UNIT -1

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING

DEFINITION OF AI:
Artificial intelligence is a branch of computer science that studies how to
program computers to exhibit apparently intelligent behaviour.
Father of ‘AI’ – John McCarthy
Turing test for ‘ML’ – Alan Turing
TOPICS OF AI:
Learning systems:
1. *Definition of Learning: Herbert Simon defines learning as any process by
which a system improves its performance through experience.
2. *Learning Example: Using a child learning pronunciation as an example,
where the system adjusts based on error signals until the error rate is negligible.
3. *Adaptive Learning: Describes the process as adaptive learning, continuously
adjusting parameters to achieve results close to the training dataset.
4. *Supervised Learning: Highlights the importance of Artificial Neural
Networks (ANN) in solving supervised learning problems.
5. *Other Learning Methods: Mentions inductive learning (e.g., 'birds fly') and
analogy-based learning (e.g., comparing electron motion to planetary
movement).
6. *Overall: Learning involves continuous adjustment of parameters, with
various methods such as supervised learning and analogy-based learning
contributing to AI systems.
Knowledge representation and reasoning:
1. *Definition of Knowledge: Expertise and skills acquired by individuals,
challenging to represent in computers.
2. *Knowledge Base in AI: Analogous to a database, crucial for building expert
systems and facilitating reasoning.
3. *Efficiency in Reasoning: Achieving a predefined target state with fewer
transitions enhances the efficiency of reasoning systems.
4. *Minimization of Intermediate States: Efficiency requires minimizing
intermediate states, emphasizing the need for an organized and complete
knowledge base.
5. *Importance of Knowledge Organization: The organization of knowledge is
crucial in knowledge engineering for effective problem-solving.
6. *Knowledge Representation Techniques: Various techniques in AI, including
production rules, predicate logic, frames, filler and slots, semantic nets, are used
for knowledge representation.
7. *Choice of Representation: The selection of knowledge representation
depends on user preference and the nature of applications.
8. *Reasoning Problem Focus: Testing the satisfiability of a goal from a given
set of data and knowledge is the primary concern in reasoning problems.
Planning:
1. *Planning in AI: Significant area in artificial intelligence with a distinction
from reasoning.
2. *Problem Planning Definition: Involves determining a methodology to
achieve a successful result from known initial states.
3. *Applications: Extensively used in robotics and navigational problems,
contributing to automated planning.
4. *Focus on Decomposition: Planning emphasizes breaking down an original
problem into suitable subunits and interacting on these subunits during problem-
solving.
5. *Components of Planning System: Major components include heuristic
functions, a set of rules in the problem state, and a deduction process.
6. *Deduction Process: Aims to find a solution by identifying a sequence of
operators that transition an initial state to the goal state.
Knowledge Acquisition:
1. *Knowledge Acquisition Significance: Challenging for both humans and
computers.
2. *Scope of Knowledge Acquisition: Involves creating new knowledge,
activating structures in existing knowledge, learning from the environment, and
fine-tuning.
3. *Automated Acquisition: Machine learning enables automated knowledge
acquisition, a dynamic research area in AI.
4. *Knowledge Storage Mechanisms: Various mechanisms like frames,
conceptual dependency, scripts, and semantic nets are used to store acquired
knowledge.
5. *Data Structures for Knowledge Store: Frames, conceptual dependency,
scripts, semantic nets are data structures aligned with different knowledge
representation schemes.
Intelligent search:
1. *Intelligent Search in AI: Search problems in artificial intelligence are non-
deterministic, dependent on given datasets.
2. *Deterministic vs. Non-deterministic: Unlike deterministic computer science
searches, AI searches lack a predefined order for visiting elements in the search
space.
3. *Search Techniques: Various techniques include Best-first search, greedy
search, BFS, DFS, among others.
4. *Mining Databases: Choice of search technique depends on the usage and
nature of data in database mining.
Logic programming:
1. *Evolution of Logic Symbols: Logic symbols have evolved over the past
century for diverse uses.
2. *Mathematical Tools: Mathcautie is used for designing tools to represent
logical statements with symbolic operators.
3. *Proportional Logic: Deals with binary statements using Boolean operators to
handle complex real-world situations.
4. *Predicate Logic: Also known as first-order logic, used in AI-based
programming; PROLOG (PROgramming in LOGic) is a classic example.
5. *Logic Programming: A significant area in AI research, covering knowledge
representation structures.
6. *PROLOG: Widely used for artificial intelligence programming, aims to
expand to handle temporal models and parallel programming environments.
7. *LISP: Another AI programming language (LISt Processor) capable of
handling strings but surpassed by modern languages like R, Python, and Java.
8. *Modern Languages: Present languages like R, Python, and Java outperform
older languages, offering various supporting packages for machine learning.
Open-source machine learning benchmarking tools are also available.
Soft computing:
1. *Soft Computing Overview:
- Problem-solving technique inspired by nature.
- Utilizes statistical learning, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms, fractals,
probabilistic reasoning, and chaos theories.
2. *Nature-Inspired Techniques:
- Soft computing techniques mimic the intelligence found in nature.
- Draws inspiration from the human brain's ability to process data, learn,
generalize from rules, recognize patterns, and make decisions.
3. *Engineering Model:
- Human brain serves as an engineering model, demonstrating tasks using
heuristic approximations, low precision, or less generality based on the problem
at hand.
4. *Transfer of Abilities:
- Goal is to transfer human-like abilities into designed models, algorithms,
machines, and AI systems.
- Aims to solve tasks with reasonable accuracy, cost, and time based on
previous experience.
5. *Zadeh's Principle (1994):
- Soft computing's guiding principle is to explore tolerance for imprecision,
uncertainty, and partial truth to achieve tractability, robustness, and low solution
cost.
6. *Techniques and Tools:
- Soft computing encompasses artificial neural nets, fuzzy logic, genetic
algorithms, inductive logic programming, belief calculus, etc.
- Tools used individually or jointly depending on the application domain.
Management of imprecision and uncertainty:
1. *Imprecision and Uncertainty in AI:
 - Data and knowledge bases in AI problems, like reasoning and planning,
often contain incompleteness.
- Incompleteness leads to imprecision (lack of appropriate data) and
uncertainty (lack of certainty in knowledge).
2. *Imprecision in Data:
- Imprecision occurs due to a lack of appropriate data and poor authenticity of
sources in databases.
3. *Uncertainty in Knowledge:
- Uncertainty arises from incomplete knowledge in the knowledge base.
4. *Challenges in Reasoning:
- Dealing with both imprecision in data and uncertainty in knowledge poses a
complex challenge in reasoning.
5. *Techniques for Handling Incompleteness:
- Various techniques and tools exist for reasoning under incomplete data and
knowledge.
- Examples include fuzzy, stochastic, and belief network models.
6. *Stochastic Systems:
- In stochastic systems, the sum of transitions from one state to another is
strictly unity.
7. *Fuzzy Reasoning:
- Fuzzy reasoning allows the sum of membership values for transitions to be
greater than or equal to one.
- Useful in solving problems involving uncertainty.
8. *Belief Network Model:
- Updates stochastic fuzzy beliefs in the network, stopping when equilibrium
is reached.
9. *Fuzzy Petri Net:
- Applied as a fuzzy tool for handling both imprecision of data and indecision
of knowledge through a unified approach.
BRANCHES OF AI:
Symbolic ai:
1. Symbolic artificial intelligence dominated research from the 1950s to the
1980s.
2. It relied on high-level representations in problem domains.
3. Projects like expert systems aimed for general human-like intelligence.
4. Post-1980s, focus shifted to specific subproblems.
5. Doubts emerged about symbolic systems imitating all human processes.
6. Challenges included limitations in mimicking robotics and perception
learning.
Statistical ai:
1. Statistical AI draws inspiration from mathematics for diverse applications.
2. Inclusion of statistical approaches enhances learning in AI research.
3. Computational models based on mathematical principles excel in real-world
applications.
Computational ai:
1. *Computational Intelligence:
- Solves real-world problems using soft computing techniques.
- Includes artificial neural networks, support vector machines, fuzzy logic,
heuristic search, etc.
- Modifies statistical techniques like the Markov model for machine learning.
2. *Branches of AI (John McCarthy):
1. Logical AI: Represents world knowledge in mathematical logical language.
2. Search AI: Examines possibilities efficiently, crucial for intelligent
applications.
3. Pattern Recognition: Uses algorithms for detecting patterns in various data.
4. Representation: Facts about the world represented in symbolic form, used
in AI algorithms.
5. Inference: Derives logical conclusions; involves non-monotonic reasoning.
 6. Common Sense Knowledge and Reasoning: Focuses on human-like
understanding but faces challenges.
7. Learning from Experience: AI programs can learn from specialized
applications but have limitations.
8. Planning: Deals with world facts and action effects, crucial for goal
achievement.
9. Epistemology: Studies the philosophy of knowledge in AI.
10. Ontology: Examines the types of things that exist in AI programs.
11. Heuristics: Uses mathematical functions to discover ideas embedded in
programs.
12. Genetic Programming: Soft computing technique evolving from genetic
algorithms to solve tasks

APPLICATION OF AI:
1. *Game Playing:
- Game theory models interactive situations.
- AI applied successfully in games with large search spaces.
- Chess, a prime example of AI success.
2. *Expert Systems:
- AI software solving specialized problems.
- MYCIN: Early expert system for medical diagnoses.
- Knowledge engineering extracts human expertise for AI decision-making.
3. *Natural Language Processing (NLP):
- Machines understanding and processing human languages.
- Tasks include summarization, language generation, and sentiment analysis.
- Fusion of computer science and linguistics.
4. *Image Understanding:
- AI interprets two-dimensional arrays of pixels in images.
- Low, medium, and high-level vision processes.
 - Pattern classification and knowledge-based interpretation used.
5. *Robotics:
- AI applied to robotics for precision tasks and space exploration.
- Deep neural networks enhance robotic capabilities.
- Robotics expected to flourish in the 21st century.
6. *Machine Learning:
- Involves designing algorithms for computers to learn from data.
- Decision tree learning, Bayesian networks, and association learning are
examples.
- Neural networks mimic human brain for learning and recognition.
7. *Inductive Logic Programming (ILP):
- Uses logic programming for rule creation.
- Reasoning from specific observations to create general hypotheses.
- Mainly applied to prediction and classification problems.
8. *Hidden Markov Model (HMM):
- Statistical model used in pattern recognition, speech, and language
processing.
- Consists of hidden states, visible states, and a Markov process.
- Utilizes transition probability matrix and emission probability matrix.
9. *Pattern Recognition:
- Focus on supervised and unsupervised learning.
- Aims to classify data based on knowledge or statistical information.
- Application areas include optical character recognition and speech
processing.