Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Environmental Law - Summary Notes 10JUL2023
Environmental Law - Summary Notes 10JUL2023
Environmental Law - Summary Notes 10JUL2023
Environmental Laws
Hemant Patil
GLC 2025
4/18/2023
Contents
1. Evolution of Environmental Protection Law .......................................................... 3
2. Meaning & purpose of the Environmental Laws ...................................................... 3
3. Environment .............................................................................................. 3
4. Central Government Powers (EPA, 1986) ............................................................. 4
5. Provisions of environment protection under the IPC and CPC ..................................... 5
6. Section-wise Summary of Key Acts .................................................................... 7
7. Roots of various Environmental Laws ................................................................. 7
8. Water Act key provisions ................................................................................ 7
9. Offenses and penalties under Water Act ........................................................... 10
10. Air Act key provisions.................................................................................. 11
11. Offences & Penalties under Air Act.................................................................. 13
12. Environmental Protection Act key provisions ...................................................... 15
13. Indian Forest Act, 1927 key provisions .............................................................. 17
14. Forest Conservation Act (1980) key provisions ..................................................... 18
15. National Green Tribunal Act (2010) key provisions................................................ 19
16. Pollution Control Board Functions (Water Act, 1974) ............................................. 21
17. Constitutional provisions for environment protection and conservation ....................... 21
18. Wild life Act 1972 (Provisions & Salient Features) ................................................ 22
19. Wild Life Protection Act (Hunting) .................................................................. 24
20. Wild Life Protection Act (National Parks) .......................................................... 24
21. Provisions for effluents (EPA, 1986) ................................................................. 26
22. Sustainable development – Principles and Salient features ...................................... 27
23. Joint Pollution Control Board (Air Act) – Composition & functions ............................. 29
24. Sample Certification Process (Water Act) .......................................................... 29
25. Sample Certification Process (Air Act) .............................................................. 30
26. PIL & Judicial Activism in Environment Protection (through case law) ........................ 30
27. Penal provisions under the Water Act ............................................................... 31
28. Penal provisions under the Air Act................................................................... 31
29. Central Board Functions (Water Act) ................................................................ 32
30. Central Board Functions (Air Act) .................................................................... 32
31. Strict & Absolute Liability in Environment Protection Laws ..................................... 33
32. Noise Pollution Rules – Effective in true sense?.................................................... 33
33. Polluter Pays Principle ................................................................................ 34
34. Precautionary Principle ............................................................................... 35
35. Environmental Impact Assessment ................................................................... 35
36. Intergenerational and Intragenerational Duty ..................................................... 36
37. Public Trust Doctrine .................................................................................. 36
Page 1 of 49
38. Ratlam Municipality Case ............................................................................. 36
39. Forest Categories (Forest Act) ....................................................................... 37
40. Green House Effects ................................................................................... 37
41. Offenses by companies (Air Act) ..................................................................... 38
42. Environment Audit report ............................................................................. 38
43. Oleum gas leak case ................................................................................... 39
44. Treatment and disposal of bio-medical waste ..................................................... 39
45. Eco-labeling scheme ................................................................................... 40
46. Hazardous Waste Rules ................................................................................ 40
47. Bio-medical Waste ..................................................................................... 41
48. Power of Entry and Inspection (Air) ................................................................. 42
49. Stockholm Conference ................................................................................ 43
50. Rio-di-Janeiro conference ............................................................................ 44
51. Kyoto Protocol, Montreal Protocol and Convention on Biological Diversity.................... 44
52. Johannesburg Declaration ............................................................................ 45
53. Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals........................... 45
54. Ozone Depleting Substances Rules 2014 ............................................................ 47
55. National Green Tribunal............................................................................... 47
56. Solid Waste Management Rules 2016 ................................................................ 47
57. Key Case Laws .......................................................................................... 48
58. Disclaimer ............................................................................................... 49
Page 2 of 49
Evolution of Environmental Protection Law
The evolution of environmental protection law in India can be traced back to the colonial era, when
the British government enacted laws to regulate forests and wildlife. After independence in 1947,
the Indian government took steps to protect the environment and enacted several laws and
regulations to address various environmental issues.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 was the first major environmental law
enacted by the Indian government. The Act was passed to prevent and control water pollution and
to maintain or restore the wholesomeness of water. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1981 was enacted to regulate air pollution and to maintain or improve the quality of air. In 1986,
the Indian government enacted the Environment Protection Act, which provides the framework for
the management and protection of the environment. The Act established the Ministry of Environment
and Forests and the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to regulate and monitor pollution control
activities. The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 was enacted to protect wildlife and their habitats, and
to prevent the extinction of endangered species. The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 was enacted to
conserve forests and to regulate diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes. In 1991, the National
Biodiversity Act was enacted to conserve India's biodiversity and to regulate access to genetic
resources. The Biological Diversity Rules, 2004 were also enacted to provide for the management and
conservation of biological resources. The Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989
were enacted to regulate the handling, transportation, and disposal of hazardous waste. The
Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 were enacted to regulate the
management and handling of municipal solid waste.
In recent years, the Indian government has enacted several laws and regulations to address emerging
environmental issues, such as climate change and e-waste. The National Action Plan on Climate
Change was launched in 2008, which outlines the government's strategy to address climate change.
The E-Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2016 were enacted to regulate the management and
handling of electronic waste. This is because the consumers focus on the use, not its safe recycling.
Environmental laws are a set of rules and regulations enacted by governments to protect the
environment and preserve natural resources. These laws regulate human activities that can harm the
environment and promote sustainable development. The main purpose of environmental laws is to
maintain the balance between human needs and environmental protection. The meaning of
environmental laws is broad, covering a wide range of legal frameworks and regulations such as
pollution control, waste management, biodiversity conservation, natural resource management, and
environmental impact assessment. These laws are designed to ensure that human activities do not
cause irreparable damage to the environment, and that the sustainable use of natural resources is
maintained. The primary objectives of environmental laws are as follows:
Environment
The environment can be defined as the sum total of physical, chemical, and biological factors that
surround and interact with living organisms. It includes air, water, soil, flora, fauna, and other natural
resources that are essential for life on Earth. The quality of the environment is influenced by various
Page 3 of 49
factors such as natural phenomena, human activities, and global events. The components of the
environment include:
1. Atmosphere: The layer of air that surrounds the Earth, which consists of different gases such
as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor.
2. Hydrosphere: The water component of the Earth, which includes oceans, rivers, lakes, and
groundwater.
3. Lithosphere: The solid component of the Earth, which includes rocks, minerals, and soil.
4. Biosphere: The living component of the Earth, which includes all living organisms such as
plants and animals.
Pollution is the presence of harmful substances in the environment. There are different kinds of
pollution, such as:
1. Air pollution: The presence of harmful substances in the air, such as particulate matter,
nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, and carbon monoxide.
2. Water pollution: The presence of harmful substances in water bodies, such as industrial
waste, sewage, and agricultural chemicals.
3. Soil pollution: The presence of harmful substances in soil, such as pesticides, heavy metals,
and radioactive materials.
Global warming and climate change are two of the most significant environmental concerns of our
time. Global warming refers to the increase in the Earth's surface temperature, while climate change
refers to the changes in the Earth's climate patterns, including temperature, rainfall, and wind
patterns. These phenomena are mainly caused by human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and
deforestation. Environmental protection laws aim to preserve the quality of the environment and
protect it from pollution and degradation. In India, various laws and regulations have been enacted
to protect the environment, such as the Water Act, Air Act and the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986. These laws provide for the regulation of pollution, the protection of natural resources, and the
prevention of environmental degradation.
Remember: Environment & Economy are interdependent. Factors affecting our environment include
industrial revolution (indiscriminate use of natural resources and improper disposal of waste),
agriculture (pesticides) & changing lifestyle led by consumerism. Trail Smelter Case (1941) between
Canada & US (Canadian Industrial Unit pollution affecting people right upto Washington) fixed
transboundary pollution responsibility to originating state as nonstate has boundary to hurt other
states & its residents through damaging fumes/pollution. This landmark case was a beginning of
International Environmental laws. Sources of International laws per Article 38 (1) of International
Court of Justice include Treaties & conventions (Bilateral, Regional or Multilateral. They address
specific point issues only), Customs and general principles recognized by civilized nations (Primary
sources), and judicial decisions (Secondary sources).
Page 4 of 49
c. Issue widest possible powers to Central Government to protect & improve
environment
d. Create authorities
e. Provide deterrence to environmental damages
Concentration of powers in the hands of Central Government is the main feature of EPA. It empowers
the Central Government with several powers and provisions to ensure that the objectives of the Act
are achieved. Here are some of the key powers and provisions for the Central Government under the
Environmental Protection Act, 1986:
1. Regulation of Industries: The Act empowers the Central Government to regulate industries
to prevent and control pollution. The Central Government can issue directions to industries
to maintain environmental standards, monitor their compliance, and take action against non-
compliance.
2. Setting Standards for Emissions and Effluents: The Act empowers the Central Government
to set standards for emissions and effluents from industrial and other sources. The Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate
Change is responsible for developing and enforcing these standards.
3. Prohibition and Restriction of Industries: The Act empowers the Central Government to
prohibit or restrict the location of industries in certain areas to prevent environmental
pollution. It can also prohibit the setting up or expansion of any industry that may cause
environmental pollution.
4. Declaration of Pollution Control Areas: The Central Government can declare any area as a
"pollution control area" where the pollution levels exceed the prescribed limits. The CPCB
can also notify such areas in consultation with the concerned state government.
5. Power to Take Action against Violations: The Act empowers the Central Government to take
action against any person, industry or authority for violating the provisions of the Act. The
Central Government can impose penalties, issue directions, and even close down industries
that violate environmental laws.
6. Power to Appoint Officers: The Central Government can appoint officers for the purpose of
carrying out the provisions of the Act. The officers can inspect industrial units, collect
samples, and take action against violators.
7. Power to Make Rules: The Act empowers the Central Government to make rules for carrying
out the provisions of the Act. These rules can relate to the handling of hazardous substances,
the management of solid waste and biomedical waste, and the prevention and control of air
and water pollution.
8. Coordination with State Governments: The Central Government can coordinate with state
governments to ensure effective implementation of the Act. The Central Government can
provide technical and financial assistance to the state governments for carrying out the
provisions of the Act.
Page 5 of 49
in a public way or line of navigation. This section can be used to prosecute individuals or
companies that cause pollution of water bodies or block public roads with hazardous waste.
5. Public nuisance (S290): This section provides for punishment for anyone who does any act
or is guilty of any omission that causes any common injury, danger, or annoyance to the
public or to the people in general who dwell or occupy the property in the vicinity. This
section can be used to prosecute individuals or companies that cause pollution of air, water,
or land, or engage in any activity that creates a public nuisance.
6. Causing death by negligence (S304A): This section provides for punishment for anyone who
causes the death of another person by doing any rash or negligent act that endangers human
life. This section can be used to prosecute individuals or companies that cause environmental
pollution that leads to the death of individuals.
The Civil Procedure Code (CPC) and the Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC) are two important procedural
laws that govern the process for the resolution of civil and criminal disputes in India respectively.
Both the CPC and CrPC contain several provisions related to environmental protection. Here are some
of the key provisions related to environmental protection under these laws:
1. CPC - Order I Rule 8: Representation of numerous persons in one suit: This provision allows
multiple individuals to join together and file a lawsuit against a common defendant. This
provision is particularly relevant in environmental cases where a group of individuals may be
affected by a common environmental issue.
2. CrPC - Section 133: Conditional order for removal of nuisance: This section provides for a
conditional order for the removal of a public nuisance that is causing danger or injury to the
health or physical comfort of the public. This section can be used to address environmental
pollution caused by individuals or companies.
3. CPC - Order VI Rule 17: Amendment of pleadings: This provision allows the court to permit
an amendment of the pleadings in a lawsuit. This provision is useful in environmental cases
where new evidence or information comes to light during the course of the proceedings.
4. CrPC - Section 144: Power to issue order in urgent cases of nuisance or apprehended
danger: This section provides for the power to issue an order in urgent cases of nuisance or
apprehended danger to the public. This section can be used to address situations where there
is an imminent threat to the environment or public health.
5. CPC - Order XX Rule 12: Decree for injunction: This provision allows the court to issue an
injunction, which is a court order that prohibits a party from engaging in a particular activity.
In environmental cases, this provision can be used to prevent individuals or companies from
engaging in activities that may continue to cause irreparable environmental harm.
6. CrPC - Section 268: Public nuisance: This section makes it an offense to commit a public
nuisance. This provision can be used to address situations where an individual or company is
causing environmental pollution that is affecting the health or physical comfort of the public.
7. CPC - Order XXI Rule 32: Sale of property before judgment: This provision allows the court
to order the sale of property before a judgment is rendered. This provision can be used in
environmental cases where an individual or company may be required to sell assets to pay
for environmental remediation or compensation to affected parties.
8. CrPC - Section 15: Jurisdiction of criminal courts in environmental cases: This section
provides for the jurisdiction of criminal courts in environmental cases. It allows for the trial
of offenses related to environmental protection under the CrPC.
Page 6 of 49
Section-wise Summary of Key Acts
Page 7 of 49
public health and (Article 48-A) protect, improve environment. Article 51-A (g) assigns fundamental
duty to every citizen to protect & improve natural environments such as lakes, rivers etc. The act
follows command & control approach means lays down standards of effluent discharge and enforce
penalties for non-compliances. The Act was amended in 1988 to make it more comprehensive and
effective. The main sources of water pollution include:
a. Domestic waste (~75% water pollution in India)
b. Industrial Waste (Trade effluents)
c. Insecticides & pesticides
d. Thermal Pollution (raising water temperature, upsets ecological balance), and
e. Radiation waste
The Act provides for the prevention & control of water pollution, the maintenance or restoration of
wholesomeness of water and Establish boards (Central & State Pollution Control Boards) as custodians
of effecting this act. Let me explain the key sections of the Water Pollution Prevention Act in India.
1. Section 2 Definitions This section defines important terms used in the Act. These include
"discharge of sewage or trade effluent," "industrial effluent," "local authority," "pollutant,"
"stream," "well," and "watercourse," among others. The definitions provide clarity and ensure
that there is a common understanding of the terms used in the Act.
A. Pollution refers to the direct or indirect introduction of any substance into water,
land, or air, which can result in harm or deterioration of the environment or any
change in the properties of water, land, or air that may be injurious to human beings,
other living organisms, or property.
B. Sewage effluent means effluent from any sewerage system or sewage disposal works
and includes sullage from open drains;
C. Trade effluent means any liquid waste resulting from any trade or industry, including
manufacturing processes, treatment processes, or cleaning operations, that is
discharged into water bodies.
D. Stream includes river, water course (flowing or for the time being dry), inland water
(natural or artificial), sub-terranean waters and sea or tidal waters
2. Section 3 & 4 Constitution of Central (CPCB) & State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs)
These sections provide for the constitution of CPCBs & SPCBs, which are responsible for
implementing the provisions of the Act. The SPCBs are empowered to advise the state
government (and CPCB to Central Government) on matters related to prevention and control
of water pollution, issue consent to industries for the discharge of effluents, and take action
against polluting industries. In CPCB (and similar structure at SPCBs), a full time Chairman
nominated by Central Government plus (Upto 5 by Centre, Upto 5 from State Boards, Upto 3
of specific interest, upto 2 from PSUs, 1 Full time member secretary – upto a max team of 17
including the Chairman). Section 13 has a provision of a Joint Board combined by Centre & 1
or more State and/or Union Territory.
3. Section 16 & 17 Functions of Central & State Boards
A. Central Board functions include:
a) To promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States by
prevention, control, and abatement of water pollution.
b) To improve the quality of air and to prevent, control, or abate water & air
pollution in the country.
c) To collect, collate, and disseminate technical and statistical data relating to
water and air pollution.
d) To provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Pollution Control
Boards, State Governments, and other concerned agencies on matters related to
prevention and control of water and air pollution.
e) To conduct and promote research and development in the field of water and air
pollution control.
f) To inspect, monitor, and assess the quality of water and air in different parts of
the country.
g) To lay down, modify, or annul, in consultation with the State Governments
concerned, the standards for the quality of water and air.
Page 8 of 49
MC Mehta v. Union of India closure of tanneries discharging trade affluents into the
river Ganges.
B. Functions of state board include:
a) To promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States by
prevention, control, and abatement of water pollution through a comprehensive
program.
b) To improve the quality of air and to prevent, control, or abate water & air
pollution in the State.
c) To collect, collate, and disseminate technical and statistical data relating to
water and air pollution.
d) To provide technical assistance and guidance to the industries, local bodies, and
other concerned agencies on matters related to prevention and control of water
and air pollution.
e) To evolve economical, reliable methods for treatment & utilization of sewage
and trade effluents.
f) To inspect, monitor, and assess the quality of water and air in different parts of
the State.
g) To lay down, modify, or annul, in consultation with the CPCB, the standards for
the quality of water and air.
h) To issue directions to persons carrying on any industry, operation, or process on
matters such as the standards of quality of water to be maintained, the measures
to be taken for the prevention and control of water pollution, and the manner in
which the industry, operation, or process should be carried out to prevent and
control water pollution.
i) To issue directions for the closure, prohibition, or regulation of any industry,
operation, or process that is causing or is likely to cause water pollution.
The CPCB and SPCBs are responsible for the implementation of legislation relating to the
prevention and control of environmental pollution.
4. Section 21 Power to take samples and inspect premises This section empowers the SPCB or
its authorized representative to enter any premises (upon serving the notice), including
industrial establishments, for the purpose of taking samples (in presence of occupier) and
inspecting any control equipment or monitoring apparatus. The section also empowers the
SPCB to take legal action against any person who obstructs the exercise of these powers.
Section 23 empower authorised person by SPCB/CPCB an entry for performing functions
entrusted by the Board such as compliance inspection, examine plant/records/equipment &
procedure.
5. Section 24 Prohibition on the discharge of pollutants This section prohibits the discharge
of any pollutant into a stream, well, or any other watercourse, except under the authority
of a consent granted by the SPCB. The section also empowers the SPCB to impose conditions
on the consent granted, including the quantity and quality of the effluent that can be
discharged. AP SPCB v. MV Nayudu (2001) contravening the provisions of act.
6. Section 25 Restrictions on new outlets and new discharges This section prohibits the
establishment of any new outlet for the discharge of effluent into a stream or well without
the previous consent of the SPCB. The section also prohibits the discharge of any new
pollutants into any stream or well, except under the authority of a consent granted by the
SPCB.
7. Section 22 Analysis of samples and procedure for dealing with samples This section
provides for the analysis of samples taken and the procedure for dealing with the samples.
The section requires the SPCB to provide the person from whom the sample was taken with
a copy of the analysis report and take appropriate action if the analysis reveals that the
effluent is not within the prescribed limits.
8. Section 28 Appeal against the orders of the SPCB This section provides for an appeal against
any order or decision of the SPCB to the Appellate Authority, which is usually a senior officer
in the state government. The appeal must be filed within 30 days of the order or decision.
9. Section 42 to 45 Penalties for contravention of the provisions of the Act These sections
provide for penalties for various contraventions of the provisions of the Act. The penalties
Page 9 of 49
may include imprisonment and/or a fine, depending on the severity of the contravention.
They also provide for enhanced penalties for repeated contraventions.
10. Section 47 Offenses by companies If an offense is committed by a company, every person
who, at the time the offense was committed, was in charge of, and was responsible to, the
company for the conduct of the business of the company, as well as the company, shall be
deemed to be guilty of the offense and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly. Such person can escape liability if he proves his lack of knowledge of such
offense and he took all due-diligence to prevent the commission of such offense. UP PCB v.
Mohan Miakins Ltd – 17 Years lapse is no ground to absolve guilty officers.
11. Section 58 Bar of Jurisdiction: No civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or
proceeding in respect of any matter which an appellate authority constituted under this Act
is empowered by or under this Act to determine, and no injunction shall be granted by any
court or other authority in respect of any action taken or to be taken in pursuance of any
power conferred by or under this Act.
12. Section 63 & 64 Powers of Central & State Governments to make rules: It include:
A. Setting standards
B. Prohibition of activities
C. Licensing & permissions
D. Monitoring & testing
E. Environmental Impact Assessment
F. Compliance & enforcement
Water Cess Act, 1977 augments financial resources for SPCBs through levying of cess on industries,
local authorities & individuals carrying certain businesses. They also offer 25% rebate to those
installing sewage & trade effluent treatment plants. In case of conflict, Environmental Pollution Act
provisions will prevail over the Water Act.
Page 10 of 49
b) Failure to act against defaulters,
c) Low quantum of penalties,
d) Cost of non-compliance is less than cost of compliance leads to non-deterrence,
e) Inadequacy of standards, lack of will & corruption.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 act provides for the prevention, control, and
abatement of air pollution and the establishment of ambient air quality standards. Let me explain
the key sections of the Air Pollution Prevention Act in India:
1. Section 2 include Definitions such as air pollutant, emission, occupier, person, prescribed,
state board, vehicle, and stationary source, among others. The definitions provide clarity
and ensure that there is a common understanding of the terms used in the Act.
1. Air Pollution means the presence of one or more air pollutants in the atmosphere,
resulting from industrial, commercial, agricultural, or other human activities, in
quantities and durations that are detrimental or likely to be detrimental to human
health or the environment.
2. Air Pollutant refers to any solid, liquid, or gaseous substance present in the
atmosphere in quantities that may be harmful or injurious to human beings, animals,
plants, or property, or that may adversely affect the environment or the quality of
air.
3. Approved Appliances refers to any apparatus, equipment, machinery, or device that
has been certified or approved by the Central Pollution Control Board or the State
Pollution Control Board as complying with the emission standards or requirements
specified under the Act.
4. Industrial plant means any plant used for any industrial or trade purposes
and emitting any air pollutant into the atmosphere
5. Occupier refers to any person who has control over any industrial plant, and includes
the owner or operator of the plant.
6. Emission means any solid or liquid or gaseous substance coming out of any
chimney, duct or flue or any other outlet
7. Pollution Control Equipment means any apparatus, device, equipment, or system
used or intended to be used to prevent, control, or reduce the emission of air
pollutants from any source.
8. Chimney includes any structure with an opening or outlet from or through
which any air pollutant may be emitted
2. Section 3 & 4 Constitution of Central & State Pollution Control Boards (CPCB & SPCBs) This
section provides for the constitution of SPCBs in each state and the CPCB at the national
level. The CPCB is responsible for coordinating the activities of the SPCBs and providing
technical assistance to them. The SPCBs are responsible for implementing the provisions of
the Act in the states.
3. Section 15 Delegation of powers: A State Board may, by general or special order, delegate to
the Chairman or the member-secretary or any other officer of the Board subject to such
Page 11 of 49
conditions and limitations, if any, as may be specified in the order, such of its powers and
functions under this Act as it may deem necessary.
4. Section 16 & 17 Functions of Central & State Boards
Central Board Functions
a. Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the
quality of air and the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution.
b. Make efforts for the prevention, abatement, and control of air pollution in the
country and may advise the Central Government on the same.
c. Plan and implement a nationwide program for the prevention, control, and
abatement of air pollution.
d. Improve the quality of air and prevent, control, or abate air pollution.
Page 12 of 49
c) The procedure for the collection of samples of emission is prescribed under Section
26 of the Air Pollution Act. The sample of emission is to be taken by the officer of
the Pollution Control Board in the presence of the person operating the plant or
control equipment or his authorized representative.
d) The officer of the Pollution Control Board shall give notice in writing of his intention
to take a sample of emission to the person operating the plant or control equipment
or his authorized representative.
e) The sample of emission shall be divided into three parts and each part shall be placed
in a clean airtight container and sealed and labelled.
f) The officer of the Pollution Control Board shall send one part of the sample for
analysis to the laboratory established or recognized by the Central or State
Government, one part to the person operating the plant or control equipment or his
authorized representative, and retain the third part for production in a court of law
10. Section 31A Power to give directions: Board may, in the exercise of its powers and
performance of its functions under this Act, issue any directions in writing to any person,
officer or authority, and such person, officer or authority shall be bound to comply with such
directions. These powers include direct closure of plant, operation or process or stoppage
supplying of electricity/water or any other service.
11. Section 39 Penalty for contravention of certain provisions of the Act: Whoever contravenes
any of the provisions of this Act or any order or direction issued thereunder, for which no
penalty has been elsewhere provided in this Act, shall be punishable with imprisonment for
a term which may extend to three months or with fine which may extend to Rs.10,000/- or
with both, and in the case of continuing contravention, with an additional fine which may
extend to Rs.5,000/- for every day during which such contravention continues after
conviction for the first such contravention
12. Section 40 Offences by companies:
a) If an offense is committed by a company, every person who, at the time the offense was
committed, was directly in charge of, and was responsible to, the company for the
conduct of the business of the company, as well as the company itself, shall be deemed
to be guilty of the offense and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly.
b) The person in charge of the company and the company itself shall be punished with a
fine, which may extend to one lakh rupees, and in the case of a continuing offense, with
an additional fine which may extend to five thousand rupees for every day during which
the offense continues after conviction for the first such offense.
c) It is important to note that the person in charge of the company shall not be liable to
any punishment if he proves that the offense was committed without his knowledge or
that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offense
13. Section 46 Bar of jurisdiction: No civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or
proceeding in respect of any matter which an Appellate Authority constituted under this Act
is empowered by or under this Act to determine, and no injunction shall be granted by any
court or other authority in respect of any action taken or to be taken in pursuance of any
power conferred by or under this Act.
Murli Deora v. Union of India in 2001 effected ban on smoking in public places.
Page 13 of 49
extend up to 5 years, a fine that can range from Rs.1 to 5 Lacks, or both. For a continuing
offense, an additional fine of up to Rs.25,000 per day may be imposed.
2. Contravention of other provisions: Violations of various provisions of the Act, such as the
establishment or operation of industries without obtaining prior permission or consent from
the pollution control boards, can be considered offenses. The penalty for contravening these
provisions may include imprisonment for a term that can extend up to 6 months, a fine
ranging from Rs. 10,000 to Rs.1,00,000, or both. For a continuing offense, an additional fine
of up to Rs.5,000 per day may be imposed.
3. Failure to comply with directions: Non-compliance with the directions issued by the
pollution control authorities, such as installation of pollution control equipment or cessation
of certain activities causing air pollution, can be considered an offense. The penalty for such
non-compliance may include imprisonment for a term that may extend up to 3 months, a fine
ranging from Rs.10,000 to Rs.1,00,000, or both.
4. False statements or documents: Providing false information or documents to the pollution
control authorities can be an offense under the Act. The penalty for such offenses may
include imprisonment for a term that can extend up to 3 months, a fine ranging from Rs.
10,000 to INR 1,00,000, or both.
In addition, there are following provisions relating to public nuisance such as outlined in the Law of
Tort, IPC, CrPC and CPC (Section 268 of IPC, Section 133 of CrPC, and Section 91 of CPC).
Page 14 of 49
Environmental Protection Act key provisions
Environmental Pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such concentration
as may be or tend to be injurious to the environment, and its presence in the environment leads o
Environment Pollution. MoEF, under the power to take measures improving & protecting
environment, lays down emission/discharge standards for Air pollutants, and make rules to regulate
air pollution (including allowable limits of air pollutant concentrations in different areas).
Indian Constitution originally did not contain any provision for the environment protection. Stockholm
conference in 1972 influenced the importance and through 42nd Amendment, fundamental duties of
citizens to protect environment (forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife) were added. This amendment also
added DPSP through Section 48A directing states to protect & improve the environment and safeguard
forests and life. In the wake of Bhopal Gas tragedy in 1984, the Environment Protection Act, 1986
was enacted (under article 253 of Indian Constitution) to provide for the protection and improvement
of the environment. The Act provides for the prevention, control, and abatement of environmental
pollution and the establishment of environmental standards through a total of 4 chapters & 26
sections. Ministry of Forests & Environment is entrusted to implement these provisions. Let us
understand the key sections of the Environment Protection Act in India.
1. Section 2 Definitions Section 2 of the Environment Protection Act 1986 in India includes key
definitions that are important for understanding the scope and provisions of the act. Here
are the summarized definitions:
a) Environment: It refers to water, air, and land, and the interrelationship between them,
as well as the organisms, including humans, living within these systems.
b) Environmental Pollutant: Any solid, liquid, or gaseous substance present in the
environment in quantities that are harmful or likely to be harmful to human beings, other
living organisms, or property.
c) Hazardous Substance: Any substance or preparation that, by its properties or handling,
has the potential to cause harm to human beings, other living organisms, or the
environment.
d) Environmental Pollutant Monitoring: The systematic observation or measurement of
pollutants present in the environment or the assessment of their effects on humans,
animals, plants, or property.
e) Environmental Pollutant Control: The prevention, abatement, and control of
environmental pollution, including the management and disposal of hazardous
substances.
f) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): The process of evaluating the potential
environmental impacts of a proposed project or activity, including the assessment of its
likely effects on the environment, society, and human health.
g) Environmental Laboratory: A laboratory designated or recognized by the central or state
government for the purpose of carrying out analyses of environmental samples and
providing reliable data on environmental quality.
h) Environmental Clearance: The permission granted by the government or an authorized
authority to undertake any development project after considering its potential impacts
on the environment and ensuring compliance with prescribed safeguards.
2. Section 3 Powers of the Central Government This section empowers the Central
Government to take measures for the protection and improvement of the environment. The
Central Government may make rules, appoint officers, issue directions, guidelines, and
notifications for the prevention, control, and abatement of environmental pollution. The
section also empowers the Central Government to establish environmental standards and
prohibit or regulate the handling of hazardous substances. Measures include coordinate with
states, plan & execute nationwide program, lay down standards, restrictions, procedures &
safeguards, and investigate & inspect environment violations.
3. Section 4 Appointment of officers and their powers and functions: This section enables
the central government to appoint officers with specified powers for the purpose of enforcing
the provisions of the Act.
This section provides for the appointment of environmental authorities by the Central
Government to carry out the provisions of the Act. The authorities may include officers or
Page 15 of 49
other persons with appropriate qualifications and experience. The section also empowers the
authorities to take measures for the prevention, control, and abatement of environmental
pollution. In Vellore Citizens case, SC ordered to establish this authority within 1 month after
a 10 years of government slumber for ignoring environment protection.
4. Section 5 Power to Give Directions: The Central Government may, in the exercise of its
powers and performance of its functions under this Act, issue directions in writing to any
person, officer or any authority and such person, officer or authority shall be bound to comply
with such directions. This section empowers the Central Government or the State
Government to issue directions to any person, officer, or authority for the prevention,
control, or abatement of environmental pollution. The section also empowers the Central
Government or the State Government to take legal action against any person who fails to
comply with the directions.
Powers of the State Government Empowerment of the State Government to take measures
for the protection and improvement of the environment within the state. The State
Government may issue directions, guidelines, and notifications for the prevention, control,
and abatement of environmental pollution. Act also empowers the State Government to
establish environmental standards and prohibit or regulate the handling of hazardous
substances.
5. Section 7 Persons carrying on industry operation not to allow emission or discharge of
environmental pollutants in excess of the standards: No person carrying on any industry,
operation or process shall discharge or emit or permit to be discharged or emitted any
environmental pollutants in excess of such standards as may be prescribed.
6. Section 8 Persons handling hazardous substances to comply with procedural safeguards:
No person shall handle or cause to be handled any hazardous substance except in accordance
with such procedure and after complying with such safeguards as may be prescribed.
7. Section 11 Power to take samples and inspect premises This section empowers any officer
or authority authorized by the Central Government or the State Government to enter any
premises, including industrial establishments, for the purpose of taking samples and
inspecting any control equipment or monitoring apparatus. The section also empowers the
officer or authority to take legal action against any person who obstructs the exercise of
these powers.
8. Section 12 Environmental Laboratories This section provides for the analysis of samples
taken under Section 11 and the procedure for dealing with the samples. The section requires
the officer or authority to provide the person from whom the sample was taken with a copy
of the analysis report and take appropriate action if the analysis reveals that the pollution is
not within the prescribed limits.
9. Section 15 Penalties for contravention of the provisions of the Act This section provides
for penalties for contravention of the provisions of the Act. The penalties may include
imprisonment and/or a fine, depending on the severity of the contravention. The section also
provides for enhanced penalties for repeated contraventions.
10. Section 16 Offences by companies This section provides for the liability of companies for
the contravention of the provisions of the Act. The section states that if an offence is
committed by a company, every person who, at the time of the offence, was in charge of
and responsible for the conduct of the business of the company shall be deemed to be guilty
of the offence.
11. Section 22 Bar of Jurisdiction No civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or
proceeding in respect of anything done, action taken or order or direction issued by the
Central Government or any other authority or officer in pursuance of any power conferred by
or in relation to its or his functions under this Act.
12. Section 25 Power to make rules Section 25 of the Environment Protection Act, 1986 in India
empowers the Central Government to make rules for carrying out the purposes of the Act.
This section gives the Central Government the authority to issue notifications in the Official
Gazette to make rules for the effective implementation of the Act. The Central Government
has the power to:
Page 16 of 49
a) Take all necessary measures to protect and improve the quality of the environment
and control and reduce pollution from all sources.
b) Prohibit or restrict the setting up and/or operation of any industrial facility on
environmental grounds.
c) Establish authorities charged with the mandate of preventing environmental
pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific environmental problems that are
peculiar to different parts of the country.
d) Issue notifications in the Official Gazette to make rules for the effective
implementation of the Ac
e) Delegate its powers to other authorities
Case Law: Hospital Mazdoor Sabha AIR 1960 – stated the definition of Environment is inclusive
and wide in broad sense.
The Indian Forest Act, 1927 is an important legislation that governs the conservation, management,
and utilization of forests in India. The Act was enacted to consolidate and amend the laws relating
to forests, the transit of forest produce, and the duty levied on timber and other forest produce. Let
me explain the key sections of the Indian Forest Act, 1927.
1. Section 2 Definitions This section defines important terms used in the Act. These include
"forest," "forest produce," "reserved forest," "unreserved forest," "timber," "trees," and
"wildlife," among others. The definitions provide clarity and ensure that there is a common
understanding of the terms used in the Act.
a) Forest includes any land that is designated or notified as a forest under the Indian
Forest Act, 1927, and primarily consists of trees, shrubs, bushes, and other
vegetation, whether natural or planted, and all the land, water bodies, and
structures within such areas.
b) Reserved Forest refers to any forest land that has been designated as a reserved
forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927. These forests are afforded a higher level of
protection and are managed by the government for the conservation and sustainable
use of forest resources. Appointed Forest Settlement Officer determines the nature
& extent of rights here. Section 8 defines his powers.
c) Protected Forest includes any forest land notified as a protected forest under the
Indian Forest Act, 1927. These forests are managed for the purpose of ensuring the
sustainable utilization of forest resources while also protecting their ecological
integrity.
d) Government refers to the Central Government or the State Government, depending
on the context of the provision.
e) Collector means the highest revenue officer within a district or any other officer
designated by the State Government to perform the functions of a Collector under
the Indian Forest Act, 1927.
f) Forest Produce encompasses a wide range of products derived from forests,
including timber, charcoal, fuelwood, resin, lac, medicinal plants, wildlife, and any
other product specified under the Act.
g) Officer-in-charge of a Police Station refers to the police officer responsible for the
administration and management of a specific police station within the jurisdiction of
the Act.
2. Section 3 Declaration of reserved forests and protected forests This section provides for
the declaration of reserved forests and protected forests by the state government. The state
government may declare any forest land to be a reserved forest or a protected forest. The
section also provides for the appointment of a forest settlement officer to carry out the
settlement of rights and interests in the forest land.
Page 17 of 49
3. Control over reserved forests This section provides for the control and management of
reserved forests. The section states that the state government shall have the exclusive power
to control, manage, and conserve the reserved forest. The section also empowers the state
government to make rules for the conservation and management of the reserved forest.
Prohibition of activities such as setting of fire, felling off trees & restriction of people to
enter so that conservation of trees, preservation of soil & protection of resources happens.
However, the protection wasn’t absolute. Permit system legalised such activities. It
commercialized the forests in India & evicted traditional forest communities from their
natural habitats, converting forests from part of ecology to a commercial source of raw
material for revenue and large-scale deforestation deterioration the habitat.
4. Control over unreserved forests This section provides for the control and management of
unreserved forests. The section states that the state government shall have the power to
regulate the use of unreserved forests and make rules for the conservation and management
of the unreserved forest.
5. Transit of forest produce This section provides for the regulation of the transit of forest
produce. The section states that no person shall transport any forest produce except under
a permit granted by the competent authority. The section also provides for the seizure of
forest produce transported in contravention of the provisions of the Act.
6. Offences and penalties These sections provide for penalties for contravention of the
provisions of the Act. The penalties may include imprisonment and/or a fine, depending on
the severity of the contravention. They also provide for enhanced penalties for repeated
contraventions.
7. Forest offences by companies This section provides for the liability of companies for forest
offences. The section states that if an offence is committed by a company, every person who,
at the time of the offence, was in charge of and responsible for the conduct of the business
of the company shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence.
8. Power of entry and inspection This section empowers any forest officer authorized by the
state government to enter any land and inspect any premises, vehicle, or vessel used in the
commission of any forest offence. The section also empowers the forest officer to take legal
action against any person who obstructs the exercise of these powers.
9. Power to arrest without warrant This section empowers any forest officer authorized by the
state government to arrest without warrant any person who has committed or is reasonably
suspected of having committed any forest offence.
The purpose of this act was to arrest the rampant deforestation with two objectives: One is to restrict
use of forest land for non-forest purpose and second to control de-reservation of forests. This shifted
regulatory power from states to the centre for any ‘non-Forest Purpose’ prior permissions (with
restrictions) through central Forest Advisory Committee. Judiciary actively widened the meaning of
Forest as ‘All Land Recorded as Forest’ (reserved & non -reserved) to bring under the purview of this
act & to restrict state government attempt to restrict. Godavarman case restricted any saw mill in
100 KM radius from the forests & complete ban of felling of trees in Arunachal Pradesh. Goa
Foundation case banned construction of housing colonies in Forest areas terming it violative of FCA.
In Konkan Railway case, court dismissed petition to restrict indiscriminatory cutting of trees for
project going through 3 states and of national importance. Similarly, NTPC Power Plant was permitted
in Banwasi Sewa Ashram Case being power generation need & national importance. In Ambica
Quarry case, existing mining license renewal post enactment of FCA, SC mandated taking Central
Approval for such renewal. However, ability of SC to micromanage forest administration is not
feasible or it is violating separation of powers is a question mark (Criticism of Judicial activism
overreach). The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 is an important legislation that governs the diversion
of forest land for non-forestry purposes in India. The Act aims to conserve the country's forests and
maintain the ecological balance while ensuring sustainable development. Let me explain the key
sections of the Forest Conservation Act, 1980.
Page 18 of 49
1. Section 2 Restriction on de-reservation of forests This section prohibits the de-reservation
of any forest land that has been reserved under the provisions of the Indian Forest Act, 1927
or any other law in force. The section ensures that the forest land that has been reserved
remains protected and cannot be used for non-forestry purposes.
2. Section 3 Constitution of Advisory Committee: The Central Government may constitute a
Committee consisting of such number of persons as it may deem fit to advise that Government
with regard to:
a. the grant of approval under section 2; and
b. any other matter connected with the conservation of forests which may be referred
to it by the Central Government
3. Section 4 Power to make rules: House procedure to pass the rules and amendments. Every
rule made under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made, before each House
of Parliament, while it is in session, for a total period of thirty days which may be comprised
in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if, before the expiry of the session
immediately following the session or the successive sessions aforesaid, both Houses agree in
making any modification in the rule or both Houses agree that the rule should not be made,
the rule shall thereafter have effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the
case may be; so, however, that any such modification or annulment shall be without
prejudice to the validity of anything previously done under that rule.
4. Section 5 Repealed
Page 19 of 49
chairperson of the NGT is a retired judge of the Supreme Court or a retired chief justice of a
high court. The judicial members are judges of high courts and the expert members are
persons with expertise in environmental matters.
3. Chapter 3 Jurisdiction of the NGT The NGT has jurisdiction over all civil cases relating to
environmental law, including cases related to the enforcement of any legal right relating to
the environment, the compensation for damages caused to the environment, and the
restitution of the environment. The NGT has jurisdiction over the whole of India. Section 14
of the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010, specifies the powers of the tribunal. The NGT has
the power to hear and dispose cases related to environmental protection and conservation,
and its jurisdiction extends to matters related to the following:
a. Enforcement of any legal right relating to the environment
b. Compensation for damage caused to the environment
c. Prevention and control of environmental pollution
d. Handling of hazardous substances
e. Conservation of biological diversity and forests
f. Handling of disputes related to the above matters
4. Powers of the NGT The NGT has the power to:
a. Hear and dispose of cases,
b. Order the closure,
c. Prohibition or regulation of any industry, process or operation causing environmental
pollution,
d. Direct the government or any authority to take measures for the prevention and
control of environmental pollution, and
e. Award compensation for damages caused to persons and property.
5. Appeal to the Supreme Court This section provides for the appeal to the Supreme Court
against any order, direction or decision of the NGT. An appeal may be made within 90 days
of the order, direction or decision.
6. Chapter 4 Penalties and Compensation: This chapter deals with penalties and compensation
for environmental damage. It empowers the NGT to impose penalties and order compensation
for environmental violations, including violations of environmental clearance requirements,
non-compliance with pollution control measures, or causing damage to the environment.
7. Bar on Civil Courts This section provides for the bar on civil courts from hearing any matter
related to environmental law that falls under the jurisdiction of the NGT. Any such matter
must be brought before the NGT for adjudication.
8. Section 19 Procedure and Powers of the NGT: This section lays down the procedure to be
followed by the NGT while hearing cases. It grants the tribunal powers similar to a civil court,
including the power to summon witnesses, examine evidence, and enforce its decisions.
9. Section 20 Tribunal to apply certain principles: This section specifies that the NGT shall be
guided by the principles of natural justice and have the same powers as a civil court under
the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, while hearing cases and enforcing its orders. NGT follows:
a. The Principle of Natural Justice
b. Rule against bias
c. Rule of Audi alterum partem (No one goes unheard), and
d. Reasoned decision
e. Sustainable Development (balancing development & environment)
f. Precautionary principle (better safe than sorry, proactive measures), and
g. Polluter Pays principle (Pay for cleaning your mess)
10. Section 26 Penalty for non-compliance: This section provides for penalties for non-
compliance with the orders of the NGT. It states that failure to comply with an order may
result in imprisonment and/or a fine. It also empowers the tribunal to take necessary steps
to ensure compliance with its orders.
11. Section 27 Offenses by companies: Where any offence under this Act has been committed
by a company, every person who, at the time the offence was committed, was directly in
charge of, and was responsible to the company for the conduct of the business of the
Page 20 of 49
company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be
liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly:
Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person liable
to any punishment provided in this Act, if he proves that the offence was committed without
his knowledge or that he had exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such
offence.
Page 21 of 49
3. Fundamental Duties: Article 51A(g) of the Constitution Part IV-A imposes a fundamental duty
on every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment. In M.C. Mehta v.
Union of India (1986), the Supreme Court held that the fundamental duty under Article 51A(g)
is binding on every citizen of India, and failure to fulfill this duty is a violation of the
Constitution.
4. Directive Principles of State Policy: The Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV of the
Constitution provide guidelines for the State to frame policies and make laws for the welfare
of the people. Some of these principles are related to environmental protection and
conservation, such as:
Article 48: Protection of forests and wild life
Article 49: Preservation of monuments and places of national importance
Article 51: Promotion of international peace and security
In Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v. Union of India (1996), the Supreme Court held
that the Directive Principles of State Policy are not enforceable by the courts, but they are
still important as they provide guidance to the State in formulating policies and making laws.
Page 22 of 49
(common crow, rats, fruit bat etc). Schedule 6 has plants forbidden from cultivation. All
appropriate permissions must be in writing from Chief Warden for Schedule 1 if animal has
disease beyond recovery, or become dangerous to human life. For other animals, same
procedure of permission in writing from the Chief Warden for Schedule 2 to 4 (for reasons of
animal becoming dangerous to human lives or destruction of crops). National Board for
Wildlife formed under the 2002 act, with PM as its Chairman, to frame policies,
recommend/setup and monitor National Parks & regularly publish reports.
2. The 5 types of protected areas include
a) Sanctuaries,
b) National Parks,
c) Conservation Reserves,
d) Community Reserves and
e) Tiger Reserves (National Tiger Conservation Authority).
3. Establishment of protected areas: The Act provides for the establishment of national parks,
wildlife sanctuaries, and other protected areas for the conservation of wildlife. These areas
are designated by the State Government and are meant to provide a safe habitat for wildlife.
Habitat Protection through declaring protected areas, sanctuaries, national parks,
conservation reserves & community reserves (corridors connecting different protected
areas). Such protected areas legally restrict human actions & entry, prohibit activities that
destruct wildlife or habitat and commercial exploitation (except grazing & tenurial rights
with permission from Chief Wildlife Warden).
4. Prohibition of trade in wildlife and their products: The Act prohibits the sale, purchase, or
possession of any animal, bird, or part or derivative of such animal or bird listed in Schedule
I to IV of the Act. Any violation of these provisions is punishable by imprisonment and/or fine.
5. Protection of habitats: The Act provides for the protection of the habitats of wildlife. It
prohibits any damage to or destruction of such habitats without prior permission from the
concerned authorities.
6. Establishment of Wildlife Crime Control Bureau 2007: The Act provides for the
establishment of a Wildlife Crime Control Bureau to prevent, investigate wildlife crimes,
collect the data and advise government of such crimes. Similarly, establishment of Central
Zoo Authority (1992) to recognize/derecognize a zoo and lay standards for keeping animals.
National Tiger Conservation Authority (2006)
7. Punishment for offences: The Act provides for stringent punishment for offences such as
hunting, poaching, or trading in wildlife and their products. The punishment includes
imprisonment for a term ranging from three years to seven years, along with fines.
8. Compensatory payment: The Act provides for the payment of compensation to any person
who has suffered damage or injury to their property or person due to wildlife.
9. Appointment of wildlife wardens: The Act provides for the appointment of wildlife wardens
to ensure the protection and conservation of wildlife in their respective areas.
10. Classification of wildlife: The Act classifies wildlife into various schedules based on their
level of protection. Schedule I animals are afforded the highest level of protection, while
Schedule IV animals are afforded the lowest level of protection.
11. Protection of endangered species: The Act (in Schedule 1) provides for the protection of
endangered species and their habitats. It also prohibits the hunting, poaching, or trade of
any endangered species.
12. Participation of local communities: The Act provides for the participation of local
communities in the management and conservation of wildlife. The Act recognizes the
traditional rights of local communities and their role in the conservation of wildlife.
13. Role of Judiciary: Appointment of Chief Wildlife Wardens across states (Centre for
Environmental Law WWF v. Union of India 1997), Direction to the states for providing
modern arms & communication facilities to forest guards across sanctuaries & national parks
& immunization of animals therein. Trade at the cost of disrupting life forms necessary to
preserve biodiversity & ecology is not permitted (Ivory Traders Association v. Union of India
1994). Tribals (through ID Card & restrictions) are permitted for fishing in protected area
reservoirs (Animals & Environment Legal Defense Fund case in SC) or offered alternate
livelihood.
Page 23 of 49
a) Schedule I includes species that are considered highly endangered and receive the highest
level of protection. It is illegal to hunt, capture, or trade in any species listed here. (Cheetah,
Himalayan Brown Bears, Elephants, Crocodiles, Vultures etc)
b) Schedule II Species listed under this schedule are also protected, but the penalties for
offenses related to them are generally lower than those for Schedule I species. This schedule
includes species that are not as critically endangered as those in Schedule I but still require
protection. (Wild dogs, Chameleons etc)
c) Schedule III includes species that are not necessarily threatened but are protected to ensure
their sustainable management and conservation. (Hog deer, Hyena etc)
d) Schedule IV contains species that are considered vermin or pests and are subject to specific
regulations to control their populations. These species may be hunted or captured under
specified conditions and with appropriate permissions. (Hares, pole cats, cuckoos & bulbuls)
If Chief Wildlife Warden finds that any Schedule 1 animal has become dangerous to human life, and
Schedule 2, 3 or 4 became dangerous to human life & property, or is disabled or diseased as to be
beyond recovery, he may in writing permit such killing.
National Parks are protected areas of land that are set aside by a government to preserve and protect
natural habitats and ecosystems, including wildlife, flora and fauna, and their natural habitats.
Page 24 of 49
National Parks are governed under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. This act is the principal law that
provides for the protection of wild animals and plants. It establishes various categories of protected
areas, including National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Conservation Reserves. National Parks are
the most restricted and highly protected areas among these categories. The provisions of the Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972 regarding National Parks are as follows:
1. Establishment of National Parks: The Act provides for the establishment of National Parks
by notification in the Official Gazette by the Central Government or the State Government.
2. Protection of Wildlife: The Act provides for the protection of wild animals and plants within
National Parks. Hunting, poaching, or trapping of any wild animal or plant within a National
Park is strictly prohibited.
3. Prohibition of Grazing: The Act prohibits the grazing of any livestock within the boundaries
of a National Park.
4. Prohibition of Exploitation of Forest Produce: The Act prohibits the collection, removal, or
exploitation of any forest produce within the boundaries of a National Park, except under
certain circumstances and with prior permission from the Chief Wildlife Warden.
5. Control of Feral and Domestic Animals: The Act empowers the Chief Wildlife Warden to
take necessary measures for the control of feral and domestic animals within the National
Parks.
6. Regulation of Tourist Activities: The Act provides for the regulation of tourist activities
within the National Parks. Any person who wants to visit a National Park must obtain prior
permission from the Chief Wildlife Warden.
7. Constitution of National Park Advisory Committees: The Act provides for the constitution
of National Park Advisory Committees for each National Park. The Committee is responsible
for advising the concerned authorities on matters related to the management of the National
Park.
8. Powers of the Chief Wildlife Warden: The Chief Wildlife Warden is the chief administrative
officer of the National Park. He is responsible for the management and protection of the
National Park. He has the power to close the National Park or any part thereof, in case of
emergency.
9. Penalties: The Act provides for penalties for violation of its provisions. Any person who
contravenes the provisions of the Act, or the rules made thereunder, shall be liable for
punishment, which may include imprisonment and a fine.
The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, defines wildlife sanctuaries and provides specific provisions for
their establishment and management. Here are the key aspects:
a) Definition: According to the Wildlife Protection Act, a wildlife sanctuary is an area declared
by the government to be a sanctuary for the purpose of protecting, propagating, or
developing wildlife. It is a place where the wildlife habitat is protected, and certain human
activities that may harm or disturb wildlife are regulated.
b) Declaration: The Act grants the power to the state government or central government to
declare any area as a wildlife sanctuary. This declaration is based on the ecological, faunal,
floral, or geomorphological significance of the area and is done through a notification in the
official gazette.
c) Boundaries: The Act specifies the boundaries of the wildlife sanctuary, outlining the area
that falls under its protection. The exact boundaries are determined based on factors such
as habitat suitability, species distribution, and ecological considerations.
d) Prohibited Activities: Once an area is declared a wildlife sanctuary, certain activities are
prohibited within its boundaries. These include hunting, capturing, poaching, poisoning,
poisoning water sources, damaging or destroying the habitat, using explosives, firearms, or
other methods to harm wildlife, or undertaking any other act that may harm or disturb the
animals or their environment.
e) Management: The Wildlife Protection Act assigns the responsibility of managing and
protecting wildlife sanctuaries to the state government or any authorized agency. They are
entrusted with the task of formulating management plans, conserving wildlife and their
habitats, preventing encroachments, and ensuring effective implementation of the Act's
provisions within the sanctuary.
f) Buffer Zones: In addition to the core area of the sanctuary, the Act also allows for the
establishment of buffer zones around the sanctuary. These buffer zones serve as transitional
Page 25 of 49
areas between the sanctuary and human settlements, providing a buffer to minimize human-
wildlife conflicts and allowing for sustainable land use practices.
g) Research and Education: The Act permits scientific research, education, and interpretation
activities within wildlife sanctuaries. These activities contribute to the understanding of
biodiversity, ecological processes, and conservation strategies. However, they are subject to
regulations to minimize disturbance to the wildlife and their habitat.
h) Penalties: The Act includes provisions for penalties and punishments for offenses committed
within the wildlife sanctuary. Violations such as hunting, poaching, capturing, damaging the
habitat, or engaging in any prohibited activities can result in imprisonment and fines as
specified under the Act.
Procedure to establish a Sanctuary or a National Parks: State Government declares any specific
area as a sanctuary by notification. Appointment of an officer (as a Collector) within 30 days
from such notification. He must publish proclamation specifying limits of sanctuary (to file any
claims in writing within 60 days), which he either rejects or admits (wholly or partly) and
proceeds with land acquisition in consultation with Chief Wildlife Warden. Such land acquisition,
as far as possible, is completed within 2 years from the date of notification. State Government
declares said area as a sanctuary, after which boundaries of such sanctuary can not be altered
by state government except on recommendation from National Wildlife Board.
Page 26 of 49
5. Monitoring and testing of effluent samples by authorized personnel.
6. Imposition of penalties and prosecution for non-compliance with the prescribed standards.
Here are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established by the United Nations:
Page 27 of 49
a. No Poverty: End poverty in all its forms and ensure social protection for all.
b. Zero Hunger: End hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable
agriculture.
c. Good Health and Well-Being: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.
d. Quality Education: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong
learning opportunities for all.
e. Gender Equality: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
f. Clean Water and Sanitation: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation for all.
g. Affordable and Clean Energy: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern
energy for all.
h. Decent Work and Economic Growth: Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic
growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all.
i. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive
and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation.
j. Reduced Inequalities: Reduce inequality within and among countries.
k. Sustainable Cities and Communities: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe,
resilient, and sustainable.
l. Responsible Consumption and Production: Ensure sustainable consumption and production
patterns.
m. Climate Action: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
n. Life Below Water: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for
sustainable development.
o. Life on Land: Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, and
halt biodiversity loss.
p. Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for
sustainable development, provide access to justice for all, and build effective, accountable,
and inclusive institutions at all levels.
q. Partnerships for the Goals: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the
global partnership for sustainable development.
Page 28 of 49
Joint Pollution Control Board (Air Act) – Composition & functions
The Joint Pollution Control Board (JPCB) is a regulatory body established under the Air (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. The JPCB is responsible for the prevention and control of air
pollution in the states of India. The JPCB is composed of representatives from the Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs). The JPCB is composed of the
following members:
1. Chairman: The Chairman of the JPCB is appointed by the State Government. He/she is usually
an experienced administrator who is responsible for overseeing the functioning of the Board.
2. Members: The JPCB comprises representatives from the Central Pollution Control Board and
State Pollution Control Boards. The number of members may vary depending on the state.
Functions of Joint Pollution Control Board (Air Act) include:
1. Implementation of the Air Act: The JPCB is responsible for implementing the provisions of
the Air Act in the state. It ensures that the industries and other sources of air pollution
comply with the pollution control standards set by the Act.
2. Monitoring of air quality: The JPCB monitors the air quality in the state through the
installation of air monitoring stations. The data collected is used to assess the level of air
pollution in the state.
3. Issuing of NOCs: The JPCB issues No Objection Certificates (NOCs) to industries and other
sources of air pollution that comply with the pollution control standards set by the Air Act.
The NOCs are issued after verifying the compliance of the source with the prescribed
standards.
4. Imposing penalties: The JPCB has the power to impose penalties on industries and other
sources of air pollution that violate the pollution control standards set by the Air Act. The
penalties may include fines, suspension of operation or cancellation of license.
5. Educating the public: The JPCB educates the public on the harmful effects of air pollution
and the measures that can be taken to prevent it. It conducts awareness programs and
campaigns to create awareness among the public.
6. Coordination with other agencies: The JPCB coordinates with other agencies such as the
Central Pollution Control Board, State Government and other relevant departments to
prevent and control air pollution in the state.
Page 29 of 49
Sample Certification Process (Air Act)
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 mandates the certification of the quality of
air samples collected from different sources. The certification process ensures that the samples
collected are of good quality and free from any contamination. Here are the steps involved in the
sample certification process under the Air Act:
1. Collection of Air Samples: The first step in the certification process is the collection of air
samples. Samples are collected from different sources such as ambient air, industrial
effluents, and emissions from vehicles. The samples are collected using specialized
equipment such as air samplers and impingers.
2. Transportation of Samples: After collection, the air samples are transported to the
laboratory for testing. It is important to transport the samples as quickly as possible to avoid
any changes in the air quality.
3. Sample Analysis: The laboratory analyses the samples using different techniques and
equipment. The samples are analyzed for various parameters such as particulate matter
(PM10, PM2.5), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone
(O3), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
4. Quality Control: During the analysis, quality control measures are taken to ensure the
accuracy of the results. This includes the use of standard operating procedures, calibration
of instruments, and regular quality control checks.
5. Sample Certification: After analysis, the laboratory issues a certificate stating the quality of
the air sample. The certificate indicates the parameters tested, the results obtained, and
whether the sample is fit for use or not. The certificate is signed by the laboratory technician
and a designated officer of the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB).
6. Record Keeping: All the records related to sample collection, transportation, analysis, and
certification are maintained by the laboratory. The records are kept for a minimum of five
years and are subject to audit by the SPCB.
In the context of environmental protection, judicial activism and PILs have played a significant role
in India. The judiciary has been proactive in protecting the environment and has used PILs as a tool
to enforce environmental laws and regulations. The following are some of the notable cases that
illustrate the judiciary's activism in environmental protection:
1. MC Mehta v. Union of India: This is a landmark case that resulted in the closure of several
industries in Delhi that were polluting the environment. In 1985, a PIL was filed by MC Mehta,
a public interest lawyer, highlighting the air pollution in Delhi caused by the industries in the
city. The Supreme Court, in its judgment, directed the closure of all industries that were not
compliant with environmental standards. The case led to the establishment of the National
Green Tribunal, which is responsible for handling environmental disputes.
2. Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India: This case dealt with the pollution of the
river Palar in Tamil Nadu caused by the discharge of untreated effluents by tanneries in the
area. The Supreme Court, in its judgment, directed the closure of all tanneries that were not
compliant with environmental standards. The case also led to the establishment of the
Central Pollution Control Board, which is responsible for monitoring and enforcing
environmental standards.
3. Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v. Union of India: This case dealt with the pollution
caused by the ship-breaking industry in Alang, Gujarat. The Supreme Court, in its judgment,
directed the implementation of environmental standards and the establishment of a
monitoring committee to oversee the compliance of the ship-breaking industry with these
standards.
Page 30 of 49
4. M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath: This case dealt with the illegal mining of limestone in the
Mussoorie hills of Uttarakhand. The Supreme Court, in its judgment, directed the closure of
all illegal mines and the payment of compensation to the affected villagers.
Page 31 of 49
4. Offenses by companies (S40) If any offense under this act has been committed by a
company, every person who at the time the offense was committed was in charge of, and
was responsible to, the company for the conduct of the business of the company, as well as
the company itself, shall be deemed to be guilty of the offense and shall be liable to be
proceeded against and punished accordingly.
5. Offenses by government departments (S41) If any offense under this act has been
committed by any department of the government, the person who, at the time the offense
was committed, was in charge of, and was responsible to, the government department for
the conduct of the business of the department, as well as the government department itself,
shall be deemed to be guilty of the offense and shall be liable to be proceeded against and
punished accordingly.
Page 32 of 49
4. Conduct research: The Central Board conducts research and studies on the causes and
effects of air pollution, and develops new technologies and methods for prevention, control,
and abatement of air pollution.
5. Monitor air quality: The Central Board monitors ambient air quality in various parts of the
country, and publishes reports on air quality status, trends, and health impacts.
6. Enforce regulations: The Central Board has the power to take action against polluting
industries and other sources of air pollution that violate the provisions of the Air Act,
including imposing penalties and initiating legal proceedings.
7. Promote public awareness: The Central Board promotes public awareness and education on
the causes and effects of air pollution, and encourages public participation in activities
related to air pollution prevention and control.
Page 33 of 49
3. Inadequate Monitoring: The rules require regular monitoring of noise levels in various zones,
but this is not done adequately. There is a lack of equipment and trained personnel to carry
out regular monitoring of noise levels.
4. Lack of Political Will: Noise pollution is often considered a low priority issue by policymakers,
and there is a lack of political will to enforce the rules effectively.
5. Rapid Urbanization: The rapid pace of urbanization in India has led to increased noise
pollution. Many residential areas are now located close to commercial and industrial zones,
resulting in high levels of noise pollution.
Constant exposure of noise levels above 70 dB can cause hearing loss. Any level above 90 dB is
dangerous for humans. WHO has laid down 45 dB as ‘Safe Noise Level’ (Mumbai & Delhi routinely
exceed 90dB levels). Persistent noise adds to stress, irritability and hypertension while reducing
concentration. Other previous acts that have directly/indirectly dealt with noise pollution include
Air Act, Environment Pollution Act, Central Motor Vehicle Rules, Police Act, Factories Act & Workmen
Compensation Act. Current acceptable noise level limits are:
Rule 5 prohibits use of Loudspeaker without permission from authority during the daytime (except in
closed premise such as auditorium, conference room, banquet hall). Such rule is relaxed up 15 days
per calendar year by authorities during the festive seasons. Maulana Mufti Syed Barkati v. State of
West Bengal While 5 times a day Azan was a part of Muslim religion, using loudspeakers was not. Om
Birangana Religious Society Every citizen has right to leisure, right to sleep & right NOT to hear.
Page 34 of 49
Precautionary Principle
The precautionary principle is a fundamental concept of environmental law that advocates taking
preventive measures to avoid environmental harm, even when there is no conclusive scientific
evidence to prove a causal link between the activity and the harm. It is based on the principle of
'better safe than sorry' and suggests that decision-makers should anticipate and avoid potential
environmental damage by taking action in advance. The precautionary principle is included in various
international environmental agreements such as the Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. The
principle has also been adopted by many countries as a guiding principle in their domestic
environmental laws. The principle recognizes that scientific knowledge is constantly evolving, and
therefore decision-making must be based on the best available information at the time. The
precautionary principle states that in situations where there is uncertainty regarding the potential
environmental impact of an activity, the burden of proof should lie with the proponent of the activity
to demonstrate that it is not harmful.
The precautionary principle has been applied in various environmental contexts, such as the
regulation of genetically modified organisms, climate change, and chemical contamination. It has
been a subject of debate, with some critics arguing that it may lead to over-regulation and hinder
technological progress. However, proponents argue that it is a necessary tool for protecting the
environment and human health from irreparable & irrevocable potential harm.
The EIA process involves several stages, including screening, scoping, public consultation,
environmental assessment, and decision-making. However, after 2006 Amendment, there are only 4
steps (Screening, Scoping, Public Hearing and Appraisal). The Screening stage involves the initial
evaluation of a proposed project to determine whether it requires an EIA study or not. The Scoping
stage involves the identification of potential impacts and the development of a detailed scope for
the EIA study. The Public Hearing stage involves the participation of stakeholders in the EIA process,
including the affected communities, NGOs, and experts. The Appraisal stage involves the analysis of
potential impacts and the development of mitigation measures. Finally, the decision-making stage
involves the granting or denial of environmental clearances based on the EIA study and other relevant
factors. Some of the shortcomings of EIA Process include:
A. Schedule 1 is not comprehensive and do not include projects that have significant
impact on environment
B. Lack of assessment team expertise
C. Lack of consideration for public comments in early stage
D. Low quality of EIA and related details
E. Fraudulent EIA studies and references (erroneous and copy/paste data)
One of the most significant cases that illustrate the importance of EIA in India is the case of M.C.
Mehta v. Union of India, commonly known as the Taj Trapezium case. This case, decided by the
Supreme Court in 1996, dealt with the issue of air pollution around the Taj Mahal, a world-famous
heritage site in Agra, India. In this case, the court directed the government to take various measures
to reduce air pollution around the Taj Mahal, including the establishment of an EIA process for new
industrial projects in the Taj Trapezium Zone. The court held that the EIA process was essential to
ensuring that new projects did not cause significant harm to the environment and the heritage site.
Another important case that illustrates the importance of EIA in India is the Lafarge Umiam Mining
Private Limited case, decided by the National Green Tribunal in 2011. In this case, the tribunal held
Page 35 of 49
that the company was operating a limestone mining project without obtaining environmental
clearances and conducting an EIA study. The tribunal directed the company to stop mining activities
and pay compensation for the environmental damage caused.
Intergenerational duty refers to the obligation of the present generation to protect and preserve the
environment for the benefit of future generations. It recognizes that the actions of the current
generation can have a long-term impact on the environment and the well-being of future generations.
Therefore, it is the responsibility of the present generation to take appropriate measures to ensure
that the environment is protected for future generations.
Intragenerational duty, on the other hand, refers to the responsibility of the present generation to
ensure that the environment is protected and conserved for the benefit of the current generation. It
recognizes that the environment is a shared resource, and every individual has a right to live in a
clean and healthy environment. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the present generation to take
appropriate measures to ensure that the environment is protected for the well-being of the current
generation.
Both intergenerational and intragenerational duty are important principles in environmental law as
they emphasize the importance of environmental protection and sustainable development. These
principles have been recognized by various international environmental agreements and conventions,
such as the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, and the Convention on Biological Diversity.
One of the key principles of the Public Trust Doctrine is the intergenerational duty to protect and
preserve natural resources for future generations. This means that the government has a
responsibility to ensure that natural resources are managed in a sustainable and equitable manner,
so that they will be available for use by future generations. The doctrine also recognizes the
intragenerational duty to protect and preserve natural resources for the benefit of all members of
society, regardless of their social or economic status. This means that the government must ensure
that natural resources are available to all members of society, and that they are not unfairly
monopolized by private individuals or groups.
MI Builders v. Radheshyam Sahu AIR1999 Underground mall below public park against municipal &
master plan of Lucknow city. SC upheld HC judgement & called it unfair when corporation is the
trustee of environment and restoration within 3 months.
Page 36 of 49
areas. The case was filed by environmental activist MC Mehta in 1986 against the Ratlam Municipality
in Madhya Pradesh and several industries located in residential areas. The case arose due to the
discharge of toxic effluent from various industries, including chemical and dyeing factories, into a
local river, which caused severe pollution and affected the health of the local residents. The pollution
had led to various health issues, including skin rashes, respiratory problems, and gastrointestinal
disorders, among others.
The Supreme Court, in its judgment in 1987, held that the discharge of effluents from the industries
in residential areas was illegal and amounted to a violation of the fundamental right to life under
Article 21 of the Constitution of India. The court directed the closure of the industries and ordered
them to pay compensation for the environmental damage caused. The court also laid down several
important principles related to environmental law and sustainable development. Non-availability of
funds is not an acceptable excuse. The court held that industries have a duty to protect the
environment and prevent pollution, and that the polluter pays principle should be applied in cases of
environmental damage. The court also emphasized the importance of public participation in
environmental decision-making and the need for a precautionary approach in environmental matters.
B.L Wadhera v. Union of India 1996 – Article 47 makes it a paramount principle of governance that
steps are taken ‘for the improvement of public health as amongst its primary duties of Government’.
Page 37 of 49
is a natural phenomenon, human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation have
increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to enhanced greenhouse
effect and climate change. The Environmental Protection Act, 1986, recognizes the threat posed by
greenhouse gases and has provisions to regulate and control emissions of greenhouse gases in India.
Under the Environmental Protection Act, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is responsible
for monitoring and controlling greenhouse gas emissions in the country. The CPCB sets emission
standards for various industries and sectors and conducts regular inspections to ensure compliance.
The act also provides for penalties and fines for non-compliance and empowers the government to
take legal action against polluters.
Additionally, the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was launched in India in 2008 to
address the issue of climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The plan includes measures
such as promoting renewable energy sources, improving energy efficiency in industries, and
increasing forest cover. The government of India has also pledged to reduce the country's greenhouse
gas emissions intensity by 33-35% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels. In recent years, the Indian
government has taken various steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, including promoting electric
vehicles, increasing the use of renewable energy sources, and implementing energy efficiency
measures. However, India remains one of the world's largest greenhouse gas emitters, and more
needs to be done to address the issue of climate change.
The Air Act provides for penalties and fines for non-compliance with the above offenses. The penalty
may range from Rs. 5,000 to Rs. 1 lakh, depending on the nature and severity of the offense. The act
also empowers the SPCB to take legal action against the company, including shutting down the
operation, in case of persistent non-compliance.
Page 38 of 49
1. Planning: The audit is planned based on the type and scale of the operation, the nature of
the pollutants, and the potential environmental impacts.
2. Assessment: The audit team collects and analyses data on the environmental performance
of the organization or project, including air and water quality, waste management, and
energy use.
3. Report: The audit team prepares a report that summarizes the findings, identifies areas for
improvement, and makes recommendations for corrective action.
4. Follow-up: The organization or project is required to implement the recommendations and
report back to the audit team on the progress made.
The Environmental Protection Act provides for penalties and fines for non-compliance with the
recommendations of the environmental audit report. The act also empowers the government to take
legal action against polluters who fail to comply with the audit recommendations. The benefits of
environmental audits include improved environmental performance, reduced environmental risks and
liabilities, and enhanced corporate reputation. Environmental audits can also help organizations
identify cost-saving opportunities through improved efficiency and waste reduction.
The Oleum gas leak case, also known as the Shriram Foods and Fertilizers case, is a landmark case in
Indian environmental law that involved a gas leak from a chemical factory in Delhi in 1986. The case
is significant because it led to the amendment of the Environment Protection Act, 1986, and the
introduction of the concept of "absolute liability" for industries that cause environmental damage.
In August 1986, the Shriram Foods and Fertilizers factory in Delhi released a toxic gas called Oleum
into the surrounding area, causing widespread health problems and environmental damage. The leak
resulted in the hospitalization of over 200 people and the death of one person. The case was brought
before the Supreme Court of India, which ordered the closure of the factory and the payment of
compensation to those affected by the leak. The court also directed the Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB) to conduct an environmental audit of the factory and submit a report to the court. In
its report, the CPCB identified several environmental violations by the factory, including inadequate
safety measures, improper waste disposal, and the release of toxic gases into the air and water. The
court held that the factory had committed an act of negligence and violated the provisions of the
Environment Protection Act. The court also introduced the concept of "absolute liability" in
environmental law, which holds industries strictly liable for any environmental damage caused by
their operations, regardless of whether they were negligent or intentional. This means that industries
are responsible for compensating victims of environmental damage, regardless of whether they took
reasonable care or not. The Oleum gas leak case led to the amendment of the Environment Protection
Act, 1986, to include the concept of absolute liability. The act was amended in 1991 to hold industries
strictly liable for any damage caused by their operations, and to provide for compensation to victims
of environmental damage.
Page 39 of 49
2. Category 2 Animal Waste - includes waste generated from research or veterinary hospitals,
etc.
3. Category 3 Microbiological Waste - includes laboratory cultures, stock, and microbiological
waste, etc.
4. Category 4 Sharps Waste - includes needles, syringes, scalpels, broken glass, etc.
The rules require healthcare facilities to treat and dispose of bio-medical waste in accordance with
the standards set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the State Pollution Control Boards
(SPCBs). The treatment and disposal of bio-medical waste must be carried out by authorized agencies
and in accordance with the guidelines set out by the CPCB. The Bio-Medical Waste (Management and
Handling) Rules, 2016, also require healthcare facilities to maintain records of the bio-medical waste
generated, treated, and disposed of, and to submit regular reports to the SPCBs and the CPCB. Non-
compliance with the rules can result in penalties and legal action, including fines and closure of the
facility. In addition, the Environment Protection Act, 1986, provides for imprisonment and fines for
violations of environmental laws and regulations.
Eco-labeling scheme
The Eco-labeling scheme is a provision under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, that aims to
promote environmentally friendly products and services. Eco-labeling is a voluntary scheme that
encourages businesses to adopt sustainable practices in their manufacturing and production
processes. The scheme provides a means for consumers to identify and purchase products that have
a lower impact on the environment. The Eco-labeling scheme is administered by the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS), a statutory body under the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution.
The BIS is responsible for setting the standards for eco-labeling, evaluating products and services
against these standards, and awarding eco-labels to products and services that meet the criteria.
Under the Eco-labeling scheme, products and services are evaluated against environmental criteria,
such as energy efficiency, resource conservation, and pollution prevention. The BIS also considers
the entire life cycle of the product or service, from raw materials and manufacturing to disposal and
recycling. Products and services that meet the environmental criteria are awarded an eco-label,
which can be displayed on the product or packaging. The eco-label indicates that the product or
service has met the environmental standards set by the BIS and is environmentally friendly.
The Eco-labeling scheme benefits both businesses and consumers. For businesses, eco-labeling can
provide a competitive advantage by distinguishing their products and services from those of
competitors. Eco-labeling can also lead to cost savings through improved efficiency and reduced
waste. For consumers, eco-labeling provides information about the environmental impact of products
and services, enabling them to make informed purchasing decisions.
The Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, are a set
of provisions under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, that aim to regulate the management,
handling, and disposal of hazardous waste in India. It does not deal with wastewater, municipal solid
waste, radioactive or bio wastes. It also assigns duty of safe & environmentally sound recycle/disposal
to the occupier. Occupier must take all necessary precautions to avoid accidents & limit its
consequences to humans and environment. The rules were formulated to ensure the safe and
environmentally sound handling of hazardous waste, to minimize the generation of hazardous waste,
and to promote the reuse, recycle and recovery of hazardous waste. These rules apply to the
generation, handling, storage, transport, and disposal of hazardous waste. The rules require every
generator of hazardous waste to obtain authorization from the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB)
or Pollution Control Committee (PCC) for the storage, transportation, treatment, and disposal of
hazardous waste. The rules also require every operator of a facility that handles hazardous waste to
obtain authorization from the SPCB or PCC.
Under the rules, hazardous waste is classified into various categories based on its characteristics and
composition. The rules also prescribe different management practices for the various categories of
hazardous waste. The rules require hazardous waste to be treated, stored, transported, and disposed
of in a manner that is safe and environmentally sound. The Hazardous Waste Rules, 2016, also
prescribe standards for the treatment and disposal of hazardous waste. The rules require hazardous
Page 40 of 49
waste to be treated using appropriate technologies to ensure that it is converted to non-hazardous
or less hazardous. The rules also require hazardous waste to be disposed of in a manner that does
not pose a threat to human health and the environment. The Rules also require generators and
operators of facilities that handle hazardous waste to maintain records and submit reports to the
SPCB or PCC. The rules also provide for the inspection of facilities that handle hazardous waste to
ensure compliance with the rules. These rules do noy apply to Waste Water & Exhaust gases, waste
from ships beyond 5KM away from the baseline, radio-active wastes, Bio-medical wastes and
Municipal Sold Wastes.
The Nodal ministry MoEF controls transboundary movement, prohibits import & export of hazardous
waste to/from India for disposal with an exception to import for recycling/recovery/reuse with
necessary prior consent from both countries. Liabilities assigned to importer, transporter and
operator for all damages caused if any. Some specific definitions from this rule we need to know
include:
a) Hazardous Waste: As per the rules, ‘hazardous waste’ refers to any waste that has the
potential to cause harm to human health and the environment. It includes waste
generated from various sources such as industrial processes, treatment plants,
manufacturing activities, and chemical laboratories. The waste may be in solid, liquid,
or gaseous form and may exhibit characteristics like flammability, toxicity, reactivity, or
corrosiveness.
b) Occupier: The term ‘occupier’ refers to any person who has control over the operation
or process generating hazardous waste or who is responsible for its generation, storage,
collection, or disposal. It includes any individual, company, or organization that owns or
operates a facility generating hazardous waste. He is also responsible for:
a. Prevention
b. Minimization
c. Reuse
d. Recycle
e. Recovery & utilization (co-processing), and
f. Safe Disposal
c) Hazardous Waste Generator: A ‘hazardous waste generator’ refers to any person or
entity whose actions lead to the generation of hazardous waste. This includes industries,
businesses, institutions, healthcare facilities, or any other entity that produces waste
meeting the criteria of hazardous waste.
d) Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facility (TSDF): A "Treatment,
Storage, and Disposal Facility" (TSDF) is a facility authorized by the regulatory authorities
for the treatment, storage, or disposal of hazardous waste. These facilities must meet
specific criteria and standards to ensure safe management and minimize the impact on
human health and the environment.
Bio-medical Waste
The Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016, is a legislation that focuses on the proper
management and handling of bio-medical waste generated from healthcare facilities. The rules
provide definitions and provisions to ensure the safe handling, treatment, and disposal of bio-medical
waste. Here are the key definitions and provisions under these rules:
a) Bio-medical Waste: The rules define "bio-medical waste" as any waste generated during the
diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals, or in research activities
pertaining to these areas. It includes waste generated from healthcare facilities, research
laboratories, and veterinary institutions.
b) Occupier: The term "occupier" refers to any person or organization that has control over the
institution, generating bio-medical waste, including the person responsible for the
management and administration of the institution.
c) Authorized Person: An "authorized person" refers to an individual or officer authorized by
the respective SPCB or PCC (Pollution Control Committee) to perform inspections, inquiries,
or other tasks related to the implementation of the bio-medical waste management rules.
d) Common Bio-medical Waste Treatment Facility (CBWTF): A "Common Bio-medical Waste
Treatment Facility" is a facility authorized by the regulatory authorities for the treatment
and disposal of bio-medical waste generated by multiple healthcare establishments.
Segregation and Storage:
Page 41 of 49
a) The rules specify the segregation of bio-medical waste into various categories, such as
general waste, infectious waste, hazardous waste, pharmaceutical waste, and so on.
b) Healthcare facilities are required to provide separate color-coded bins or containers for
different types of bio-medical waste to ensure proper segregation and prevent cross-
contamination.
c) The rules also provide guidelines for the storage of bio-medical waste, including requirements
for labeling, securing waste containers, and maintaining records of waste generation and
disposal.
Treatment and Disposal:
a) The rules outline the requirements for on-site treatment of bio-medical waste by healthcare
facilities, including options such as incineration, autoclaving, microwave treatment, or any
other approved method.
b) The rules also emphasize the establishment and utilization of Common Bio-medical Waste
Treatment Facilities (CBWTFs) for the treatment and disposal of bio-medical waste generated
by healthcare facilities that are unable to perform on-site treatment.
c) The disposal of treated bio-medical waste must be done in an environmentally sound manner,
following specific guidelines and standards.
Responsibilities and Duties:
a) The occupier of a healthcare facility is responsible for ensuring the proper management of
bio-medical waste generated within the premises.
b) The rules impose obligations on healthcare facilities to maintain records of bio-medical waste
generation, treatment, and disposal. These records must be made available for inspection by
authorized persons.
c) Regular training and awareness programs on bio-medical waste management must be
conducted for healthcare personnel involved in waste handling and management.
Authorization and Monitoring:
a) The rules require healthcare facilities generating bio-medical waste to obtain authorization
from the respective State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee.
b) The regulatory authorities are responsible for monitoring and enforcing compliance with the
bio-medical waste management rules. They conduct inspections, issue guidelines, and take
necessary actions to ensure proper implementation of the rules.
Page 42 of 49
Stockholm Conference
The Stockholm Conference was a landmark event in the history of environmental protection. It was
held in Stockholm, Sweden, from June 5 to 16, 1972, and was organized by the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). ‘Only One Earth’ was the motto. The conference was attended by
representatives from 114 countries, as well as various intergovernmental organizations and NGOs.
The conference marked the first time that the global community came together to discuss
environmental issues on an international level. It resulted in the adoption of the Stockholm
Declaration, which outlined the principles and objectives of international environmental protection.
The Stockholm Declaration recognized the need for cooperation between nations to address
environmental issues and emphasized the importance of sustainable development, highlighted the
need for environmental protection to be integrated into development plans and called for the
development of international agreements to protect the environment. The Stockholm Conference
and the Stockholm Declaration were instrumental in the development of international environmental
law. They led to the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme, the establishment of
the World Environment Day, and the adoption of several international environmental agreements,
including the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, and the Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance. The Stockholm Conference played a crucial role in raising
awareness of environmental issues on a global level and in establishing the framework for
international cooperation on environmental protection. It also led to the adoption of the Environment
Protection Act, 1986, in India, which provides a legal framework for environmental protection and
sustainable development in the country.
The main objectives of the Stockholm Conference on Environmental Protection were to place
environmental issues at the forefront of international concerns and to start a dialogue between
industrialized and developing countries on the link between economic growth, pollution of the air,
water, and oceans, and the well-being of people around the world. The conference aimed to protect
and improve the human environment, which is a major issue affecting the well-being of peoples and
economic development throughout the world. The Stockholm Declaration, which contained 26
principles, was a significant outcome of the conference and laid the foundation for several other
initiatives by the UN and other organizations around the world for the protection and preservation of
the environment. Principles of the Stockholm Declaration:
Page 43 of 49
24. There must be cooperation on international issues
25. International organizations should help to improve the environment
26. Weapons of mass destruction must be eliminated
Rio-di-Janeiro conference
The Rio de Janeiro Conference, also known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from June 3 to 14, 1992. The conference
was attended by 172 countries, including 108 heads of state or government, and representatives of
over 2,400 non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The conference addressed a range of
environmental and sustainable development issues and resulted in the adoption of several landmark
agreements and declarations. Some of the key outcomes of the Rio de Janeiro Conference are as
follows:
1. Agenda 21: The conference adopted Agenda 21, a comprehensive plan of action to achieve
sustainable development in the 21st century. Agenda 21 covers a range of issues, including
poverty, health, education, energy, agriculture, and biodiversity.
2. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): The conference
adopted the UNFCCC, which aims to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference with the climate
system.
3. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): The conference adopted the CBD, which aims to
conserve biological diversity, promote sustainable use of its components, and ensure the fair
and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources.
4. Forest Principles: The conference adopted the Forest Principles, which provide a framework
for the conservation, management, and sustainable development of all types of forests.
5. Declaration on Environment and Development: The conference adopted the Declaration on
Environment and Development, which recognizes the critical linkages between environment
and development and calls for integrated and sustainable development.
The Rio de Janeiro Conference was a historic event that raised awareness about the importance of
sustainable development and the need for international cooperation to address global environmental
challenges. The agreements and declarations adopted at the conference continue to guide
international efforts to promote sustainable development and protect the environment. Here are
some of the principles agreed upon during the Rio Conference 1992 on Environment:
1. The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: Countries have a common
responsibility to protect the environment, but they have different responsibilities based on
their level of economic development and historical contribution to environmental problems.
2. The precautionary principle: When there is a risk of harm to the environment or human
health, precautionary measures should be taken, even if the scientific evidence is not
conclusive.
3. The polluter pays principle: Those who pollute or damage the environment should bear the
costs of remediation and clean-up.
4. The principle of sustainable development: Economic development should meet the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.
5. The principle of public participation: People have a right to participate in decisions that
affect their environment and to have access to information relevant to those decisions.
6. The principle of intergenerational equity: Resources should be used in a way that does not
harm future generations.
7. The principle of integration: Environmental considerations should be integrated into all
aspects of decision-making, including economic and social development.
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 as an international treaty under the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Its main goal is to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions that contribute to global warming. The protocol sets binding targets for industrialized
countries to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases by a
Page 44 of 49
certain percentage below their 1990 levels. The Kyoto Protocol entered into force in 2005 and has
been ratified by 192 countries.
The Montreal Protocol, adopted in 1987, is an international treaty aimed at phasing out the
production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS), such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). ODS are chemicals that destroy the ozone layer, which
protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. The Montreal Protocol has been successful in
reducing the production and consumption of ODS, and it has been ratified by 197 countries.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty adopted in 1992 aimed at
conserving biodiversity, promoting sustainable use of its components, and ensuring the fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. The CBD has three main
objectives: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the
fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. The CBD has been
ratified by 196 countries.
Johannesburg Declaration
The Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development is a global political statement that was
adopted at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg, South Africa
in 2002. The Johannesburg Declaration builds upon the earlier Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro
in 1992 and highlights the importance of achieving sustainable development goals by promoting
economic, social and environmental sustainability. The Johannesburg Declaration outlines the main
challenges facing the world today, including poverty, inequality, environmental degradation, and the
depletion of natural resources. It recognizes that sustainable development requires an integrated
approach to social, economic, and environmental policies, and highlights the importance of
international cooperation to achieve this goal. The Johannesburg Declaration emphasizes the need
for sustainable production and consumption patterns, and the promotion of renewable energy
sources. It also calls for increased investment in sustainable agriculture, water management, and the
protection of biodiversity and ecosystems. The Declaration recognizes the importance of involving all
stakeholders, including local communities, civil society, and the private sector, in sustainable
development efforts. In addition to outlining key principles for sustainable development, the
Johannesburg Declaration also contains specific commitments by governments, including the
commitment to eradicate poverty, provide access to clean water and sanitation, and promote
sustainable patterns of consumption and production. The Declaration also calls for increased financial
and technical assistance to developing countries to help them achieve their sustainable development
goals. Here are some of the principles agreed upon during the Johannesburg Summit on Environment:
1. The principle of sustainable development: Economic development should meet the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
2. The principle of poverty eradication: Sustainable development requires poverty eradication
and efforts to address social and economic inequalities.
3. The principle of good governance: Sustainable development requires good governance at all
levels, including transparency, accountability, and participation.
4. The principle of integration: Environmental considerations should be integrated into all
aspects of decision-making, including economic and social development.
5. The principle of partnership: Sustainable development requires partnership and cooperation
among governments, civil society, and the private sector.
6. The principle of access to information: People have a right to access information relevant
to decisions that affect their environment and their lives.
7. The principle of equity: The benefits and costs of sustainable development should be shared
equitably among all people and countries.
Page 45 of 49
dimensions. This ambitious and transformational vision seeks to create a world free of poverty,
hunger, disease and want, where all life can thrive, and where human rights and human dignity, the
rule of law, justice, equality and non-discrimination, and respect for race, ethnicity and cultural
diversity are respected. The agenda consists of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169
targets, which seek to build on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and complete what these
did not achieve. The MDGs, which began in the year 2000 and ended in 2015, helped to lift nearly
one billion people out of extreme poverty, combat hunger, and allow more girls to attend school.
The MDGs, specifically goal seven, helped to protect the planet by practically eliminating global
consumption of ozone-depleting substances; planting trees to offset the loss of forests; and increasing
the percent of total land and coastal marine areas worldwide.
The SDGs carry on the momentum generated by the MDGs with an ambitious post-2015 development
agenda that may cost over $4 trillion each year. The SDGs are applicable to all countries, taking into
account different national realities, capacities and levels of development, and respecting national
policies and priorities. They are also committed to ensuring that no one is left behind, and that the
Goals and targets are met for all nations and peoples and for all segments of society. The SDGs build
on over a decade of work by participating countries and target multiple areas for action, such as
poverty and sanitation, and plans to build up local economies while addressing people's social needs.
In essence, the 17 SDGs are:
A. No Poverty;
B. Zero Hunger;
C. Good Health and Well-being;
D. Quality Education;
E. Gender Equality;
F. Clean Water and Sanitation;
G. Affordable and Clean Energy;
H. Decent Work and Economic Growth;
I. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure;
J. Reduced Inequality;
K. Sustainable Cities and Communities;
L. Responsible Consumption and Production;
M. Climate Action;
N. Life Below Water;
O. Life on Land;
P. Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions; and
Q. Partnerships to Achieve the Goal.
The SDGs also rely on the private business sector to make contributions that change impractical and
unsustainable consumption and production patterns. Limited progress has been made with the SDGs,
however. According to the UN, many people are living healthier lives now compared to the start of
the millennium, representing one area of progress made by the MDGs and SDGs.
For example, the UN reported that between 2012 and 2017, 80 percent of live births worldwide had
assistance from a skilled health professional—an improvement from 62 percent between 2000 and
2005. On some measures of poverty, only slight improvements have been made: The 2018 SDGs Report
states that 9.2 percent of the world's workers who live with family members made less than $1.90
per person per day in 2017, representing less than a 1 percent improvement from 2015. Another issue
is the recent rise in world hunger. Rates had been steadily declining, but the 2018 SDGs Report stated
that over 800 million people were undernourished worldwide in 2016, which is up from 777 million
people in 2015.
Another area of the SDGs that lacks progress is gender equality. Multiple news outlets have recently
reported that no country is on track to achieve gender equality by 2030 based on the SDG gender
index. On a scale of zero to 100, where a score of 100 means equality has been achieved, Denmark
was the top performing country out of 129 countries with score slightly under 90. A score of 90 or
Page 46 of 49
above means a country is making excellent progress in achieving the goals, and 59 or less is considered
poor headway.
In fall of 2019, heads of state and government will convene at the United Nations Headquarters in
New York to assess the progress in the 17 SDGs. The following year—2020—marks the deadline for 21
of the 169 SDG targets. At this time, UN member states will meet to make a decision to update these
targets. In addition to global efforts to achieve the SDGs, according to the UN, there are ways that
an individual can contribute to progress: save on electricity while home by unplugging appliances
when not in use; go online and opt in for paperless statements instead of having bills mailed to the
house; and report bullying online when seen in a chat room or on social media.
Page 47 of 49
act at central level, there are rules on Municipal Solid Waste (2000), Hazardous Waste (2008),
Electronic Waste (2011) & Biomedical Waste.
Municipal Solid waste (Food Rubbish, commercial, institutional, street sweeping, construction /
demolition & sanitation) Rules assign duty to Municipal Authority to develop infrastructure for house-
to-house collection on regular pre-informed time, hygienic & sanitary storage (Green for
Biodegradable, White for recyclable & black for other waste separated), transport, process, recycle
& disposal.
The Solid Waste Management Rules 2016 were formulated by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change to improve the management of solid waste in India. The rules provide a
comprehensive framework for the collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing, and
disposal of solid waste. Manual handling is prohibited unless done with safety precaution as an
exception, and collection/transportation vehicles must be covered. Landfill sites must have
appropriate distance from habitation clusters, water bodies, forest areas etc., with periodic health
check and post-closure care for at least 15 years. SPCB to monitor waste processing & disposal
facilities like landfill. Here are some key provisions in the Solid Waste Management Rules 2016:
1. Segregation of Waste at Source: The rules emphasize the segregation of solid waste at the
source into categories such as biodegradable waste, non-biodegradable waste, domestic
hazardous waste, and construction and demolition waste.
2. Responsibilities of Waste Generators: The rules place responsibility on waste generators to
segregate and store waste in separate bins or containers, ensuring proper waste disposal.
They are encouraged to adopt measures to minimize waste generation and promote recycling.
3. Door-to-Door Collection: The rules require local authorities to provide door-to-door
collection services for segregated solid waste, leading to regular waste collection from
households, commercial establishments, and institutions.
4. Waste Processing and Treatment: The rules emphasize waste processing and treatment
through composting, biomethanation, recycling, and waste-to-energy conversion. It promotes
the adoption of appropriate technologies and methods for efficient and environmentally
sustainable waste management.
5. Sanitary Landfilling: The rules outline criteria for sanitary landfilling, specifying guidelines
for site selection, design, construction, and operation of landfills. This provision ensures that
landfills are properly engineered to prevent environmental contamination and protect public
health.
6. Responsibilities of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs): The rules assign responsibilities to ULBs for
solid waste management, including waste collection, transportation, processing, and
disposal. It emphasizes the establishment of waste management infrastructure and the
promotion of public awareness and participation.
7. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): The rules introduce the concept of EPR, making
producers responsible for the environmentally sound management of the waste generated
from their products. This provision encourages producers to adopt eco-friendly designs,
promote recycling, and take responsibility for the entire lifecycle of their products.
8. Integration of Waste Pickers and Informal Sector: The rules recognize the contributions of
waste pickers and the informal sector in waste management. It promotes their integration
into the formal waste management system, ensuring their livelihoods, and providing them
with necessary support and safeguards.
9. Public Awareness and Capacity Building: The rules emphasize the need for public awareness
and capacity building programs to educate individuals, communities, and stakeholders about
proper waste management practices, segregation, and recycling.
Page 48 of 49
3. MC Mehta v. Kamal Nath & others - Damages for restoration of ecological balances and
compensation to victim for Article 14 violation
4. Municipality v. Vardicharan – Private polluters for hazardous waste.
5. Sher Singh v. State of Himachal Pradesh – State has constitutional obligation (Article 48A &
51 A(g)) to protect & improve environment
Disclaimer
The information contained in this document is provided for informational purposes only and should
not be relied upon as legal, business, or any other advice. The author makes no representations or
warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the completeness, accuracy, reliability, suitability
or availability with respect to the document or the information, acts, statutes, or related information
outcome contained in the document for any purpose. Any reliance you place on such information is
therefore strictly at your own risk.
In no event will the author be liable for any loss or damage including without limitation, indirect or
consequential loss or damage, or any loss or damage whatsoever arising from loss of data or profits
arising out of, or in connection with, the use of this document.
The author (Hemant Patil, GLC Mumbai Batch of 2025, hbpatil@gmail.com) reserves the right to
modify, add, or delete any information in this document at any time without prior notice. For
obtaining a recent & updated copy of this document, you can send the request with your clear &
accurate identification (Full Name, Contact, Institution etc).
Page 49 of 49