened to facilitate packaging.
 To retain the original color and taste.
 To destroy certain enzymes which are undesirable.
 For the elimination of air.
 Mostly used for vegetables.
 Removes micro-organisms
 Removes astringent taste and toxins.

B. Antioxidants: Anti-oxidants are substances that are used to prevent food

from spoiling when exposed to air.
 BHA- Butylactic Hydroxy Anisole & BHT- Butylactic Hydroxy Toluene
(Vegetable Oil)
 Gellales: animal fat, vegetable oil
 Tocopherols: Animal Fats
 Ascorbic acid: fruit juice, citrus oil, wine, beer, etc.
 Lactic Acid: Processed fruits and vegetables, canned fruits.
 Phosphoric acid: vegetable oils, animal fats, and cola drinks.

3. Prevention of damage caused by insects, animals, mechanical causes:

This principle of preservation deals with the prevention of damage caused by
various external agencies other than micro-organisms and enzymes also i.e.
animals, man, insects, rodents, etc. These agencies usually cause physical
damage. For example for food items, rats can eat orange peel in storage, if the
food items are kept within their reach, etc. But none of these damages are
harmful to human health. You will usually never die or experience any health
risks if you consume a half-eaten apple or orange, but if the food has been
spoiled by microorganisms, and you consume the spoilt food your health shall
definitely be at risk. Loss of food by animals, humans, insects, rodents, etc. can
subsequently lead to the onset of microbial and self-decomposition. Proper
packing of food is the main effective way to prevent the damage caused by the
agencies falling under this principle of preservation.
Overall, all three principles should be considered in descending order of
importance and conceptualization of the approach to food processors. The
greatest emphasis is placed on the control of microbial decomposition, followed
by self-decomposition, which eventually leads to damage caused by animals,
insects, rodents, etc.

Important methods of preservation of fruits and vegetables are:

(1) Preservation by high temperature-
The use of heat on food destroys microorganisms. Specific treatment varies
with:
1. The organisms to be killed.
2. The nature of the food to be preserved and
3. Other means of preservation are intended to be used in addition to high
temperatures.
The higher temperatures used for preservation are usually:
(a) Pasteurization (temperatures below 1000C)
(b) At about 1000C temperatures and
(c) Sterilization (temperatures above 1000C)
Watch Lecture Video Part Ist
Watch Lecture Video Part IInd
a) Pasteurization (less than 100oC)
Pasteurization is a heat treatment that kills some but not all of the
microorganisms present in the food and the temperature is kept below 100 0C.
Heating is given by means of steam, hot water, dry heat or electric currents, and
the products are cooled immediately after heat treatment. If spoilage is to be
avoided, the remaining microorganisms are inhibited by low temperatures (or)
by some other preservative method.
Preservative methods used to complement pasteurization include (1)
refrigeration (of milk) (2) packaging the product usually in a sealed container to
keep microorganisms out (3) emptying the containers under anaerobic
conditions, maintaining them airtightly (4) Giving high concentration of sugar,
such as sweetened condensed milk and (5) Giving chemical preservatives
example use of organic acids on pickles.
Pasteurization Methods
HTST method – high temperature and short time (above 700C)
LTHT Method – Low Temperature and Higher Time (OR) Holding Method
(60-700C)
b) At about 1000C temperature
A temperature of about 1000C is achieved by boiling a liquid food, immersing a
container of food in boiling water, or by exposing it to flowing steam. Some
very acidic foods, for example, sauerkraut are first preheated to a temperature
slightly below 1000C, packaged hot, and do not need to be processed with more
heat. Blanching fresh vegetables also involves heating them for some time at
around 1000C before freezing or drying them.
c) Sterilization (above 1000C)
In this method, all the microorganisms are completely destroyed due to the high
temperature. The time and temperature required for sterilization vary according
to the type of food. Temperatures above 100 0C can only be achieved by using
steam pressure sterilizers such as pressure cookers and autoclaves.
Fruit and tomato products should be heated at 100 0C for 30 minutes. So that the
bacteria producing spores sensitive to high acidity can be completely killed.
Vegetables such as green peas, okra, beans, etc., being alkaline or none acidic
 and containing more starch than sugar, require high temperatures to kill the
spore-forming organisms. That is why continuous heating at 116 0C for 30-90
minutes is necessary for their sterilization. Before use, empty cans and bottles
should also be sterilized by placing them in boiling water for about 30 minutes.
Difference between pasteurization and sterilization
Pasteurization Sterilization

1. Partial destruction of microorganisms Complete destruction of microorganisms

2. Temperature below 100oC Temperature 1000C and above

3. Normally used for fruits used for vegetables

(2) Preservation by low temperature

low temperature inhibits microbial growth and enzyme reaction as it inhibits
chemical reactions. But this is not a permanent method as some microorganisms
can grow even at low temperatures.
a) Refrigeration (Refrigerated or chilling 0 to 50C):
The chilling temperature is maintained through ice or mechanical refrigeration.
Most perishable foods, including eggs, dairy products, meats, seafood,
vegetables, and fruits, can be stored in chilling storage for a limited period of
time with little change from their original condition. Enzymatic and microbial
changes in foods cannot be stopped, but are significantly slowed down.
Fruits and vegetables can be stored for 2-7 days. Some less perishable crops,
such as potatoes, apples, etc., can be stored for one year in commercial cold
storage with proper ventilation, and automatic controlled temperature.
b) Freezing (-18 to -400C):
At temperatures below the freezing point of water, the growth of
microorganisms and enzyme activity is reduced to a minimum. However,
sometimes enzymes remain active below 0 0C. In such a situation, ‘blanching’ of
vegetables before freezing is necessary. Most perishable foods can be preserved
for several months. Fruits, vegetables, juices, and meaty foods (poultry, fish,
and seafood) can be preserved in this method.
Types of freezing: On the basis of the rate of formation of the ice front, the
freezers are classified into the following types:
a) Slow freezing: In this type, the rate of ice formation is very slow i.e. 0.2
cm/h-l (eg, fixed air freezer and cold store). Slow freezing also kills some
microbes and forms large ice crystals that cause mechanical damage to cells
b) Quick Freezing: The rate of ice formation is very fast ie 0.5-100 cm/h-l (eg
air blast and plate freezers, fluidized bed freezer, cryogenic freezer). Kills are
microbes and maintains homogeneity in extra or intracellular water and forms
smaller ice crystals causing less damage to cells and preserving natural juiciness
and flavor
(3) Preservation by drying
Drying refers to the removal of moisture from food to a certain level at which
microorganisms cannot grow, this is called drying; This can be done in two
ways:
(i) Application of Heat:
(a) Sun Drying
(b) Mechanical drying
(c) Vacuum drying
(d) Freeze-drying
(ii) Binding of moisture in food:
(a) Use of sugar
(b) Use of salt
(i) Application of Heat:
(a) Sun-drying: Sun-drying is the method in which food is exposed to direct
sunlight. It is usually performed in places where sufficient sunlight is available
for a long period such as Rajasthan. The product dried in this method is low in
quality.
(b) Mechanical Drying: It is a method of drying where food items are dried
using heat by mechanical dryers under controlled conditions of temperature,
humidity, and airflow.
(c) Vacuum drying: The temperature of the food and the rate of water removal
are controlled by controlling the level of vacuum and the intensity of heat.
(d) Freeze-drying: In this method, the food is dried by sublimation, that is, the
food is placed in a drying chamber through the heat with a vacuum, without
passing through the liquid form of water. In this method, the product is first
frozen, then the water is removed by vacuum, and heat is also used which is
simultaneously in the same chamber.
(4) Preservation by filtration
Filtration is the only successful method for the complete removal of organisms
and its use is clearly limited to liquids. The liquid is filtered through a pre-
sterilized ‘bacteria proof’ filter made of sintered glass, diatomaceous earth,
unglazed porcelain, membrane pads, or similar materials, and the liquid is
seeped under pressure or without pressure. This method is successfully used for
fruit juices, beer, soft drinks, wine, and water.
(5) Preservation by use of chemical preservatives
Chemical preservatives are substances that are added to food only to slow
down, inhibit or stop the activity of microorganisms such as fermentation,
pecification, and decomposition of food.
There are two types of chemical preservatives:
Class-1 Preservatives: Common salt, sugar, dextrose, spices, vinegar, ascorbic
acid, etc.
 Class-2 Preservatives: Benzoic acid and its salts, SO2 and salts of sulfuric
acid, nitrates, ascorbic acid, and its salts, propionic acid and its salts, lactic acid
and its salts.
Of the Class-2 preservatives, only two chemical preservatives are used in the
preservation of fruits and vegetables:
(i) KMS (Potassium Meta bisulphate):
 It releases SO2 and it is unstable.
 It is used for fruits that contain water-insoluble pigment (colourless).
 It cannot be used in naturally colored juices like phalsa, and Jamun as they
contain anthocyanin pigment.
 It cannot be used in a product packaged in a container because it reacts with
the tin container and the oil, hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), producing an unpleasant
odor and the base plate (bottom) of the containers) also forms a black
compound.
 Better at controlling moulds than bacteria.
 350 ppm KMS is mostly used in fruit juice products.
(ii) Sodium Benzoate:
 It is a salt of benzoic acid and is soluble in water.
 It slows down the fermentation of the juice.
 It is commonly used in products that contain natural pigments such as
anthocyanin pigments.
 It is more effective against yeast.
 750 ppm sodium benzoate is mostly used in fruit juices, squash, and cordials.
(6) Preservation by use of food additives (sugar, salt, acid and vinegar)
Food additives are substances or mixtures of substances other than the original
food substances, which are present in foods as reagents for any aspect of
production, processing, storage, packaging, etc. Food additives are (i) sugar, (ii)
salt, (iii) acid, and (iv) spices.
In the case of sugar and salt, they exert osmotic pressure and water diffuses
from the product through a semi-permeable membrane until the concentration
reaches equilibrium. They kill or prevent microorganisms from multiplying.
(i) Sugar: A sugar concentration of 68-70% is used for the preparation of jams,
jellies, marmalade, etc. Sugar acts as a preservative by osmosis, not as a poison
to microorganisms. It absorbs most of the available water, so there is very little
water available for the growth of microorganisms.
(ii) Salt: 15-20% concentration of salt is used for making pickles. Salt prevents
enzymatic browning and discoloration and also acts as an anti-oxidant. It
performs its preservative action as follows:
 Plasmolysis of microbial cells occurs due to high osmotic pressure.
 Dehydrating food and microorganisms by binding moisture.
 generating chloride ions from ionization which is harmful to microorganisms,
and
 Reducing the solubility of oxygen in water, sensitizing, and reducing cells to
CO2.
(iii) Acids: Many processed foods and beverages require the addition of acids to
impart their characteristic taste and flavour to the final product as acids provide
the desired taste and flavour. Sugar and acid ratios are adjusted in proper
balance for the taste of the food. They also play a role in controlling pectin-gel
formation.
The main acids are the following:
1. Acetic Acid (Vinegar): This is usually only used for pickles, chutneys,
sauces, and ketchup to prevent the growth of microorganisms.
2. Citric Acid (Lemon Juice): It is used in jams, jellies, squash, nectar, etc. to
increase acidity.
3. Lactic Acid (Lactose): It is used to make curd from milk.
(7) Preservation by oil
A layer of oil on the surface of any food item creates an anaerobic condition
that prevents the growth of mold and yeast. eg, pickles.
8) Preservation by fermentation
The decomposition of carbohydrates by microorganisms or enzymes is called
fermentation. Foods are preserved by alcohol or organic acids produced by
microbial action.
The quality of alcoholic beverages, vinegar, and fermented pickles depends on
the presence of alcohol, acetic acid, and lactic acid respectively. Wine, beer,
vinegar, fermented drinks, fermented pickles, etc., are prepared by these
processes.
In wine – 14% of alcohol acts as a preservative. About 2% of acetic acid
prevents spoilage in many products.
(9) Preservation by Carbonation
Carbonation is the process of dissolving enough CO 2 in water or a drink so that
when the product is served, just before the gas is released as bubbles and has a
distinctive taste. Beverages containing fruit juice are typically bottled with
CO2 between 1 and 8 g/l, enough to counteract the effect of acidity on
pathogenic bacteria. Creates an anaerobic condition for the complete inhibition
of microbial activity (14.6 g CO 2/l), which reduces the oxidation of ascorbic
acid and also prevents browning.
Although the sugar content in carbonated drinks is much less than 66%, the
absence of air and the presence of CO2 in them helps to inhibit the growth of
molds and yeasts.
The quality of carbonated fruit drinks is enhanced by the addition of
approximately 0.005% sodium benzoate. The level of carbonation required
varies by the type of fruit juice and the type of flavor.
(10) Preservation by antibiotics
Some metabolic products of microorganisms have been found to have a
bactericidal effect and are called antibiotics.
Nisin is an antibiotic produced by Streptococcus lactis. Commonly found in
milk, curd, cheese, and other fermented milk products. It is non-toxic. Used in
the food industry, it is more stable, especially for the preservation of acidic
foods. Used in the canning of mushrooms, tomatoes, and milk products. Nisin
primarily inhibits the growth of gas-causing spore-forming bacteria and the
toxin-producing Clostridium botulinum.
Subtilin – an antibiotic derived from certain strains of Bacillus subtilis, used in
the preservation of asparagus, corn, and peas. It is most effective against Gram-
positive bacteria and spore-forming organisms. Canned peas and tomatoes
contain 10 and 20 ppm of subtilin, respectively.
Pimaricin- This antifungal antibiotic is used for the treatment of fruits and fruit
juices. The use of antibiotics in combination with other sterilizing agents,
including heat and radiation, gives good results.
(11) Preservation by radiation
Sterilized preservation of food by ionizing radiation is a recently developed
method. The unacceptable taste of some irradiated foods and the fear of
inducing radioactivity in such food precludes its further use.
When gamma rays (or) electron rays pass through foods, there is a collision
between ionizing radiation and food particles at the atomic and molecular
levels, resulting in ion pairs and free radicals. The reaction of these products
with each other and with other molecules results in physical and chemical
events that inactivate the microorganisms in the food.
Thus irradiation of food can be considered a method of “cold sterilization” i.e.
food is free from microorganisms without high-temperature treatment.
Radiation treatment up to 1 mrad is not dangerous. Ionizing radiations can be
used to sterilize foods in hermetically sealed packs, reduce rotting

Lecture 8-
Intermediate moisture food- Jam,Jelly,Marmalade
Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with a sufficient amount of sugar
to a thick consistency, enough to keep the fruit tissue in that state. It is
made from one or two or more types of fruits. According to the FPO
specifications, the final product should have TSS not less than 68%, 0.5-
0.6% acid, and invert sugar not more than 40%. Fruits suitable for jam
are apple, pear, peach, plum, strawberry, raspberry, apricot, loquat,
sapota, papaya, mango, karonda, carrot, tomato, grape, cantaloupe, etc.

Flow Sheet of Jam

Jam making process
Preparation of fruits:
The fruits are washed thoroughly to remove any sticking dust and dirt. Then
initial treatment of the fruit is done which varies with the type of fruit.
 Strawberries are crushed between rollers; The raspberries are steamed, then
crushed, and passed through a sieve to remove the hardcore.
 Plums, peaches, and apricots are heated with a little water until they soften
and then passed through a coarse mesh sieve to separate the stones.
 The fruit is boiled in a small amount of water to soften it and then passed
through a pulper to remove the pulp.
 The pear is peeled and cut into small pieces.
 Mangoes are peeled, the stones are separated and then the slices are passed
through the pulper.
 Pineapple is peeled and cut into small pieces and is passed through screw-
type crushers to obtain coarse pulp suitable for making jam.
 When two or more fruits or fruit pulps are mixed in proper proportion to
make jam, then the jam is called mixed fruit jam.

Addition of sugar:
55 parts cane sugar (sucrose) for every 45 parts of the fruit is typically used for
jam preparation. The finished jam should contain 30 to 50 percent inverted
sugar to avoid crystallization of the sugar in the jam during storage. If the
percentage of invert sugar (reducing sugar) is less than 30, crystallization occurs
in the jam and if it is more than 50%, the jam will develop into a honey-like
mass due to the formation of tiny crystals of glucose. Sugar should not be added
in excess as jams with high total soluble solids become sticky.

Adding acid, Colours, and Flavour/Essence:

Citric, tartaric, or malic acid is used to complement the acidity of the fruit when
making jam. Proper setting of jam requires the addition of acid to acid-deficient
fruits to obtain the proper combination of pectin, sugar, and acid. The pH of the
fruit juice and pectin mixture should be 3.1 before the sugar is added. Only
permitted edible food colours should be used and these should be added at the
end of the boiling process. Flavors/essences are added at the end of the cooking
process and just before packing.

Boiling/cooking:
The fruit is cooked/boiled in a pan with a small amount of water to obtain the
pulp. It is then sufficiently cooked to release its pectin. After adding the sugar,
the mixture is boiled again so that the soluble solids are concentrated to about
68.5 percent and the sugar is also inverted to the required amount. Boiling can
be done in a steam jacketed kettle or in a stainless steel or aluminum pan. A
vacuum pan is used in which the jam is boiled using low temperature (65-75 0C)
and low pressure to minimize unwanted changes and retain the vitamins.
Judging Endpoint:
There are several methods used to determine the endpoint.
1. By weight – The weight of the ready jam is taken which is one and a half
times (11/2 times) the weight of the sugar used in the weight of the ready
jam.
2. By TSS – The total soluble solids of ready jam is 68.5% which is detected by
the refractometer.
3. By Temperature – Jam containing 68.5 percent soluble solids boils at 105 0C
at sea level. The temperature of boiling jam is measured with a thermometer,
when its temperature reaches 1050C, it is considered to be ready.
4. Sheet Test – While boiling the jam, take out a little jam in a spoon or
wooden spatula and cool it down a bit. After that, it is dropped. If the product
falls like a sheet or flakes, it means that the endpoint is reached and the
product is considered ready, if it falls as a continuous stream or syrup, it will
need to be further cooking.
Storage:
Jam is packaged in sterilized glass jars. It should be noted that the jar should be
stored in a very cool place or else the moisture from the jam will evaporate
resulting in shrinkage of the jam. If the jam is made from fresh, non-sulfide fruit
pulp, it is recommended to add about 40 ppm of sulfur dioxide in the form of
potassium meta-by-sulfite to the jam, which is permitted by law. A layer of
melted paraffin wax can be applied to the top surface of the cold jam in a glass
jar. This acts as protection against any potential molds on the surface of the jam.

Problems in Jam production

(1) Crystallization
The final product should contain 30-50% inverted sugar. If the percentage is
less than 30%, cane sugar may crystallize upon storage, and if it is more than
50%, the jam will become a honey-like mass due to the formation of tiny
crystals of glucose. Corn syrup or glucose can be mixed with cane sugar to
avoid crystallization.
(2) Sticky Jam
Due to the high percentage of total soluble solids, jam tends to be sticky. This
problem can be solved by mixing pectin or citric acid, or both.
(3) Premature Setting
This is due to the low soluble solids and high pectin content in jam and can be
prevented by adding more sugar. If this cannot be done, a small amount of
sodium bicarbonate is added to reduce the acidity and thus prevent pre-
coagulation.
(4) Granulation and Shrinkage
This is due to the evaporation of moisture during the storage of the jam. It can
be reduced by keeping it in a cool place.
(5) Microbial Spoilage
Sometimes mold can spoil the jam during storage due to storage at high
humidity. Therefore, the jam should be stored at 80% humidity. Mold growth
can be prevented by not sealing a filled jar and covering the surface of the jam
with wax because mold does not grow as rapidly in open conditions as in a
closed and sealed space. It is also recommended to add 40ppm Sulfur Dioxide
as KMS. If the can is being used for packing, sulfur dioxide should not be added
to the jam as it darkens the inner surface of the can. Due to the high
concentration of sugar yeast is not a serious problem.

Jelly
Jelly is prepared by boiling the fruit with or without water, adding sugar to a
fine sieved extract, and allowing it to set into a clear gel. The jelly should be
transparent, well set, but not too hard, and have the original taste of fruit. It
should be attractively coloured and with a clean surface that will hold its shape.
Pectin is the most essential ingredient in making jelly. Pectin is present in the
cell wall of fruits.
As per FPO specifications, good jelly has 65% TSS, 0.5 to 0.75 acid, and 3.1 to
3.3 pH.
Watch Lecture Video
Fruits suitable for jelly are guava, sour apple, plum, Karonda, Wood apple,
loquat, papaya, etc. Some fruits have low pectin content, so they are also used
for jelly after adding pectin powder. Apricot, Pineapple, Strawberry, Raspberry,
etc.
Fruits can be divided into four categories according to their pectin and acid-
1. Rich in Pectin and Acid- Crab Apple, Sour Guava, Grapefruit, Lemon,
Orange, Sour Plum, Jamun.
2. Rich in pectin but low in acid- apple, unripe banana, unripe fig, sour cherry,
guava, orange rind.
3. Low in pectin and rich in acid- sour apricots, sweet cherries, pineapples,
strawberries, and sour peaches.
4. Low in pectin and acid- Apricots, peaches, pomegranates, strawberries,
raspberries, and other ripe fruits.

Flowsheet for processing of jelly

Flow Sheet For
Jelly

Procedure for jelly preparation

(A) Fruit selection: Fruits should be sufficiently ripe, but not overripe, and
have a good flavour. Slightly underripe fruits produce more pectin than overripe
fruits; As the pectin present during ripening decomposes into pectic acid, which
does not form jelly with acid and sugar.
(B) Pectin requirement: Usually 0.5 to 1 percent pectin in the extract is
enough to make a good jelly. If the pectin content is high, a firm and hard jelly
is formed and if it is low, the jelly may fail to solidify. Pectin, sugar, acid, and
water are the four essential components of jelly and should be present in
approximately the following proportions: pectin 1 percent, sugar 60 to 65
percent, fruit acid 1 percent, and water 33 to 38 percent. However, the exact
proportion of sugar depends on the pectin grade.
Pectin grades: Grades of pectin means the weight of sugar required to set one
gram of pectin under suitable conditions to form a satisfactory jelly. For e.g.
100-grade pectin means 100g of sugar is required for the setting of 1 g pectin.
Determination of pectin content
1) Alcohol test- This method involves the precipitation of pectin with alcohol,
the outline of which is given below-
One teaspoon of filtered fruit extract is taken into the beaker and cooled and 3
teaspoons of methylated spirit are gently poured from the side of the beaker
which is swiveled to mix and left to rest for a few minutes.
a) If the extract is rich in pectin, a single, transparent lump or clot will form. To
make jelly in this type of extract, sugar has to be added in equal quantity to the
juice.
b) If the extract contains moderate amounts of pectin, the clot will be less firm
and fragmented. Three-fourths quantity of sugar has to be added.
c) If the extract is low in pectin, many small granular clots will appear. Only
half the quantity of sugar is added.
2) Jelmeter Test – Jelmeter is held in the left hand with the thumb and
forefinger. The lower part of the Jelmeter tube is closed with a little finger. The
filtered extract is spooned with the right hand into the jelmeter until it is full to
the edge. While holding the jelmeter, the little finger is removed from the lower
end and the extract is allowed to flow or drip off for exactly one minute, at the
end of which closed again with the finger. The level readings in the jelmeter are
noted. Sugar is added to the extract as per the readings.
(C) Acid Adding
The jelly formation of the extract depends on the amount of acid and pectin
present in the fruit. Of the three acids found in fruits, citric, malic, and tartaric,
tartaric acid produces the best results. The total acid in the final jelly should be
at least 0.5% but not more than 1% because the acid in excess can cause
syneresis.
Jelly pH: The strength of the jelly increases with an increase in pH until it
reaches the optimum. The addition of more acid beyond this level reduces the
strength of the jelly. The pH of the jelly can be controlled either by adjusting the
pH of the pectin extract or by adding an appropriate buffer. The fruits also
contain salts like sodium citrate, sodium or potassium nitrate, etc. If the acidity
of the extract is high, the finished jelly will stiffer. The optimum pH of the
pectin solution is between 3.1 and 3.3 for the best jelly setting.
(D) Sugar adding
It is the essential component of jelly that provides sweetness as well to the
body. If the concentration of sugar is high, the jelly holds less water resulting in
the jelly becoming hard, probably due to dehydration. Boiled with an acid to
invert sugar (sucrose), it is hydrolyzed into dextrose and fructose, the amount of
inverted sugar depends on pH and duration of boiling. Due to the partial
inversion of sucrose, jelly contains a mixture of sucrose, glucose, and fructose.
This mixture is more soluble in water than sucrose alone and therefore the jelly
can hold more sugar in the solution without crystallizing.
Sugar in jelly is added according to the pectin test, if pectin is high, then an
equal amount of sugar is added, and if there is less pectin, sugar is added only in
half the amount.
(E) Determination of end-points: Determination of end-points in jelly can be
done using the following methods:
1) Drop Test: A drop of concentrated mass is dropped into a glass full of water.
The movement of the drop to the bottom without disintegration (dispersed)
indicates the endpoint.
2) Cold plate test: A drop of boiling liquid in the pan is taken and placed on a
plate and allowed to cool quickly. If the jelly is ready, the mixture on the plate
will shrink when pushed with a finger. The main drawback of this method is
that while the drop is cooling on the plate, the jelly mixture continues to boil in
the pan and risks overcooking the product or losing the correct setting point.
3) Sheet or flake test: This test is more reliable than the plate test. While
boiling the jelly, take out a little jelly in a spoon or wooden spatula and cool it
down a bit. After that, it is dropped. If the product falls like a sheet or flakes, it
means that the endpoint is reached and the product is considered ready, if it falls
as a continuous stream or syrup, it will need to be further cooking.
4) Temperature test: A solution containing 65% TSS boils at 105 °C. Heating
the jelly to this temperature will automatically increase the concentration of the
solids to 65%. This is the easiest way to figure out the endpoint
(F) Problems with jelly
1) Failure of jellies to set: Sometimes jelly does not set due to the following
reasons:
i) Acid or Pectin Deficiency: The jelly may fail to set due to a lack of acid or
pectin in the fruit from which it is made. It may also fail to set due to
insufficient cooking of the fruit to obtain pectin resulting in insufficient
extraction of pectin and acid.
ii) Adding too much sugar: If sugar is added in excess of the required quantity,
it results in the formation of syrup or extremely soft jelly. This can be corrected
by adding fresh clear juices rich in pectin.
iii) Cooking below the endpoint: If cooking is stopped before the sugar
concentration reaches 65 percent, the jelly may fail to set and remain syrupy or
overly soft.
iv) Over-cooking: If cooking is continued beyond the endpoint, the jelly
hardens due to high concentration. This occurs when both acid and pectin are
abundant in the juice and not enough sugar is added. If the acid is high, the
pectin breaks down and forms a syrup-like jelly.
2) Syneresis or weeping of jelly: The phenomenon of spontaneous release of
fluid from the gel is called syneresis or weeping of jelly. This is due to the
following factors:
i) Excess acid: As a result of excess acid, the structure of jelly breaks down due
to hydrolysis or decomposition of pectin.
ii) Very low concentration of sugar or soluble solids: This allows the pectin
network to hold more fluidity than would be possible under normal conditions.
iii) Insufficient Pectin: This results in the formation of a network of pectin that
is not sufficiently dense and hard to hold sugar syrup.
iv) Premature Gelation: Gelation occurs due to the breakdown of pectin
during the pouring of jelly into containers. The jelly weakens and breaks.
v) Fermented jellies: Fermentation usually occurs in jellies that have syneresis.
3) Cloudy or foggy jelly: This may be due to the use of the non-clear extract,
use of immature fruits (immature fruits contain starch which is insoluble in
juice), over-cooking and cooling, non-removal of scum, defective pouring
(when the jelly is poured from a great height, the air is trapped in the form of
bubbles and the jelly becomes opaque) and premature gelation also causes a
cloudy or foggy jelly.
4) Formation of crystals: The addition of extra sugar to jelly can lead to the
formation of crystals.

Marmalade
It is similar to fruit jelly but the slices or peels of the fruit remain suspended.
Marmalades are typically made from citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons
with pieces of the peel mixed in as a suspended material. As per FPO
specifications, the content of fruit and soluble solids in the final product for jelly
and marmalade should not be less than 45 and 64 percent (w/w), respectively.
There are two types of marmalade (A) jelly marmalade (B) jam marmalade.
Watch Lecture Video
Note
 The outer yellow peel of an orange, called flavedo, is an important source of
vitamin C, polymethoxy flavones, and carotenoids.
 The inner white portion called albedo is a rich source of phenolics,
flavanones, and antioxidants.
There are two types of marmalade (A) jelly marmalade (B) jam marmalade.
(A) Jelly Marmalade
Clear pectin extracts are used in Jelly Marmalades. Some of the best
combinations for marmalade are:
 Sweet orange and khatta or sour orange (C. aurantium) in the ratio of 2:1 by
weight. Pieces of sweet orange peel are used.
 Orange and Khatta in the ratio of 2:1 by weight. Pieces of orange peel are
used.
 Sweet orange and galgal or lemon ( C. limonia) in the ratio of 2:1 by weight.
Pieces of orange peel are used.
(B) Jam Marmalades
Jam Marmalades are prepared in the same way as Jelly Marmalades, except that
Jam Marmalades use the unclear extract, or it is not filtered and the whole pulp
is used. Sugar is added in a ratio of 1:1. The pulp sugar mixture is cooked until
the TSS content reaches 65%.
Recipe
Sweet Orange -1Kg
Lime – 0.5 kg
After Pectin Extraction
Pectin extract – 1 litre
Sugar – 750gm
Shredded Peel – 62gm
Flowsheet of Marmalades
Steps for Marmalade
Marmalade preparation process
Fruit preparation: The outer yellow flavedo part of the rind of citrus fruits
contains coloring matter and volatile oils, while the inner white albedo part
contains pectin. The yellow part of the peel is thinly peeled off the fruit with a
stainless steel knife. The thin yellow peel is cut into fine pieces with a knife or
using a shredding machine. The pieces are boiled and dried to remove the
bitterness. Cut or crushed fruits are boiled slowly in water 2 or 3 times to extract
the pectin. While it is being boiled, a teaspoon of clarified extract is taken from
the pan and tested with alcohol or a gelmeter to determine its pectin content.
The boiling process usually takes 45 to 60 minutes. After boiling, the extract is
 filtered through a muslin cloth. Pectin extracts can also be filtered with a filter
press to obtain a clear extract.
Preparation of shredded peel: The peels (1.9-2.5 cm long and 0.8-0.12 cm
thick) are cut. The pieces are boiled and softened before being added to the
marmalade. If they are added directly to the sugar solution without softening
and then boiled, they harden. Generally, three methods are used to soften
shreds.
 The peel shred is boiled for 10-15 minutes by changing the water several
times. In this process, the bitter principles present in the peel are also
removed.
 The shreds are boiled in a 0.25% solution of sodium carbonate or 0.1%
solution of ammonia.
 Or the pieces are autoclaved at 116 0C to 1210C (70-105 kPa). The time
required for the pieces to soften depends on their size and shape.

Cooking: The juice is boiled in a steam jacketed kettle or stainless steel vessel
with the required amount of sugar. Boiling is continued and impurities that rise
to the surface are removed. When the temperature of the boiling mixture
reaches 1030C at sea level, ready shred pieces at the rate of 62 grams for every
kilogram of the original extract are added to it. Boiling is continued until the
gelling point is reached which is determined using the sheet test, drop test, or
weight test.
Addition of flavour: Due to the volatile nature of the natural flavour during the
cooking process, it is desirable to add artificial flavour to compensate for the
loss. Typically, a small amount of orange oil is added to marmalades when
filling in jars or cans as a flavour.
Packing: Marmalades after cooling are filled in jelly glasses or glass jars,
which can be airtight closed or packed in cans that are hermetically sealed. The
marmalade is allowed to set overnight in jelly glasses and when cooled, a thin
layer of melted paraffin wax is poured over the top. Then packaged in A21/2
sized cans, then stored in a cool dry place with the lids upside down to sterilize.

Lecture 9 Preserve and Candy

Preserve
A fruit Preserve is made by cooking the fruit whole or as large pieces in heavy
sugar syrup until it becomes tender and transparent. As per FPO specification,
the preserve contains 68% TSS and 55% ready fruit (w/w).
Process of preparation of preserve:
In the preparation of preserve, at least 45 kg of fruit is used for every 55 kg of
sugar and cooked until a concentration of at least 68 percent soluble solids is
reached.
Flow sheet for Preserve and Candy

P
reserve Preparation Steps
 Fruit Selection: Fruits should be fully developed, firm, and slightly under-ripe.
Raw or overripe fruits with loose flesh should be rejected.
Fruit preparation: The fruit is washed thoroughly and the damaged part is
removed. Fruits with thin skins, such as berries, do not require peeling. Fruits
with thick peels such as mango, apple, bael, and pumpkin are peeled. The core,
seeds, or kernels are removed. The fruits are prepared either whole or in pieces.
Pricking/puncturing: Whole fruit or slices are uniformly punched with
stainless steel/wooden prickers to enable proper penetration of sugar syrup.
Excessive pricking should be avoided to avoid softening of fruits/pieces. Amla
and Pumpkin can be pierced using mechanical pickers.
Soaking: The fruits or their slices are soaked in water, brine, or alum solution
for a few hours to a few days before blanching which enables the syrup to
penetrate properly. Soaking makes hard fruits porous, avoids browning,
removes astringency, reduces shrinkage, and fruits do not harden.
Blanching: The soaked fruits or slices after washing thoroughly are placed in a
muslin cloth and blanched in boiling water for a few minutes (5-10) according
to their texture to soften the tough texture. However, excessive blanching
should be avoided.
Preparing the syrup: The amount of sugar varies for different fruits, ranging
from as much as twice the amount of prepared fruit or pieces. The syrup is
prepared by boiling sugar in water and adding 0.3-0.4% citric or tartaric acid.
The acid also helps remove dirt from the sugar.
Cooking in syrup: The prepared fruits or pieces are cooked in syrup in three
different ways which are as follows-
1. Open kettle one-time process
2. Open kettle slow process; And
3. Vacuum cooking process
1. Open Kettle One-time process: The fruits are cooked in low-sugar syrup.
The syrup is heated lightly and continued to boil until the syrup is sufficiently
thick. The final concentration of sugar should not be less than 68°Brix
corresponding to the boiling point of 106°C. Boiling too quickly and on high
heat should be avoided, as it makes the fruits tough.
2. Open Kettle Slow Process: In this process, sugar equal to half the weight of
the fruit in the prepared fruit or pieces is poured into a pot in alternating layers
and allowed to stand for 24 hours. During this period, excess water is removed
from the fruit and the sugar turns into a solution of 37-38° Brix. The
concentration of the syrup is increased to 60° Brix by adding more sugar. Citric
or tartaric acid @ 0.06-0.12% is added to invert the sugar portion. The whole
mass is boiled for 3-4 minutes and kept overnight. On the third day, the
concentration of the syrup is raised to 68° Brix by adding more sugar and the
whole mass is boiled again for 3-4 minutes and the fruit is then left in the syrup
for another 3-4 days. Finally, the strength of the syrup is increased to 70° Brix
and packaged in protected containers. However, the stages may vary with the
type of fruit.
3. Vacuum cooking process: Vacuum cooking helps in retaining the better
taste and color of the product. In this process, the fruit is initially softened by
boiling and then placed in a syrup of 30-35° Brix concentration. The fruit syrup
mixture is then transferred to a vacuum pan and concentrated to 70° Brix under
low pressure. Hard fruits are slow-cooked to facilitate the penetration of sugar.
Precautions during cooking: In these methods, a deep pan should be used
otherwise syrup may concentrate in a shallow pan within a short time and fail to
penetrate the fruit. While adding the fruit pieces to the boiling syrup, the
consistency should not be too thick. The thick syrup is unable to penetrate into
the pieces and causes the product to harden or shrink. The fruits should always
be kept covered in sugar syrup to avoid drying the top pieces and to improve the
quality.
Cooling and packing: For bulk storage, the preserve is quickly cooled after the
final boil to avoid discoloration. To pack in A2½ sized cans, the preserve fruits
are dried and stuffed into the cans. The freshly prepared boiling syrup (68°
Brix) is then poured into containers (A2½ sized cans), then sealed, sterilized at
100° C for 20-25 minutes, and immediately cooled.
Candied Fruits
Prepared fruits immersed in cane sugar or glucose syrup, later drained from
syrup and drying. The candy-making method is practically the same as that used
for making preserves, with a slight variation that the higher concentration of
fruit sugar or glucose is maintained. To prevent fermentation, the total sugar
content of the steeped fruit is kept at around 75 percent. Fruits best suited for
candy making are those that have pronounced flavors, such as orange, lemon,
grapefruit, and ginger. Other fruits like Amla, Karonda, Pineapple, Cherry,
Papaya, Apple, Peach, etc. are also suitable for candied fruits.
Procedure for preparing candied fruits
Preparation of fruits: The stored fruit or slices are taken out of the barrel/tin
and washed thoroughly under running cold water to remove as much brine as
possible. The fruit or slices are then placed in a soak and boiled for about 15
minutes to remove traces of salt and soften its texture.
Cooking in syrup: The prepared fruit or slices are boiled in sugar syrup
(30°Brix) by adding 0.1% citric or tartaric acid, boiled for 10-15 minutes, and
then left in the syrup for about 24 hours. The next day, the concentration of
sugar syrup is increased to 40°Brix by adding more sugar. The whole mass is
boiled for about 5 minutes and left for 24 hours. The process is repeated until
the syrup reaches 60°Brix. The concentration of this syrup is increased
progressively to 75°Brix at the rate of 5°Brix by boiling the mass every
alternate day.
Draining and drying: After sugar syrup treatment, the fruits or slices are
removed from the syrup and dried for about half an hour, and sorted to remove
 any defective and unwanted pieces. Thereafter, the fruits/slices are immersed in
boiling water for a moment to remove the sticky syrup and then slowly dried in
shade or in a drier at 66°C for 8 to 10 hours.
Glazed fruit
Covering candied fruits with a thin transparent coating of sugar that gives them
a shiny/glaze appearance is known as glazed fruit. For the glazing process, the
syrup is prepared by boiling sugar and water in a 2:1 ratio in a steam pan at
113–114 °C and cooling to 93 °C. The sugar syrup is then rubbed with a
wooden spatula on the side of the pan to make sugar granular. Dried candied
fruits are passed through this granular portion of sugar syrup and then placed on
a tray for drying at 49°C for 2-3 hours. When the pieces become crunchy, they
are packed in an air-tight container.
Crystallized Fruits
Candy fruits are called crystallized fruits when they are covered or coated with
fine sugar or coarse sugar crystals. The candied fruits are placed on a wire mesh
tray which is placed over a deep vessel. Cooled syrup (70% TSS) is gently
poured over the fruit so that it is completely covered. The whole mass is left
undisturbed for 12-18 hours, then it is poured into a tray of fine or coarse
granulated sugar and stirred to form a thin layer of crystallized sugar. The fruits
are then placed in a single layer on a wire mesh tray and dried at room
temperature or in a dryer at about 49 °C.
Packaging:
For retail trade, tin containers (15-20 kg capacity) and glass jars are used for
storing preserve. Candied and crystallized fruits are packed in waterproof paper
or polythene. Attractive porcelain jars are sometimes used to pack these
products for the specialized export market. In addition to metal and glass
containers, new flexible films can also be used, which are inexpensive and
highly effective.
Defects and spoilage
Deterioration due to fermentation occurs in the early stages of preserve and
candy preparation when the sugar content of the syrup is low. This can be
checked by properly boiling the product at appropriate intervals. Keeping
candy/glazed fruits in wet containers or in damp conditions causes spoilage due
to mold growth. Thus, storing such products in airtight dry containers is
recommended. Some defects are given below.
1. Shrunken preserve: Due to the high concentration of syrup, the fruit/pieces
of preserve shrink, so sugar and water should be mixed in a proper
proportion, or sugar syrup should not be used at more than 70° Brix in the
preserve.
2. Dull brownish colour or cloudy appearance: Sometimes preserve becomes
dull brown and cloudy due to the low quality of the fruit. Overcooking after
the addition of sugar also makes the preserve cloudy. That is why fruits of
 good quality should be selected and the fruits should be cooked for a
specified period after adding sugar.
3. Tough fruit skin or peel: Sometimes the fruit or peel is not cooked until it
becomes soft before adding sugar and it becomes hard when it is put in sugar
syrup. Cook the fruit or peel until soft and then add sugar.
4. Moulds on the surface: Sometimes, due to the inferior quality of the fruit,
due to Undercooking, or when stored in a warm and damp place, a layer of
mould appears on the surface of the preserve. That is why good quality fruits
should be selected, fruits should be cooked for the proper time and stored in a
cool place.
5. Fermented preserve after storage: If less amount of sugar is used in
preserve, fermentation starts during storage. Fermentation can also be caused
by undercooking or by storing it in a warm place. An appropriate amount of
sugar should be used to preserve. And it should be cooked until the endpoint
and it should be stored in a cool place.
6. Sticky candy (after drying): Sometimes candied fruits become sticky after
drying because the final syrup is not concentrated enough. Always make a
syrup of the right concentration.
7. Sticky during storage: If candied fruits are not properly packaged or stored
in a dumping place, they become sticky during storage, should always be
stored in a dry and cool place and a proper concentration of sugar syrup
should be used.

Lecture 10-
Fermented and NON- Fermented
beverages
Unfermented beverages
Fruit juices that do not undergo alcoholic fermentation are called unfermented
beverages. These include natural fruit juice, sweetener, ready-to-serve drink
(RTS), nectar, cordial, squash, crush, syrup, fruit concentrate juice and fruit
juice powder. The minimum standards prescribed under the Food Safety and
Standards Regulations, 2011 and the Fruit Products Order (FPO) are given in
the table below:
1. Fruit juice: It is a natural juice that is extracted from fruits and remains
practically unchanged in its composition during processing and preservation. It
is also called unfermented fruit juice or pure fruit juice, for example, apple
juice.
2. Fruit Juice Beverage: It is a fruit juice that changes significantly in
composition during preparation. It may or may not be diluted before
consumption. Ready-to-serve (RTS) drinks, nectar, squash, cordial, and
appetizer are all fruit juice drinks
3. Synthetic Beverages: Synthetic drinks are prepared by using sugar, water,
flavourants, acidulants, colours, etc. These drinks do not contain fruit juice or
pulp.
4. Ready-to-Serve (RTS) Beverage: It is a type of fruit drink that contains at
least 10% fruit juice (5% juice for limes) and less than 10% TSS. The acidity in
these drinks should not exceed 3.5% in the form of citric acid. RTS beverages
are preserved using Class II preservative 70 ppm SO 2 or 120 ppm benzoic acid.
It is not diluted before serving so it is known as ready to serve drink for
example mango drink, guava drink, pineapple drink, etc.
5. Fruit Nectar: This type of fruit drink contains at least 20% fruit juice or pulp
and 15% total soluble solids and is preserved by heat processing. Acidity in fruit
juices should not exceed 1.5%. As per the Indian food laws, no Class II
preservative such as SO2 or Benzoic acid is allowed in fruit nectar. It is not
diluted before use.
6. Squash: Fruit squash consists of the juice or pulp of the fruit to which sugar
is added for sweetening. According to the FPO, fruit squash should contain at
least 25% fruit juice or pulp and not less than 40% TSS. It should not contain
more than 350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid as a class II preservative. The
acid content in squash generally ranges between 1-1.5% but should not exceed
3.5%. The squash is usually diluted with water in a 1:3 ratio before serving.
Lime, lemon, mango, orange, guava, and pineapple squash are produced
commercially.
7. Fruit Juice Cordial: It is a sparkling, clear, sweet fruit juice from which the
pulp and other suspended substances are completely removed. Contains at least
25% juice, 30% TSS, and not more than 350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid
as a preservative. It is also used for mixing in alcoholic beverages for example
lemon juice cordial.
8. Fruit Appetizer: The fruit appetizer is similar to fruit squash, but also
contains spices, and herb extracts. Spices such as black pepper, cumin,
cardamom, ginger mentha extract, and salt are used to make the appetizer. They
are also called spiced fruit squash. Plum and apricot appetizers are quite
common.
9. Fruit Crush: Fruit Crush must contain at least 25% fruit juice or pulp, 55%
TSS, and no more than 350 ppm SO 2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid. It is diluted
before serving.
10. Fruit Syrup: It is prepared by using at least 25% fruit juice or pulp and
sweetened using sugar. Contain at least 65% TSS and not more than 350 ppm
SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid as a Class II preservative.
11. Synthetic syrups: Heavy sugar syrup of 70-75% strength is used as the base
for all synthetic syrups, which are flavored and colored with artificial flavors
and colours. These may or may not contain fruit pulp or juice. Rose,
sandalwood, almond, poppy seed, and kewra sherbet/syrup are quite common.
12. Carbonated fruit drink: It is a ready-to-serve fruit juice drink containing a
variable amount of fruit juice, sugar, acid, etc., and adding carbon dioxide gas.
Apple juice, lime, lemon, and grapefruit juice can be used to make carbonated
fruit drinks. They are prepared either by the pre-mix or post-mix method.
13. Fruit Juice Concentrate: It is a fruit juice, which is concentrated by
removing water by evaporation, freezing, or reverse osmosis. Many products
can be made from fruit juice concentrate. Apple juice concentrate, orange juice
concentrate, etc. are prepared commercially in the industry.
14. Fruit Juice Powder: It is a fruit juice that has been converted into a fine
powder. They can be prepared by the process of either freeze-drying, foam mat
drying, or spray drying. These are easily reconstituted to obtain full-strength
fruit juice drinks.
15. Barley Water: Fruit drinks that contain at least 25% fruit juice, 30% TSS,
and 0.25% barley starch are called barley water. It also contains about 1.0%
acid. Barley water is prepared from citrus fruits such as lemons, limes,
grapefruits, and oranges, and most of these use lemons and lime.
It is prepared using about 1 liter of fruit juice, 2.0 kg of sugar, 15 grams of
barley flour, and 1.3 liters of water.
Fermented beverages

A fermented fruit drink is a fruit juice that has undergone alcoholic fermentation
by yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisae. Products contain varying amounts
of ethyl alcohol. Apple cider, plum wine, grape wine, vermouth, etc. are the
main fermented drinks.
Different types of Wine
1. Wine: Wine can be defined as an alcoholic fermented beverage prepared
from grapes. When other fruits are used to make wine, the name of the fruit is
added first such as plum wine, peach wine, etc. There are two types of wine
viz. dry and sweet.
o Dry wines contain practically little or no sugar, while sweet wines contain
some sugar and have a sweeter taste. The alcohol content in these wines
ranges from 7 to 20 percent.
o Wines are also classified based on their alcohol content as light, medium,
or strong wines.
o ‘Light wine’ has an alcohol content of 7 to 9 percent.
o Alcohol in ‘medium wine’ is 9 to 16 percent and,
o ‘Strong wines’ with 16 to 20 percent alcohol.
o Wines typically over 12% alcohol are fortified with fruit brandy (alcohol)
prepared by distillation of grape wines.
o Still, wines are without any carbon dioxide.
o Sparkling wine contains carbon dioxide.
2. Champagne: Made mainly from certain grape varieties in France.
Champagne is sparkling clear wine and is made in many other countries as
well. Generally, the process of fermentation is accomplished in bottles. These
bottles are specially made to withstand the high pressure of gas produced
during fermentation.
3. Port: This fortified sweet red wine is originally from Portugal, but is now
produced in other countries as well.
4. Muscat: Made from grapes of the Muscat variety in Australia, California,
Italy, and Spain.
5. Tokay: This is a famous fortified wine from Hungary
6. Sherry: Sherry is a Spanish wine that is matured by placing filled barrels in
sunlight at a temperature of 54 to 60 °C for 3 to 4 months.
7. Perry: The wine made from pears is called Peri. It is made in the same way
as apple cider. It can be prepared from the wastage, culled fruits, and
trimmings left over from canaries.
8. Orange Wine: Sweet orange juice is fermented to make orange wine. The
method of preparation is similar to that of grape wine. Orange peel oil should
be minimal in the juice, otherwise, its presence stops fermentation
completely.
9. Berry Wine: Wines made from fruits such as strawberries, blackberries, and
elderberries are known as berry wines.
10. Feni: Feni is a liquor made from the fermentation of cashew apples in some
places like Goa.
11. Nira: Nira is prepared from the juice of the palm tree.
Method for preparation of wine
Fruits suitable for making wine
Apple, custard fruit, pear, Jamun, berries, cantaloupe, coconut toddy,
pomegranate, banana, guava, plum, strawberry, peach, kiwi fruit, raspberry,
cherry, pineapple, date apricot, litchi, and mixed fruit wine can be made from
fruits.
The wine can be red or white depending on the grapes used. Red grapes are
crushed and fermented to produce red wine, while white wine is produced by
fermenting white grape juice.
Preparation of fruits for fermentation
The grape varieties like Beauty Seedless, Arka Shyam, Concord, etc. are used
for making wine. To make wine from white grapes, the juice is taken, whereas,
in the case of coloured grapes, crushed grapes without any stem are taken for
fermentation. The fruit is crushed to extract the juice or the fruit pulp is used in
fermentation.
Addition of sugar
The sugar content should be between 22-24 % and the acidity should be 0.6 to
0.8 %. In low-sugar fruits, cane sugar is added to increase the TSS to 22 %.
pH adjustment
If necessary, the pH of the juice is adjusted. If it is too low, the juice is diluted
with water; If it is too much, tartaric acid is added to reduce it. If water is added,
more sugar has to be added to increase the TSS. Usually, 0.6-0.8% acidity is
maintained.
Addition of preservatives
Potassium Metabisulfite (KMS) @ 1.5 g is added for every 10 kg of grapes and
allowed to stand for 2-4 hours. Sulfur dioxide can also be added at a rate of 50-
70 ppm to prevent the growth of wild yeast and unwanted bacteria.
Yeast inoculation
The grape juice after the addition of sugar syrup is fermented by the addition of
a culture of the pure wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisae var. ellipsoideus as a
starter @ 2-5% or 20ml for every 5 Kg of grapes. Yeast should be added about
an hour after adding the preservatives. If yeast is not available then
preservatives should not be added either. The yeast present in the skin of grapes
can also ferment for wine but cannot produce good quality wine.
Fermentation
The temperature should be maintained between 27-29°C for proper
fermentation. Temperatures below 10°C and higher than 38°C almost stop the
fermentation process. After three days the material is filtered through a muslin
cloth and again kept to ferment for another 10 days, so that the yeast cells and
other solids settle to the bottom. For other fruits, the time taken to complete
fermentation is between 15-20 days.
Racking and Filtration
Siphoning out fermented wine from solid deposits is known as racking. After
racking it is further clarified with the help of a fining agent like bentonite. When
all the colloidal matter settles down with the bentonites, the pure wine is
siphoned off and filtered if necessary.
Aging (Maturation)
Pure wines are completely filled in bottles or barrels sealed to exclude air and
kept to mature for 6-8 months. During this aging process, the wine loses its raw
and harsh flavor and takes on a distinct and distinctive aroma. Generally, oak
wood barrels are used for aging because they impart a better aroma to the wine.
During maturation, the dissolved carbon dioxide is released and spontaneous
clarification takes place. The extraction of oak flavor and limited oxidation also
occurs during this process. Astringent tannic substances precipitate and as a
result slow smoothing the taste.
Packaging:
The wine is typically pasteurized at 82–88°C for 1–2 minutes, followed by
bottling. Alcohol is added in the form of brandy or wine spirits to make fortified
wine. Sugar may be added before the final packing of the wine to improve the
taste.
Cider
It is prepared mostly by fermentation of special grade apples which are rich in
tannin content of 0.1-0.3%. However, very confusing as far as apple cider is
concerned. In the United States, apple cider means impure/ non-clarified apple
juice, while apple juice is clear and sparkling juice. In other countries such as
Europe and India, apple cider is related to fermented apple juice. In India,
dessert apples are used to prepare good-quality ciders. The alcohol content in
cider ranges from 4 to 6 %.
Fruits like bael, Jamun, phalsa, and amla can also be used to make cider. The
technology of preparation is almost the same as that of grape wine.
The apple is crushed and pressed to extract the juice, then cane sugar is added to
raise its sugar content to 22° Brix. It is preserved with 100 ppm SO 2 and a pure
culture of wine yeast is added for fermentation. Sometimes di-ammonium
hydrogen phosphate (DAHP) (0.02 to 0.05%) is added as a food supplement for
yeast. The method of fermentation is similar to that of other wines. After
filtration, the old is aged in oak wooden barrels. The mature cider is bottled,
heated to 65°C, crown corked, and pasteurized at 60°C for 30 minutes. Apple
cider is also carbonated for better acceptability.
Vermouth
It is a fortified wine in which alcohol contents range from 15 to 21%, and
flavoured with a mixture of herbs & spices.
Brandy
Brandy is a distillate obtained from the distillation of wine and generally aged
in small oak barrels, for example, Cognac and Armagnac.
Vinegar
The word is derived from the French ‘Vinaigre’ which means sour wine (vin
meaning ‘wine’, aigre meaning ‘sour’.
Vinegar is a liquid obtained by alcoholic and acetic fermentation of suitable
ingredients containing sugar (at least 10% fermentable sugar) and starch. It
contains about 5% acetic acid and has disinfectant and antiseptic properties. In
trade, vinegar is labeled according to the ingredients used in its manufacture,
e.g., malt vinegar (from malt) and cider vinegar (from apple juice).

Lecture – 11
Tomato Products- concepts and
standards
Tomato products
Commercial tomato products include juice, puree, paste, ketchup, soup, canned
and dehydrated tomatoes. As a semi-finished product, tomato puree is prepared
on a small scale while tomato paste is prepared on a large scale. Both puree and
paste are used for the preparation of various finished products like ketchup,
juice, soup, etc. The methods of preparation of various tomato products are as
follows:
Watch Lecture Video
1. Tomato juice/pulp
Ripe and fully red tomatoes are used to make the juice. All green, blemished
and overripe fruits should be removed. The yield, colour, and taste of the juice
depending on the ripeness and variety of the tomato. Wash tomatoes thoroughly
with water. They are crushed by means of a wooden roller-crusher. Tomato
juice is either hot or cold pulped. It can also be extracted through a screw-type
juice extractor. To neutralize the astringent taste of the juice, 0.4 to 0.6% salt is
mixed with the juice. Sometimes sugar is also added to improve the taste. Juice
is packaged in glass bottles or cans. Tomato pulp/juice is the basic ingredient
for preparing various tomato products like tomato puree, paste, ketchup, etc.
Method for preparation of tomato juice
Washing: Tomatoes should be thoroughly washed under running water to
remove dirt from cracks, wrinkles, folds, and cavities of the fruit, which are not
easily removed by washing.
Crushing: After sorting the tomatoes are cut into four to six pieces to extract
the pulp. Alternatively, they can be crushed through fluted roller crushers or by
passing through a fruit grater.
Pulping: Tomato pulp can be extracted either by crushing without heating (cold
pulping) or by passing through a pulper after crushing or boiling whole
tomatoes until soft. During pulping, the fine juice and pulp passing through the
pulp sieve are collected, while the peel and seeds are separated from the other
end.
A) Cold Pulping: It is commonly known as the cold break process in which
tomatoes are crushed with a fruit grater after being washed and immediately
passed through a pulper to extract the pulp. The features of the cold break
process are as follows:
 The yield of juice is low as the extraction is comparatively difficult in the
cold process.
 The juice extracted is lighter in color because the natural red color of
tomatoes is released only after heating the peel.
 The cold break process results in the destruction/oxidation of the natural
vitamin C in the juice, due to the incorporation of air during juicing.
 The extracted juice is dilute, possibly due to the action of the pectinase
enzyme contained in natural pectin.
 The taste of cold break juice is more pungent and more acidic than that of hot
pulp juice.
 Cold pulp juice needs to be processed immediately to avoid the possibility of
spoilage by micro-organisms.
B) Hot Pulping: It is also known as the hot break process. After the fruit is
grated or grinded, the tomatoes are boiled in a pressure cooker/steam jacketed
 steel kettle or aluminum pan till soft to make it easier to remove the pulp from
the pulper. The properties of hot pulping are as follows:
 Hot pulp extract destroys the enzymes (pectinase) contained in it that would
otherwise hydrolyze the pectin, to thicken the extracted juice.
 On heating, the natural lycopene (red color) present in the peel is released
into the juice.
 It also partially sterilizes the juice to prevent the growth of micro-organisms.
 It helps in the inactivation of oxidative enzymes which subsequently lead to
the destruction of the juice ascorbic acid.
 The juice yield in hot pulping is higher than in cold pulping.
Juice/Pulp Extraction Equipment: Tomato juice/pulp is extracted either by
passing crushed tomatoes through a continuous spiral press or pulper.
i) Continuous Spiral Press: It consists of a long spiral screw that presses the
tomatoes against a thin screen of fine mesh. The juice passes through the screen
while the seeds and rind are removed from the lower end of the sieve.
ii) Pulper: The pulper consists of a horizontal cylinder made of stainless steel.
The heavy paddles rotate rapidly inside the cylinder, allowing the finer pulp to
pass through the screen/sieve which is collected separately while the rind, seed,
fiber pieces, etc. pass through the other end of the machine. However,
domestically, crushed tomatoes can be manually filtered through a stainless
steel sieve after heating.
Finishing and Homogenization: After extraction, common salt (0.4-0.6%) and
sugar (1%) are added to the extracted pulp/juice to improve the taste of the
finished product. For commercial production, the liquid juice is mixed with the
pulp and homogenized to provide a thick consistency and uniform appearance.
For homogenization, the juice is heated to 66°C and forced under high pressure
(70 kg/cm2) to shred the particles and bring them to approximately the same
size.
Filling: The finished juice is heated to 82-88°C and served in pre-sterilized
glass bottles. The bottles are then hermetically sealed using crown corks and
sterilized in boiling water (100°C) for about 25-30 minutes. Typically,
sterilization times at 100°C are 25 minutes (A2 cans), 30 minutes (A21/2 cans),
and 40 minutes (A10 cans) for cans of different sizes.
Labeling and storage: After sterilization, cans are cooled and stored in a cool
dry place. The glass bottles are allowed to cool in the air. Both the bottles and
cans are labeled before they are sent to market/sale.

2. Tomato Puree
Tomato puree is prepared from tomato pulp after evaporation or concentration
of juice/pulp into desired total soluble solids with or without salt. As per the
FPO specification, tomato puree must contain at least 9% total soluble solids
 (TSS) excluding salt. The percentage of total soluble solids is required to be
declared at the product level.
Method to make Tomato Puree:
 To make the puree, tomato pulp is prepared from ripe tomatoes using either
the hot or cold pulping method.
 The pulp/juice is concentrated either in a steam jacketed kettle using an open
cooking method or using a vacuum pan.
 However, vacuum pan cooking is desirable as the juice/pulp boils at a very
low temperature (71°C) resulting in retaining the original red colour and
flavour along with natural vitamin C.
 The pulp is concentrated to the desired solid (9 to 12% TSS),
 Packaged in pre-sterilized bottles, the crown is corked and processed in
boiling water for 25-30 minutes.
 Tomato puree can also be preserved by adding sodium benzoate (250 ppm
benzoic acid).
 For packing in tin cans, tomato puree is heated to 82-88°C and then
processed at 100°C for 20 minutes after the can is closed.

3. Tomato Paste
Tomato paste is the thick juice or pulp of tomato without the skin and seeds and
containing at least 25% tomato solids (TSS). Depending on the degree of
concentration, tomato paste can be further divided into three groups:
1. Light tomato paste containing 25-29% TSS salt-free tomatoes.
2. Medium tomato paste containing 29-33% TSS salt-free tomatoes.
3. Heavy tomato paste containing at least 33% TSS salt-free tomatoes.
Method to make Tomato Paste:
 Tomato pulp or juice is concentrated in the open pan to 14-15% soluble
solids (TSS),
 It is then concentrated in vacuum pans and packaged in pre-sterilized bottles
in a heated state.
 In large-scale processing units, tomato paste is manufactured using vacuum
evaporators and packaged in tin cans or bulk aseptic packages.
 Tomato paste is used to manufacture various tomato products like ketchup,
soups, sauces, etc.

4. Tomato Ketchup
Tomato ketchup is a commercial product made by converting fresh tomato
juice/pulp or using tomato puree or tomato paste. It is made by concentrating
the juice or pulp of tomatoes without the seeds and rind. Spices, salt, sugar,
vinegar, onion, garlic, etc. are added to the extent that the ketchup contains at
least 12% tomato solids and at least 25% total soluble solids (w/w). The general
method for making tomato ketchup is as follows:
Ingredients for Ketchup
Ingredients for Ketchup

Method to make Tomato Ketchup:

 In tomato ketchup, tomato juice is concentrated with spices, salt, sugar, etc.
 About 1/3 of the sugar is added initially at the time of boiling and the
remaining amount is added a little before the ketchup is ready.
 Salt is added at the end of boiling, otherwise, it turns the tomato white.
 The spices are placed in a muslin cloth bundle and the bundle is placed in the
boiling mixture. Finally, the cloth bundle is pressed to squeeze out the spices
and the bundle is removed.
 Vinegar should be added when the ketchup is thick enough so that the acid
does not evaporate. Tomato ketchup usually contains 1.25-1.50% acid.
 Tomato ketchup is typically cooked until it has 25–30% solids, of which 12%
are tomato solids.
 Hot ketchup (88°C) is filled into pre-sterilized glass bottles, crown corked
and processed for 30 minutes, and cooled to room temperature.
 Benzoic acid is added as a preservative in tomato ketchup.

5. Tomato Soup
Nowadays tomato soup is a very popular product. It can be prepared from pulp
or tomato juice. Butter or cream, spices, starch, etc. are used to make soup.
These are mixed in different proportions depending on the desired taste. There
are many recipes that give tomato soup its best quality.
Ingredients for Soup
Tomato Soup Intergradient

Method to make Tomato Soup:

 The juice is boiled in a pan to concentrate it.
 Put the spices in a cloth bag as in tomato ketchup, and put it in the pan while
it cooks.
 Meanwhile, arrowroot and butter are mixed with a small amount of juice to
form a smooth paste and then added to the boiled juice.
 It is continued to boil, stirring continuously, until the desired thickening or
consistency.
 Finally, adding sugar and salt, the mixture is boiled for about 2 minutes so
that it dissolves.
 The hot soup (88°C) is stuffed into cans and processed at 100-110°C for 20-
45 minutes depending on the size of the can and quickly cooled down after
processing.

6. Tomato Powder
Tomato juice is converted into a free-flowing, highly hygroscopic powder using
various drying methods. In powdered form, it can be added to any food to get a
natural tomato flavor. The juice can be converted into powder using various
methods such as spray drying, roller drying, and foam mat drying.

7. Tomato Cocktail
The tomato cocktail consists of tomato juice mixed with common salt, vinegar,
Worcestershire sauce, lime, or lemon juice in varying proportions to suit the
taste. It is prepared just before use or sometimes served from stock. The general
recipe for a tomato cocktail is as follows:
Ingredients for cocktail
Ingredient for Cocktail

Method to make Tomato Cocktail:

 Boil the tomato juice in a covered pan for about 20 minutes, and tie the spices
in a cloth bag, as is done in ketchup.
 When cooked, add vinegar and salt to it.
 The cocktail is ready by mixing all the ingredients and the hot cocktail
(88°C) is filled into pre-sterilized glass bottles, crown corked and processed
for 30 minutes, and cooled to room temperature.

Problem-making sauce or ketchup

Black Neck: – The formation of black rings in the neck of the bottle is called
the black neck. This is due to iron entering the product from the metal of the
equipment or from the cap/crown cork and reacting with the acetic acid. Thus
iron comes in contact with the tannins of spice to form ferrous tannate which
gets oxidized to black ferric tannate. The black neck can be prevented in the
following ways:
 Hot sauce should not be filled at a temperature below 85°C.
 The bottle should leave very little space at the top (the more the air, the
greater the blackness)
 Reducing contamination from iron.
 Sugar is partially replaced by corn syrup or glucose syrup which contains
sulfur and prevents darkening.
 Addition of 100 ppm sulfur dioxide or 100 mg ascorbic acid.
 Holding the bottle horizontally or upside down so that the air (O 2) is
dispersed throughout the bottle and thereby lowers its concentration
sufficiently to avoid darkening of the neck.
 Use cloves only after removing the flower/head.

Lecture – 12
Drying/Dehydration of fruits and
vegetables
Drying refers to the method of removing moisture content from
food to a level at which food spoilage and the activities of food
toxic micro-organisms are inhibited. Open sun drying is probably
the oldest method of food preservation used for agricultural crops
including food grains, oilseeds as well as fruits and vegetables.
Most fruits and vegetables contain sufficient moisture for the
activities of enzymes and drying is necessary to reduce the
activity of micro-organisms and water. Therefore, reduction of
water activity of a food is the main principle of preservation by
drying.

Watch Lecture Video

Two commonly used terms for dry foods are low-moisture foods and
intermediate-moisture foods (IMF). During drying, fruits and vegetables are
sliced either whole into a single layer, or after primary treatment are spread on
trays that are placed inside a dehydrator or in the open sun to dry. In mechanical
dehydrators, the initial temperature is usually kept at 43°C, which is then
gradually raised to 60-66°C for vegetables and 66-71°C for fruits.
 Dry foods or low-moisture foods typically contain no more than 25%
moisture and have a water activity (aw) in the range of 0 to 0.6.
 Intermediate Moisture food (IMF) on the other hand contains 15 – 50%
moisture with a water activity (aw) of 0.6 to 0.85.
 Open sun drying is probably the oldest method of food preservation used for
agricultural crops including food grains, oilseeds as well as fruits and
vegetables.
Advantages of drying
1. Helps in food preservation by reducing water activities.
2. Reduction in weight and volume of food (weight or volume of the dried
product is reduced by 4 to 10 times its initial fresh weight/volume).
3. The reduction in bulk leads to a reduction in space requirement and hence
reduces the cost of packaging, storage, and transportation.
4. Drying is the cheapest and simplest method of preservation as compared to
other methods.
5. Dried foods diversify the diet and provide consumers with convenient foods
to eat.
6. Nutrient content per unit weight of the dry product is very high.
Difference between drying and dehydration
Drying and dehydration are related terms and are used interchangeably to
describe the unit tasks involved in the removal of water by evaporation or
sublimation. Drying generally refers to the method of removing moisture from
food under natural conditions such as sunlight and wind, such as open sun
drying, shade drying, etc. Whereas, dehydration refers to the process of
 removing moisture by artificial heat under controlled conditions (temperature,
humidity, and airflow).
Drying mechanism
Drying or dehydration involves the removal of water from food by heating.
When hot air is passed over wet food, the air expands through a boundary film
of water vapor surrounding the food and is carried away by air. A water vapor
pressure gradient is established from the moist interior of the food to the dry air,
which provides the driving force for the removal of water from the food. The
boundary film acts as a barrier to both heat transfer and water vapor removal
during drying. The moving air velocity determines the thickness of the
boundary film. The water vapor leaves the surface of the food and increases the
humidity of the surrounding air, thereby decreasing the water vapor pressure
gradient, thereby reducing the drying rate. Therefore, the moving air must be
fast to reduce the thickness of the boundary film and achieve a faster drying
rate. Therefore, the parameters that are taken into account for drying moist
horticultural products are moderately high dry bulb temperature, low relative
humidity, and high air velocity.
Drying Curve
For each product, there is a representative curve that describes the drying
characteristics at a specific temperature, velocity, and pressure conditions for
that product. This curve is known as the drying curve for a specific product.
Drying occurs in three distinct periods or stages namely the first stage or initial
period, the second stage or steady rate period, and the third stage or falling rate
period.
Advantages of Dehydration Over Open Sun Drying:
1. Dehydration is more rapid, controlled, and efficient than sun drying in the
open.
2. Dehydration requires less space (floor area) than sun drying.
3. Dehydration is more hygienic than drying in the open sun.
4. Dehydration is not dependent on weather conditions whereas drying is not
possible in cloudy weather or during rains.
5. Uniform drying temperature keeps the colour of the dehydrated product
uniform.
Factors affecting dehydration
The important factors affecting the drying rate are:
1. The initial moisture content of raw material
2. Composition of raw materials
3. Initial load of food placed in the drier
4. The size, shape, and arrangement of the raw material stack
5. Temperature, relative humidity, and velocity of air used for drying
6. Rate of heat transfer to the surface of the food
7. Pre-treatment of raw materials before drying (peeling, blanching, sulfuring,
etc.)
 Things to keep in mind during the drying process
Control of air temperature and its circulation in the system is important during
the drying process. If the temperature is too low and the humidity is too high,
the food will dry out more slowly and microbial growth can occur. Conversely,
if the temperature is too high initially, a hard shell will develop on the surface of
the food which will prevent the removal of moisture from the interior of the
fruit and the moisture will be trapped inside the food material. This condition is
known as case hardening. In addition, temperatures that are too high at the end
of the drying period tend to scorch the food. It is recommended to keep the
temperature between 49°C to 60°C for drying fruits and vegetables.
Temperatures up to 65°C can be used initially but should be reduced as soon as
the food begins to dry out. Whereas, during the last hour of the drying period,
the temperature should not exceed 55°C.
Drying process
Drying fruits and vegetables generally includes three stages: pre-drying
treatment, drying and post-drying handling, packaging, and storage.
1. Pre-drying treatment
Fruits and vegetables are selected and sorted according to size, maturity, and
soundness. They are then washed under running water to remove dust, dirt,
insects, mold spores, plant parts, soil, debris, and other materials. Depending on
the type and quantity of product to be dried, any peeling method may be
selected such as hand peeling, steam, hot water, lye peeling, or abrasive peeling.
Fruits such as grapes, plums, and apricots are immersed in boiling caustic soda
(0.5% NaOH) for a few seconds and immediately placed in cold water to
remove the waxy layer (grape, plum), pubescence (apricot, peach). After
peeling and washing, fruits and vegetables are cut to the desired size and
thickness as this affects the drying rate.
2. Blanching
Generally, all vegetables are whole or pieces after preliminary preparation and
are boiled in boiling water or by steam for a pre-determined period of time,
followed by immediate cooling to inactivate enzymatic activity before drying.
3. Sulphuring/Sulphiting
Most fruits are treated with sulphur dioxide by placing them in a closed
chamber in which sulphur (3 g / kg of fruit) is burned so that the fruits can
absorb SO2 fumes. The process is called sulphuring or sulphur fumigation.
Sulphiting, on the other hand, refers to the immersion of prepared fruits or
vegetables in a solution of potassium meta-by-sulphite to serve the same
purpose as sulphiting. Sulphuring helps preserve color, prevents browning, and
reduces the destruction of carotene and ascorbic acid, in addition to preventing
spoilage of the dried product.
4. Drying and Dehydration Methods
A) Drying Methods
a. Sun-drying
 b. Solar Dryer
c. Polytunnel Solar Dryer / Polyhouse Solar Dryer
B) Dehydration Equipment/Methods
a) Hot air driers
i. Kiln dryer
ii. Cabinet (Tray) Dryer
iii. Conveyor dryers (belt dryers)
iv. Tunnel dryer
v. Foam mat Drying
vi. Bin Dryer (Deep Bed Dryer)
vii. Fluidized dryer
viii. Pneumatic Dryer
ix. Rotary dryer
x. Trough dryer (belt-trough dryer)
xi. Spray dryers
b) Heated surface dryers
i. Vacuum Drum Dryer
ii. Drum dryer (roller dryer)
iii. Vacuum shelf dryer
iv. Explosion puff drying
v. Freeze Drying
vi. Osmotic dehydration
5. Dry products packaging and storage
After the foods have dried, cool them completely. The packaging is carried out
in clean moisture-vapor-resistant containers. Glass jars, metal cans, or freezer
containers are good storage containers if they have tight-fitting lids. Sulphurized
or sulphite fruits should not touch the metal. Put the fruit in a plastic bag before
placing it in a metal box. Dried food should be stored in a cool, dry, dark place.
Most dried fruits can be stored at 60°F for 1 year, and 80°F for 6 months. Dried
vegetables have about half the shelf life of fruits. Laminated Polypropylene
(PP), Metallized Polyester (PET), and Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) are
suitable for a shelf life of at least 6 months.
The different types of materials used in the packaging of dry products are:
1. Rigid containers such as metal cans and plastic containers, are airtight and
lightweight and prevent the penetration of moisture and oxygen. They are
easy to handle during transport.
2. Semi-rigid packs, such as lined cartoons and bag-in-boxes, preserve the
freshness of the food product until it is opened. An ideal laminate is made of
layers of paper/Low-Density Polyethene (LDPE)/Al-Foil/ which ensures the
required shelf life.
3. The flexible pouch can be easily handled and opened.
Drying and Dehydration methods
A) Drying Methods
a) Sun-drying: In this, fruits/vegetables are spread either on terraces or on the
floor to dry in the open sun. This method is limited to certain fruits such as
raisins, figs, apricots, dates, peaches, and salted fish. After 10-12 days of drying
the product is packed in sacks/wooden boxes and sent for sale in a local or
distant markets. The moisture content is usually not less than 15% which is too
high for storage. The product quality is substandard, as the product is brown in
color from the outside and contaminated with insect dirt/dust particles. The
quality can be improved by spreading the product on a black polythene sheet
and covering it with a thin muslin cloth to protect it from the ingress of insects,
dust, or dirt particles.
b) Solar Dryer: Solar dryer is an inclined rectangular box of size 1.8 x 0.9 x
0.3 m3. The interiors are made of wood and thermocol and tin sheets are
attached as a layer inside. Its top is covered with a sheet of glass and the inner
edges are painted black. Air inlets and outlets (dampeners) are provided at the
lower and upper ends to help with the regulation of airflow and temperature. An
average of 20-30°C higher temperatures can be achieved inside the dehydrator
than the ambient temperature. The capacity of this size solar dryer is 25-30 kg
of fresh fruits/vegetables, each tray having a size of 0.9 m × 0.45 m.
c) Polytunnel Solar Dryer / Polyhouse Solar Dryer: The basic principle is the
same as that of the solar dryer. The polyhouse solar dryer developed at Acharya
NG Ranga Agricultural University, Bapatla has the capacity to dry about 22-24
quintals of ripe chilies. It has an arch-type polyhouse of size 12×7.8×2.4 m
(40’x26’x8’) with 1600 sq ft as tray area. Thirty-two trays of size 10’×5’×3
(L×W×H) are used to load 22-24 quintals of ripe chilies. The entire frame
structure is covered with a UV stabilized 150 gsm cross laminated transparent
polyethylene sheet with crow-type ventilators on all three sides down and top
well except one side (North side) and two chimneys on the roof cover. These
are ventilators to facilitate the removal of moisture. Typically, a temperature of
about 15-17°C above the outside environment temperature can be achieved
inside the dryer.
Solar radiation is mainly short-wave radiation. The radiation transmitted
through the polyethylene sheet becomes long wave radiation after absorption
and cannot exit from the polyethylene sheet leading to an increase in the
temperature inside the dryer. Covering the floor with a black polyethylene sheet
helps in better heat retention.
B) Dehydration Equipment
a) Hot air driers: In hot air driers, the food is exposed to a moving stream of
hot air. Heat is supplied to the product mainly by convection. Such as Kiln
dryer, cabinet tray dryer, tunnel dryer, conveyor dryer, bin dryer, fluidized
dryer, pneumatic dryer, rotary dryer and spray dryer.
 i. Kiln dryer: These are mainly used for drying apple rings, slices, and malt. It
consists of two floors with a furnace or burner on the ground floor and wet
material on the top floor. The heated air from the furnace is raised by natural or
artificial convection and passes through the perforated floor of the second floor,
over which the wet material is spread in a uniform layer of 10–20 cm. The
humid air is drained out through a chimney on the upper floor. However,
furnace dryers have limited control over drying conditions and have longer
drying times. In addition, the regular turning of the product is necessary.
ii. Cabinet (Tray) Dryer: In the tray dryer, the wet food is spread evenly/on a
thin tray in which drying takes place. These consist of an insulated cabinet
equipped with shallow mesh or perforated trays, each containing a thin (2–6 cm
thick) layer of food. The hot air is circulated through the cabinet at 0.5- 5 m/s
per square meter of tray area. To promote uniform air distribution, ducts or
baffles are used to direct hot air through each tray. Heating occurs by
conduction from the hot tray or by radiation from the hot surface. The hot air
also removes the vapor. Tray dryers are used for small-scale production (1-20
tons/day) or initial scale work. They have lower capital and maintenance costs
but have poorer controls yielding more variable product quality.
iii. Conveyor dryers (belt dryers): These are similar to tunnel dryers in that
the wet material is conveyed on a moving belt. Continuous conveyor dryers are
up to 20 meters long and 3 meters wide. The food is dried in a bed 5-15 cm
deep on the belt. The airflow is initially upward through the food bed and then
downward to prevent dry food from exiting the bed in later stages. There may
be 2 or 3 stages of drying in which the food is mixed, and refilled in the deep
bed. The major advantages of a conveyor dryer are:
 It improves drying uniformity and saves floor space.
 The food is dried to a moisture content of 10-15% and then completed in the
bin dryer.
 These have good control over drying conditions and provide high production
rates.
 Can be used for large-scale drying of foods (fruits and vegetables are dried in
2.0-3.5 hours with a capacity of up to 5.5 tons/hour).
 Reduces labor cost, as load and unload automatically.
 Provides a good replacement for tunnel dryer.
iv. Tunnel dryer: This is an improvement of the tray dryer, in which the tray
runs through a tunnel where heat is given off and vapor is removed. In which air
is used in drying and the material moves through the dryer parallel to the flow
of air or through a counter current. Usually, a 24-meter-long tunnel consists of
12-15 racks with a total capacity of 5000 kg. The drying time is 5-16 hours.
Flow pattern in tunnel dryer
Parallel or co-current air flow: In this arrangement, the hot air moves in the
same direction as the wet product.
Advantages
 High rate of evaporation at the wet end without overheating the material.
 Fast initial drying.
 Slight shrinkage of food
 low bulk density
 Less heat damage to food.
 There is no risk of spoilage, as the moisture content is removed in one go.
Limits
 Achieving low moisture content in the finished product is difficult because
cool moist air passes over the dried food at the outlet.
Counter current type: In these, a relatively low initial rate of drying is
achieved at the wet end. This causes a high shrinkage of the cellular material.
Advantages
 More economical use of energy.
 Lower final moisture content can be achieved as hot air passes over the dried
food at the outlet.
Limits
 High shrinkage of cellular material occurs.
 The potential risk of heat damage to the product due to dry end heat.
 Prolonged exposure to food in a warm moist environment can cause
shrinkage.
Central Exhaust Tunnel Dryer: It combines both the characteristics of co-
current and counter-current flow.
Advantages
 Combined advantages of parallel and counter-current dryers, but less than
cross-flow dryers.
Limitations:
 More complicated and expensive than single-direction airflow.
Cross Flow Tunnel Dryer: In this arrangement hot air is introduced into
different compartments of wet food, thus drying rate is uniform.
Advantages
 Flexible control of drying conditions due to the convenience of heating the
air between stages.
 Uniform drying due to frequent changes in the direction of hot air.
 High drying rate.
Limitations
 More complicated and expensive to buy
 Operation and Maintenance.
v. Foam mat Drying: In this, liquid foods (fruit juices) form a stable foam with
the addition of a stabilizer and aeration with nitrogen or air. Carboxymethyl
cellulose (CMC) can be added to the juice to turn lemon juice into a froth to dry
it. The foam is spread over a perforated belt to a depth of 2-3 mm and is rapidly
dried in two steps by parallel and thin counter-current airflow. Drying a foam
mat is about three times faster than drying the same thickness of liquid due to
 the thinner surface area. The thin foam mat of dry food makes for a free-flowing
lather that has good rehydration properties. Fast drying and low product
temperatures lead to higher quality products.
Limitation: Higher production rates require a larger surface area and higher
capital cost.
vi. Bin Dryer (Deep Bed Dryer): Bin dryer is used for the final drying of dried
food material. They are poured into cylindrical or rectangular containers with
netting at the bottom. Hot air passes through the food bed at a relatively low
speed of 0.5 ms–1 per square meter of bin area. Air passes vertically upwards
through the material and dries it. Bin dryers are also used to equalize the
moisture content in the bulk of dried foods.
Advantages
 These dryers have high capacity and low capital and operation cost.
 Bin dryers improve the operational efficiency of the initial dryer, when the
food is in the falling rate period, when moisture removal takes the most time.
 The deep bottom helps to equalize the moisture content of different layers of
the food.
vii. Fluidized dryer: Hot air is forced through a solid bed under conditions
such that the solids are suspended in the air. Hot air serves as both a liquefaction
and drying medium. Some units have vibration bases to aid in the movement of
the product. Dryers are successfully used for drying peas, beans, carrots, cocoa,
coffee, etc.
Advantages
 Fluidized bed dryers are compact and provide good control over drying
conditions.
 They offer high thermal efficiency and high drying rate.
 Since the product is mixed by liquefaction, it leads to uniform drying.
 Fluidized bed dryers are limited to foods with small particles that are able to
liquefy without excessive mechanical damage.
viii. Pneumatic Dryer: This is an extended form of fluidized bed dryer where
high air velocities are used. In this, the solid food particles are rapidly carried in
the air stream, and the velocity and turbulence of the air keep the particles in
suspension. The hot air completes the drying; the dry matter is expelled as the
product and the moist product is re-circulated for further drying.
In pneumatic dryers, powdered or particulate foods are dried continuously in
vertical or horizontal metal ducts. A cyclone separator is used to remove the
dried product. Moist food (less than 40% moisture content) is placed in ducts
and suspended in hot air. In vertical dryers, the airflow is adjusted to classify the
particles; Lighter and smaller particles, which dry more quickly, are carried to
the cyclone more quickly than heavier and wetter particles, which remain
suspended to meet the need for additional drying.
ix. Rotary dryer: In a rotary dryer, a slightly inclined rotating cylinder is fitted
internally for the flight so that the food can move through the hot air stream as it
moves through the dryer. Airflow can be parallel or counter current.
Food is contained in a horizontally inclined cylinder through which it travels.
Heating is done either by the flow of air through the cylinder or by heat
conduction of heat from the cylinder walls. In some cases, the cylinder rotates
and in others the cylinder is stationary and the paddle or screw rotates through
the cylinder conveying the material. The dryer is used for drying sugar crystals
and cocoa beans.

Advantages
 A large area of food exposed to food agitation and air produces a high drying
rate and uniformly dried product.
 The dryer is suitable for products that stick to the belt or mat on the tray
dryer.
Limits
 Impact or abrasion in this dryer may damage the product.
x. Trough dryer (belt-trough dryer): Small, uniform pieces of food such as
peas and other dried vegetables are dried in a mesh conveyor belt that hangs
freely between rollers, forming a trough. Hot air is sifted through the food bed,
and the conveyor speeds up the mixing and turning of its new surfaces to
continuously expose the drying air. The mixing action moves the food away
from the dry air and then gives the time for moisture from the inside of the
pieces to dry off the surface. When the food is exposed to hot air again, the
moisture evaporates rapidly. The dryer operates in two stages to 50-60%
moisture and then up to 15-20% moisture content. The final finishing of the
dried product is done in the bin dryer.
Advantages
 These dryers have a high drying rate (55 minutes for dry vegetables,
compared to 5 hours in tunnel dryers).
 High energy efficiency with fine control over drying conditions.
 Minimal heat damage to the product.
Limitations:
 Not suitable for sticky foods.
xi. Spray dryers: For a fine dispersion of pre-concentrated food, the first
droplet (10-200 µm in diameter) is “atomized” which is sprayed in a drying
chamber at 150-300°C hot air temperature. The feed rate is controlled to
produce an outlet air temperature of 90-100°C, which corresponds to a wet bulb,
and a product temperature of 40-50°C. Very short drying time and relatively
low product temperature are the main characteristics of spray dryers.
Advantages
 Due to the large surface area of the droplets, the drying speed is very fast (1-
10 sec)
 The temperature of the product is maintained at the temperature of the wet
bulb of the dry air.
 Minimal heat damage to food.
In a spray dryer, the liquid or fine solid material in the form of a slurry is
sprayed into a stream of hot air as a fine dispersion. Drying is very rapid, thus
making this process very useful for foods that have been damaged by prolonged
heat exposure. Spray dryers are mostly used for milk, egg, coffee, cocoa, tea,
potato, ground chicken, ice cream mix, butter, cream, yogurt, cheese powder,
coffee whitener, fruit juices, meat, wheat, and corn starch products.
b) Heated surface dryers:
Unlike hot air dryers, heat is supplied to food by heat conduction in heat surface
dryers, resulting in its higher thermal efficiency.
Advantages
 It is not necessary to heat the air in large quantities before starting drying.
 Drying can be done in the absence of oxygen to preserve food sensitive to
oxidation.
 Heat consumption is lower in comparison to hot air driers.

Limitations: Since, foods have low thermal conductivity, which further
decreases as the food dries. Therefore, the thin layer of food needs to conduct
heat rapidly without loss of heat.
Types of hot surface dryers
i. Vacuum Drum Dryer: Vacuum drum dryers work in a vacuum and in these,
the heat transfer occurs by conduction or radiation. The rollers are attached to a
large cabinet in which a vacuum is created. A vacuum Drum Dryer is used for
drying potato flakes, dried soup, and fruit juice.
Drum dryer (roller dryer): In a drum dryer, a slowly rotating hollow steel drum
is heated internally to 120-1700C by pressurized steam. A thin layer of food is
placed on the outer surface of the drum by spraying or spreading by feed rollers.
Before the drum completes one rotation (within 20 seconds to 3 minutes) the
dried food is removed by a ‘doctor’ blade that contacts the drum surface evenly
along its length. Dryers can have single drums, or double drums (twin drums).
A drum dryer is used to dry milk powder.
Advantages
 High drying rate with high energy efficiency and their suitability for slurry
where the particles are too large for spraying.
Limitations
 Heat damage to sensitive foods and high capital costs.
ii. Vacuum shelf dryer: A vacuum shelf dryer consists of hollow shelves in a
vacuum chamber. Food is placed in thin layers on flat metal trays that are
carefully made to ensure good contact with the shelves. A partial vacuum of 1-
70 torr (1.3 kPa to 93.3 kPa) is created in the chamber and steam or hot water is
 passed through the shelves to dry the food. They are used to produce puff dried
foods.
Advantages
 It gives fast drying and limited heat damage
 Suitable for heat-sensitive foods.
Limitations
 Relatively high capital and operating costs and low production rates.
iv. Explosion puff drying: This involves partially drying the food item to
moderate the moisture content and then sealing it in a pressure chamber. The
pressure and temperature in the chamber rise at once and are released
immediately. The rapid reduction in pressure causes the food to expand and a
finer porous structure is developed. This allows for rapid final drying and rapid
rehydration. The sensory and nutritional properties are well retained in this
dryer.
v. Freeze Drying: Freeze drying uses a vacuum to sublimation/remove water
content from frozen food, the food product being solidly frozen during the
process. In the freeze drying process, the food is first frozen at -18°C in the
lower chamber of the freeze dryer and then the frozen material is placed in the
upper chamber initially at 30°C for 24 hours then at 20°C under a high vacuum
(0.1 mm Hg). It is dried till it dries completely. The final product is highly
hygroscopic and excellent in taste and flavour. Mango pulp, concentrate,
passion fruit juice, and guava pulp are dehydrated by this method.
The freeze dryer uses the principle that a high vacuum (27-133 Pa pressure)
allows frozen water to be removed from the food and collected without passing
through the liquid phase. Since the material is frozen, there is no heat damage.
vi. Osmotic dehydration: Fruits that are highly acidic and have a sensitive
aroma can be dried using osmotic dehydration. In this method, the fruits are
kept in a hypertonic solution of 70°Brix syrup for 4 hours after initial treatment.
During this, water seeps into the syrup due to osmosis. About 50% of the
moisture is removed from the fruit in the can process. The fruits are then
removed from the sugar syrup, washed, and dried in a hot air dryer to the
desired moisture content. During osmotic drying, the acid from the fruit is
released into the sugar syrup while some sugar enters the fruit, thus the final
product achieves the required sugar-acid balance. Apricots, grapes, apples, etc.
can be dried by the osmotic method.
 Lecture – 13
Canning and Packaging of Products
Canning
The term canning refers to a process in which foods are heated in hermetically
sealed containers for a specific time at a specific temperature in order to
eliminate microbial pathogens that are not safe for public health and micro-
organisms as well as for enzymes that deteriorate the food during storage.
Currently, a large number of fruits, vegetables, meats, sauces, and confectionery
products are preserved by canning. The canning industry has great potential for
growth as it is a process that does not use any chemicals in the preservation.
Steps of canning fruits and vegetables
1. Selection/Procurement of Raw Materials: For canning, fruits should be
uniformly ripe, firm, and free from defects, insect damage, and deformities.
Thus, harvesting at proper maturity is an important step in the selection of raw
materials for canning.
 Apples, pears, peaches, and bananas harvested at the ripe stage are preferred
for canning.
 Overripe fruits yield a poor-quality product, while under-ripe/immature fruits
generally shrink or become hard during canning.
 Vegetables except for peas, beans, etc. are harvested at the mature stage so
that they can tolerate heat during sterilization.
 Vegetables like green beans, green peas, and okra should be soft and free
from soil, dirt, etc.
 Tomatoes should be hard, fully ripe, and evenly dark red in colour.
2. Washing: Fruits and vegetables are generally washed with water to remove
dust, dirt, and surface micro-flora. Fruits like peaches, apricots, etc. are peeled
off so they are not washed before peeling. On the other hand, washing after
peeling removes vitamins and minerals so it should not be done. Various
methods of washing include soaking or agitating in water, washing with cold or
hot water spray, etc.
 Detergents are often used for washing in water.
 Vegetables can be soaked in a dilute solution of potassium permanganate or
chlorine (25-50 ppm) for disinfection.
 3. Sorting and Grading: Sorting and grading ensures the removal of inferior or
damaged items. Inspection belts can also be used for sorting, along with trained
personnel, who remove inferior quality products unsuitable for canning.
 Fruits and vegetables are graded after initial sorting to obtain a uniform
quality with respect to size, colour, etc.
 An automatic color sorting machine can be used to reduce labour costs.
 For mechanical grading, fruits and vegetables are passed over a screen with
holes of different diameters.
 Soft and berry fruits are generally graded by hand or manually.
4. Peeling, Coring, and Pitting: These are the primary operations for preparing
fruits and vegetables for canning. Depending on the type of fruit or vegetable,
peeling and coring methods are selected such as (1) by hand or knife (2) by
machine (3) by heat treatment (4) by using lay solution. In fruits like apples,
peaches, apricots, etc., the core and pits are removed by hand or by machine
(de-corer).
Peeling of Fruits and Vegetables
5. Cutting/halving/ slicing: After peeling, the fruits are halved or cored either
manually or mechanically. However, peeled fruit should always be kept
submerged in either water, containing 1-2 % salt solution or acid to avoid
enzymatic browning. Peaches, apricot, pears, tomatoes, etc are peeled before
canning. However, the fruits which are canned retain better nutrients as
compared to peeled fruits.
6. Blanching: Treatment of fruit and vegetables with boiling water or steam for
short periods followed by immediate cooling prior to canning is called
blanching. The basic objectives of blanching are as follows:
 To deactivate enzymes
 To reduce the microbial load clean the product initially and heat the product
before processing
 Cans to soften tissue to facilitate compact packing
 To remove the intracellular gases in the unripe fruit to prevent excessive
pressure build-up in the container.
 For better heat transfer during heat processing
 To ensure vacuum in the can and reduce internal can corrosion.
Blanching is done either with hot water or by using steam. Water blanching is
generally of immersion type or spray type as the product moves on a conveyor.
Only soft water should be used for blanching as hard water hardens the tissues
and destroys the natural texture.
7. Prevention of browning: Some fruits cannot be blanched due to their
delicate tissue structure, treated with certain chemicals to prevent oxidative
browning caused by exposure to oxygen during peeling and slicing. Oxidative
browning is caused by the action of catechol and oxidase enzymes with tannins
 and is seen in peaches, apples, potatoes, mushrooms, cherries, apricots, grapes,
and persimmons.
8. Filling in cans: Tin cans are washed in hot water or steam jets to remove any
clinging dust or other substances. The can is then sterilized by immersing it in a
hot water tank or the can is passed through a steam sterilizing tunnel before use.
Generally, plain cans are used, however, for colorful fruits such as plums, black
grapes, strawberries, etc; lacquered cans are used. Fruits and vegetables are
packed in either slices, halves, or wholes, keeping in mind the weight.
9. Syruping or brining: Cans are filled with hot sugar syrup (35-55%) for
fruits and hot brine (2-10%) concentrates for vegetables. The purpose of
syruping or brining is to help with the transfer of heat within the food pieces
during processing. It also improves the taste of the canned product, filling the
gap between the fruits or vegetables in the can. The syrup or brine is filled into
the can at a temperature of 79-82°C, leaving 0.32-0.47cm of head space.
10. Exhausting: Exhausting is a unit operation in which practically all the air is
removed from the contents of the can before sealing. The purpose of creating
exhaust and vacuum is to create an anaerobic environment in the can that will
prevent spoilage by micro-organisms. Removing air from the material also
reduces the risk of corrosion of the tin plate and pin holing and discoloration of
the can material. The exhaust helps in better retention of Vitamin C. The
expansion and shrinking of the contents during heating help to avoid over-
filling of the can. (Corn and peas expand when boiled in salted water, while
strawberries shrink when heated in sugar syrup). The vacuum in the can
prevents the can from bulging during storage at high temperatures or in a hot
environment. It also prevents excessive pressure and tension during
sterilization.
There are usually three methods to exhaust the can to remove the headspace gas
and create a vacuum.
a. Heat/Thermal Exhausting: In this method the can cover with a lid or
loosely sealed; the can is passed through a hot water tank of about 82-87 oC or
through a covered steam box on a moving belt. In the water exhaust box, the
cans are placed in such a way that the water level remains 1.3-2.5 cm below
their top. The exhaust time can range from 5 to 25 minutes depending on the
nature of the product. At the end of the exhaust, the temperature in the center
of the can should be around 79 oC. During exhaust, steam replaces the air
inside the can and is sealed only when heated.
b. Steam flow or steam-vacuum closure: In this system, high-pressure steam
(at 100°C for 5-8 minutes) is injected into the can headspace just before
closing. Thus, all the air inside the can is quickly replaced by steam, which
will condense and create a vacuum after sealing. Steam vacuum closure with
hot fill creates a lot of vacuum in the can.
c. Mechanical vacuum sealing: In high-speed mechanical vacuum sealing,
cans filled with product and covering syrup or brine are passed inside a
 clincher that clinches the cans (the first operation is the roll seam) but does
not have an airtight seal. The cans are subject to be vacuumed for a short time
period to remove the headspace air. However, some syrup may also be
released along with the dissolved air during this process. To avoid syrup
spillage, a pre-vacuuming step is recommended prior to vacuum closing.
High vacuum closing is also used for glass jars where the jars are kept in a
closed chamber in which a high vacuum is maintained.
11. Seaming/Closing: Immediately after exhausting, the box is sealed using a
double seamer.
It is necessary to close the container immediately to prevent excessive cooling
of the surface of the product. Double seamers are of different designs and
capacities such as hand-operated, semi-automatic, and fully automatic. Modern
double seamers operate at high speed (300 cans per minute) while liquid
products are sealed in the can at a speed of 1600 cans per minute.
12. Coding/Embossing: The coding on the lid of the can is required to identify
it after it is closed. The code provides essential information about the product
such as the name of the canning unit, the product packed in the can, the date of
packing; lot number, etc. The coding is done on the second lid (end cover) of
the can just before sealing.
13. Heat processing: After sealing, the contents of the cans are immediately
transferred to heating retorts to be sterilized. In heat processing, containers are
heated at a predetermined time and temperature to eliminate all possibilities of
spoilage by microorganisms. Overheating should be avoided as it spoils the
texture, taste, and appearance of the product. Generally, all fruits and acidic
vegetables can be processed satisfactorily in boiling water (100 oC) because the
presence of acid inhibits the growth of bacteria and their spores. Whereas non-
acidic vegetables (except tomatoes and rhubarb) are processed under pressure at
a high temperature of about 115-121 oC. This is done to ensure that the required
temperature is reached at the center of the can. The temperature in the center of
the can must be maintained long enough to destroy the spores of the more heat-
resistant bacteria.
Processing methods vary according to the type of fruits and vegetables to be
processed. Most fruits and vegetables with acid (pH < 4.5) cans are heated in
open cookers, non-agitating cookers, and continuously agitating cookers.
14. Cooling: Immediately after processing, the sealed cans are rapidly cooled to
about 35-40°C to stop the cooking process and to avoid burning the stock.
Prolonged heating results in a poor and uneven product, such as peaches and
pears darken, tomatoes brown and become bitter in taste while peas become
mushy with over-ripe. Cooling is done by submerging or passing a hot can in
cold water tanks, spraying the can with a jet of cold water, pouring cold water
into a pressure cooker, or exposing cans to air. The water used for cooling must
be non-corrosive, free of bacteria and yeast, and chlorinated.
15. Storage: After cooling, the cans are stacked to allow the outer surface to
dry, as even a small amount of moisture is prone to rust. The cans are then
labeled either manually or using a labeling machine and packed in a wooden or
cardboard box. They should be stored in a cool and dry place (below 30°C).
Adequately processed cans usually ensure acceptable product quality for at least
one year. Storage of cans at high temperatures should be avoided to prevent
thermophilic growth and the risk of spoilage.
Fruit and vegetable bottling
Bottles have proven to be very good containers for home preservation of fruits.
Although their initial cost is high, they can be used multiple times and last for
many years if handled carefully. The fruits look attractive through the glass and
do not develop a metallic taste. Bottling does not require a sealing machine but
is not suitable from the manufacturer’s point of view as the initial capital
requirement is high. There are many types of glass containers of various sizes
and forms and with different types of hermetic seals.

Process for bottling

 The bottles are thoroughly washed and disinfected.
 Fruit slices are filled leaving about 3 cm space at the top of the jar or bottle.
 The boiling hot sugar syrup recommended for various fruits is filled leaving
1-1.5 cm of head space.
 Exhausting and Sterilizing: Bottles do not require separate exhaust and are
sterilized simultaneously by applying cloth pads (false bottom) to the bottom
of the bottles.
 Bottles should not be suddenly immersed in hot water, otherwise, they may
break due to a sudden rise in temperature. The temperature of the water
should be the same as that of the contents and should be increased gradually
and the bottles should be placed in boiling water for the required amount of
time.
 At the beginning of sterilization, the lids are left loose and the boiling water
level should reach the neck of the bottle.
 When the sterilization process is over, the mouths of bottles and jars should
be tightly closed immediately.
 The bottles are cooled and the bottles are labeled after drying. Products
preserved in bottles require more attractive labels.
 Store in a cool and dry place.

Packaging
The packing of fruits and vegetables and their processed products also play an
important role in daily life. Packaging can be defined as; “techno-economic”
function that minimizes the cost of distribution while maximizing sales. It is an
integrated system of packaging goods for transportation, distribution, storage,
retailing and use. Packaging plays an important role in protection, preservation
and transportation.
Watch Lecture Video
Importance of Packaging:
 Food packaging is an integral part of food processing and is the link between
the food processor and the consumer.
 Packaging material protects foods from dehydration, oxidation, light, taste
loss, environmental factors, and mechanical damage.
 Packaging provides facilities for storage, loading, transportation, handling for
long periods of time for both the producer and the consumer.
 A package is a convenience item for the consumer, it can also be a cost-
saving tool.

Methods of packaging / Packing:

(1) Edible film packaging:

An edible film or coating can be defined as only a thin continuous layer of food
material, which is formed on or between food substances or food components. It
is an integral part of a packaged food, which can be eaten as part of a whole
food product. The selection of materials for use in food packaging is based on
the properties of acting as a barrier to moisture and gases, mechanical strength,
physical properties, and resistance to microbial growth. Materials used for food
packaging include lipids, proteins, and polysaccharides, or a combination of any
or all of these.
The most common form of coating fruits and vegetables is a wax coating to
prevent respiration, dehydration, and aging. The selected food films should
meet the requirements such as Physico-chemical and microbial stability, good
sensory properties, high carrier, and mechanical capacity, toxic-free and safe for
health, simple technology, non-polluting, and low cost of material and process.

(2) Modified humid packaging:

Mostly used for highly perishable items such as green leafy vegetables. Humid
packaging systems are designed to control not only dehydration but also
condensation. The use of water absorbers such as CaCl 2, sorbitol, or xylitol in
the package or packaging with good permeability is able to provide the required
modified humidity system.

(3) Protective packaging:

Protective packaging is the term used for packaging that is primarily designed to
protect the product rather than for appearance or presentation, so is usually used
in outer containers that are intended for sale by the manufacturer. Used inside
the container to transport goods to the point of sale. For example, nylon barrier,
sealed bubble packaging.

(4) Shrinkwrap / Individual seal packaging:

Individual seal packaging uses heat-shrinkable wrappers (usually HDPE) that
are wrapped with hot air around individual units of fruits and vegetables. Hot air
shrinks the packaging cover. This packaging delays ripening by the micro-
environment that surrounds the product. This packaging acts as a good barrier to
water.
It also prevents the spread of disease from one product to another, improves
product handling and hygiene, and facilitates the pricing and labeling of
individual products. However, problems with gas exchange and high RH can
result in a foul odor in the product.

(5) Active packaging:

Another way to modify the environment of the pack is to use “active packing”.
That packaging is said to be “active” when it serves some desired role as well as
providing a passive barrier to the external environment. The goal of this type of
packaging is to create a more perfect match of package properties to food
requirements. A variety of materials are used for this purpose. Active packaging
can be made using oxygen scavengers, carbon-di-oxide absorbers/emitters,
ethanol emitters, and ethylene absorbers. A suitable absorbent material is placed
alongside the fresh produce. Which contributes to the extension of the shelf life
of fresh produce.

(6) Vacuum Packaging:

Vacuum packaging provides a comprehensive barrier against oxidation,
corrosion, moisture, drying, dust attraction by electric charge, ultraviolet rays
and mechanical damage, fungal growth or destruction, etc. This technique is
very useful for tropical countries with high atmospheric humidity.
In vacuum packaging, the product to be packaged is put into a vacuum bag,
which is then emptied of air by placing in a vacuum chamber and then
hermetically sealed to create a barrier against air and moisture. If some products
cannot tolerate atmospheric pressure due to the vacuum inside the package, the
packages are then filled with inert gases such as nitrogen and CO 2 after being
emptied.
Vacuum packaging prevents food from burning in the freezer by preventing
exposure to cold, dry air.

(7) Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP)

It refers to a storage environment that differs from the normal environment in
composition in which the constituent gases are precisely adjusted to specific
concentrations and maintained during the storage and distribution of perishable
foods. Controlled atmosphere storage involves continuous measurement of the
composition of the atmosphere and injecting suitable gases or gas mixtures into
it when needed. Therefore, the system requires artificial equipment to monitor
gas levels and is therefore only practically for refrigerated bulk storage or
shipment of items in large containers. If the composition of the environment in
the CA system is not closely controlled or if the storage environment is
modified incorrectly, there is a risk of product degradation.

(8) Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)

Unlike CAP, MAP has no means to precisely control atmospheric components
at a specific concentration once the package is tightly closed. A modified
environment state is created by a commodity inside the package or by active
modification. Passive MA develops as a result of the respiration of the
commodity. The active modification involves creating a slight vacuum inside
the package and replacing it with the desired mixture of gases so that the desired
EMA (Equilibrated Modified Atmosphere) can be quickly created from a
passive MA. Another technique is the use of carbon dioxide or ethyl scavengers
within the package to prevent the build-up of the special gas within the active
modification package. This method is called active packaging. In addition to
these, compounds such as hydrated lime, activated charcoal, magnesium oxide
are used to absorb carbon dioxide, potassium permanganate and phenyl methyl
silicon can be used to absorb ethylene within the package. These absorbents can
be placed in small pouches or wrappers within the package. For active
respiration items such as fruits and vegetables, the concentrations of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the package’s environment must be appropriate for them. In
general, the concentration of 2-5% oxygen and 3.8% carbon dioxide for fruits
and vegetables in MA packaging extends the shelf life. If the shelf life of an
item is one day in CA storage, using MAP will double the shelf life of an item
at 20-25 °C, while refrigeration can extend the shelf life to 3 days, and
combined with MAP and Refrigeration can extend this to four days. There are
necessarily certain types of films used for MAP. These include polyvinyl
chloride, (PVC), polystyrene, (PS), polyethylene (PE), and polypropylene (PP).
Packaging material for fruits and vegetables
Fruits and vegetable packages can be mainly classified into two types
1. Consumer/retail pack
2. Transport/bulk pack

1. Consumer/retail pack:
Consumer packages are smaller in size and designed to hold half a dozen to 1
dozen fruits or half to 2 kg of vegetables. There is a wide variety of packaging
materials and forms available to be used as consumer packs. The selection
criteria of packing material for consumer packs depend on the marketing
characteristics of the product. The most commonly used packaging materials for
consumer packages are:

(1) Flexible plastic films:

Various types of flexible plastic films LDPE (Low-Density Poly Ethylene),
PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride), PP (Poly Propylene), and cellulose acetate films are
used for packing. These films are mostly used in the form of pouches in which
holes are made at regular intervals for respiration. These are available in various
thicknesses and grades and can be used to control the gases inside the pouch.
LDPE is the most widely used material.

(2) Trays with overwrap:

The packing tray is usually made of molded pulp tray or plastic material such as
PVC and PP. The product is placed in separate holes to protect the product from
abrasion and injury during transportation. These trays also provide cushioning
to the product.
Overwrap film is a transparent, food-grade, odorless plastic film that has the
nature of sticking to the packaged product when wrapped. This film does not
require hot air to stick to the product. This film is usually made of LDPE or
PVC. These films are semi-permeable and assist in the exchange of gases for
the respiration of the product.

(3) Plastic punnets:

These are sturdy, versatile, clear, shiny containers that provide visibility to the
product and holes for ventilation, keeping the product fresh.
These containers are food-grade, odorless, light in weight, recyclable, and also
provide good product presentation. These are made of either PET (Poly
Ethylene Terephthalate), PVC, or PP.

(4) Plastic net bags:

Plastic net bags have the flexibility to expand and adjust to all sizes and shapes
of the product. These bags are available in roll form or in precise lengths with
widths of 200mm – 400mm. By circulating air in and around the product; net
bags increase the freshness and shelf life of the product. These packs prevent
product spoilage and wastage by eliminating condensation. Clear visibility in
these packs gives a boost to sales from the natural colors of the product. These
are generally made of HDPE or PA (polyamide).

(5) Foam sleeve:

This is a plastic tubular film made of polyethylene foam and available in
various colors, diameters, and lengths. It can be easily slipped over individual
fruits in a gummy form. It acts as cushioning and protects fresh produce from
abrasion and scratches during transport. It is clean, non-toxic, and odorless.

(6) Wrapping shrinkable film:

Films such as polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene, and rubber
hydrochloride can be converted into shrink films by molecular orientation
methods. After the shrink film is applied to the filled tray or tubular, the
package is passed through a heat tunnel to shrink film on it. This keeps the
object stable to reduce the possibility of physical damage during handling.

2. Transport or bulk packs:

Transport or bulk packages are designed for long-distance transport in
capacities ranging from 5 kg to 20-25 kg. These packs have to withstand
impact, compression, and vibration during transportation.
Rigid such as wooden boxes, corrugated fiberboard boxes, plastic boxes, and
flexible containers such as plastic sacks are mainly used for transportation or
bulk packing. Along with these materials, some traditional materials jute (jute
sacks) and baskets made of woven strips of leaves, bamboo, plastic, etc. are also
used.

(1) Natural materials

Baskets and other traditional containers made of natural materials – bamboo,
straw, palm leaves, etc. are used in developing countries. If containers are made
well they can be reused which generally reduces both raw material and labor
costs.
Dis-advantages:
1) They are difficult to clean when contaminated with decaying micro-
organisms.
2) They lack rigidity and are also misshaped in long-distance transportation.
3) They do not load properly due to their size.
4) They can cause pressure damage when tightly packed.
5) They often have sharp edges that cause wound and piercing damage.

(2) Wooden boxes/Crates:

Traditional baskets have been replaced by wooden boxes as they provide better
protection to fresh produce against hazards during transportation. They have
high puncture resistance.
Wooden crates are rigid and reusable and, if made to standard sizes, therefore
can be loaded easily into trucks.
However, nowadays efforts are being made to reduce the use of wooden boxes
as it encourages deforestation.
Dis-advantages:
1) They are difficult to clean enough for more than one use
2) They are heavy and expensive to transport
3) They have sharp edges, splinters, and protruding nails that require some sort
of bedding to protect the material.
4) Nails hurt the product during long transportation.
5) They take up more space and are heavier.

(3) Card board (fibre board)/corrugated fibre board boxes:

These containers are made of solid or corrugated cardboard. The types that are
closed with a fold-over or telescopic (detached) top are called boxes or cases.
The shallow and open-top ones are called trays. Boxes that have a folding
opening and closing that lie flat and are installed by the user. Installing and
closing boxes requires tapping, affixing, stapling, or fixing interlocking tabs.
These are used to transport tomatoes, cucumbers, and ginger. They are easy to
handle, light in weight, come in different sizes, designs, strengths, and different
colors which can make the product more attractive to the consumers. These
have good cushioning properties, low cost, reusable, easy setup and good
printability on the outer surface of the board, smooth and non-abrasive surface.
Ventilation can be provided by punching holes. Since these boxes tend to
deform from moisture, they are nowadays laminated with a plastic film such as
LDPE, PP, or PVC. Plastic corrugated boxes made from PP and HDPE are
replacing CFB boxes partly because of their lower weight-to-strength ratio,
higher level of water resistance, and is reusable. However, its cushioning
properties cannot be compared to a CFB box
Dis-advantages:
1) If they are used only once, they can cost more.
2) They are easily damaged by careless handling and high stacking
3) Weak, and become damaged when exposed to moisture
4) These boxes are often less sturdy than wooden or plastic boxes, although
trays of various thicknesses are very widely used.
5) They can be ordered economically only in large quantities; Small quantities
can be expensive.

(4) Moulded plastic crates:

Reusable crates molded from high-density polyethylene are widely used to
transport products. They can be made according to almost any specification.
They are strong, hard, smooth, easy to clean, and can be assembled empty to
save space and stacked when filled with produce. The collapsible crates reduce
storage space requirements and transportation costs when empty. Normally their
capacity is between 20-40 kg.
Dis-advantages:
1) They can be produced economically only in large numbers but still they are
expensive.
2) They have to be imported into most of the developing countries, increasing
the cost
3) They often have many alternative uses (such as wash tubs) and therefore
have high theft rates.
4) They require a tight system and control for regular departure and return
5) They deteriorate rapidly when exposed to sunlight.

(5) Natural and synthetic fibres:

Sacks or bags for fresh produce can be made from natural fibers such as jute,
sisal, synthetic polypropylene, polyethylene fibers. ‘Bag’ usually refers to small
containers up to a capacity of about 5 kg. They are woven into one texture and
more than one type of fiber can be used. Natural nets usually have a capacity of
about 15 kg while synthetic nets are of greater capacity. Bags or sacks are
mostly used for products that are not easily damaged such as potatoes, sweet
potatoes, onions, but these crops should also be handled with care to avoid
injury.
These are very useful due to their low cost, high strength, reusability and
require less space even when empty.
Dis–advantages
1) It is less rigid and can damage the handling material.
2) They are often too large to be handled with care; Dropping or throwing the
sacks will cause serious damage to the material.
3) If the sacks are finely woven, there is poor ventilation.
4) They can be so smooth in texture that the stack becomes unstable and
collapse.

(6) Paper or plastic film:

Paper or plastic film is often used as a thin layer in packing boxes to reduce
water loss from the material or prevent friction damage.
Paper sacks can have walls of up to six layers of kraft (heavy wrapping) paper.
These can have a capacity of around 25 kg and are used for relatively low-value
products. The top can be closed by machine sewing (recommended for large-
scale crop production) or by twisting the wire around the top through a simple
tool in the field.
Dis-advantages:
1) Paper walls are permeable by water or vapors and gases (walls can be
waterproofed by applying plastic film or foil)
2) The heat from sacks of fresh produce can slow down, causing damage to fruit
or leafy vegetables.
3) Plastic film bags or wraps are used because of their low cost, widely used in
fruit and vegetable marketing, especially in consumer packs.