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Full Download Ebook PDF Inquiry Into Life 16th Edition by Sylvia Mader PDF
Full Download Ebook PDF Inquiry Into Life 16th Edition by Sylvia Mader PDF
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Chapter 13 Evidence of Evolution Chapter 11 DNA Technology
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Chapter 7 DNA Structure and Gene...
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ix
CONTENTS
Chapter
1 Chapter
4
Biology: The Study of Life 1 Membrane Structure and Function 63
1.1 The Characteristics of Life 2 4.1 Plasma Membrane Structure and Function 64
1.2 The Classification of Organisms 6 4.2 The Permeability of the Plasma Membrane 66
1.3 The Process of Science 8 4.3 Modifications of Cell Surfaces 74
1.4 Challenges Facing Science 13
Chapter
5
Unit 1 Cell Biology Cell Division 79
5.1 The Cell Cycle 80
5.2 Control of the Cell Cycle 81
Chapter
2 5.3 Mitosis: Maintaining the Chromosome
Number 84
The Molecules of Cells 17
5.4 Meiosis: Reducing the Chromosome Number 88
2.1 Introduction to Chemistry 18
5.5 Comparison of Meiosis with Mitosis 92
2.2 Molecules and Compounds 22
5.6 The Human Life Cycle 94
2.3 Chemistry of Water 25
6
2.4 Organic Molecules 28
Chapter
2.5 Carbohydrates 29
2.6 Lipids 32 Metabolism: Energy and Enzymes 99
2.7 Proteins 34 6.1 Life and the Flow of Energy 100
2.8 Nucleic Acids 38 6.2 Energy Transformations and Metabolism 102
6.3 Enzymes and Metabolic Pathways 104
Chapter
3 6.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
and Metabolism 109
Cell Structure and Function 43
3.1 The Cellular Level of Organization
3.2 Prokaryotic Cells 46
44
Chapter
7
3.3 Eukaryotic Cells 48 Cellular Respiration 114
3.4 The Cytoskeleton 56 7.1 Overview of Cellular Respiration 115
3.5 Origin and Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell 58 7.2 Outside the Mitochondria: Glycolysis 117
7.3 Outside the Mitochondria: Fermentation 119
7.4 Inside the Mitochondria 121
x
Contents xi
8
12.1 The Blood Vessels 209
Chapter
12.2 Blood 210
Photosynthesis 128 12.3 The Human Heart 217
8.1 Overview of Photosynthesis 129 12.4 Two Cardiovascular Pathways 221
8.2 Plants as Solar Energy Converters 132 12.5 Cardiovascular Disorders 223
8.3 Plants as Carbon Dioxide Fixers 135
8.4 Alternative Pathways for Photosynthesis
8.5 Photosynthesis Versus Cellular Respiration
138
140
Chapter
13
Lymphatic and Immune Systems 230
9
13.1 The Lymphatic System 231
Chapter
13.2 Innate Immunity 233
Plant Organization and Function 144 13.3 Adaptive Immunity 235
9.1 Cells and Tissues of Plants 145 13.4 Active Versus Passive Immunity 239
9.2 Plant Organs and Systems 148 13.5 Adverse Effects of Immune Responses 243
9.3 Monocot Versus Eudicot Plants 150 13.6 Disorders of the Immune System 246
9.4 Organization of Roots 151
9.5 Organization of Stems 154
9.6 Organization of Leaves 160
Chapter
14
Digestive System and Nutrition 251
9.7 Uptake and Transport of Nutrients 162
14.1 The Digestive Tract 252
10
14.2 Accessory Organs of Digestion 258
Chapter
14.3 Digestive Enzymes 260
Plant Reproduction, Growth, and Response 170 14.4 Human Nutrition 261
10.1 Sexual Reproduction 14.5 Eating Disorders 269
in Flowering Plants 171 14.6 Disorders of the Digestive System 271
10.2 Growth and Development 176
10.3 Asexual Reproduction in Plants
10.4 Control of Growth and Responses 181
179 Chapter
15
Respiratory System 276
15.1 The Respiratory System 277
Unit 3 Maintenance of the Human 15.2 Mechanism of Breathing 280
Body 15.3 Gas Exchanges in the Body 283
15.4 Disorders of the Respiratory System 286
Chapter
11 Chapter
16
Human Organization 188
Urinary System and Excretion 294
11.1 Types of Tissues 189
16.1 The Urinary System 295
11.2 Body Cavities and Body Membranes 195
16.2 Anatomy of the Kidney and Excretion 297
11.3 Organ Systems 196
16.3 Regulatory Functions of the Kidneys 300
11.4 Integumentary System 198
16.4 Disorders of the Urinary System 303
11.5 Homeostasis 202
xii Contents
Chapter
17 20.2 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
20.3 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
388
391
Nervous System 308 20.4 Adrenal Glands 392
17.1 Nervous Tissue 309 20.5 Pancreas 394
17.2 Transmission of Nerve Impulses 310 20.6 Other Endocrine Glands 395
17.3 The Central Nervous System 314 20.7 Disorders of the Endocrine System 398
17.4 The Limbic System and Higher Mental
Functions 319
17.5 The Peripheral Nervous System 322 Unit 5 Continuance of the Species
17.6 Drug Abuse 326
17.7 Disorders of the Nervous System 329
Chapter
21
Chapter
18 Reproductive System 405
21.1 Male Reproductive System 406
Senses 336
21.2 Female Reproductive System 409
18.1 Sensory Receptors and Sensations 337
21.3 Ovarian and Uterine Cycles 411
18.2 Somatic Senses 338
21.4 Control of Reproduction 415
18.3 Senses of Taste and Smell 340
21.5 Sexually Transmitted Diseases 417
18.4 Sense of Vision 342
21.6 Reproductive Disorders and Assisted
18.5 Sense of Hearing 346 Reproductive Technologies 425
18.6 Sense of Equilibrium 348
18.7 Disorders That Affect the Senses 349 Chapter
22
Chapter
19 Development and Aging 433
22.1 Fertilization and Early Stages
Musculoskeletal System 356 of Development 434
19.1 Overview of Bone and Cartilage 357 22.2 Processes of Development 437
19.2 Bones of the Skeleton 360 22.3 Human Embryonic and Fetal Development 441
19.3 Skeletal Muscles 368 22.4 Human Pregnancy, Birth, and Lactation 447
19.4 Mechanism of Muscle Fiber Contraction 370 22.5 Aging 450
19.5 Whole Muscle Contraction 376
19.6 Disorders of the Musculoskeletal System 378 Chapter
23
Patterns of Gene Inheritance 457
23.1 Mendel’s Laws 458
23.2 Pedigree Analysis and Genetic Disorders 465
23.3 Beyond Simple Inheritance Patterns 468
23.4 Environmental Influences 471
Contents xiii
Chapter
24 Chapter
28
Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance 475 Microbiology 553
24.1 Gene Linkage 476 28.1 The Microbial World 554
24.2 X-Linked Inheritance 477 28.2 Origin of Microbial Life 555
24.3 Changes in Chromosome Number 480 28.3 Archaea 559
24.4 Changes in Chromosome Structure 484 28.4 Bacteria 561
28.5 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions 566
Chapter
25 Chapter
29
DNA Structure and Gene Expression 488
Protists and Fungi 573
25.1 DNA Structure 489
29.1 Protists 574
25.2 DNA Replication 492
29.2 Fungi 584
25.3 Gene Expression 494
25.4 Control of Gene Expression 500
25.5 Gene Mutations and Cancer 503
Chapter
30
Plants 595
26
30.1 Evolutionary History of Plants 596
Chapter
30.2 Nonvascular Plants 599
Biotechnology and Genomics 510 30.3 Seedless Vascular Plants 601
26.1 DNA Technology 511 30.4 Seed Plants 604
26.2 Biotechnology Products 515
26.3 Gene Therapy 518
26.4 Genomics, Proteomics, and Bioinformatics 520
Chapter
31
Animals: The Invertebrates 613
31.1 Evolutionary Trends Among Animals 614
31.2 The Simplest Invertebrates 617
Unit 6 Evolution and Diversity 31.3 The Spiralia 621
31.4 The Ecdysozoa 629
31.5 Invertebrate Deuterostomes 636
Chapter
27
Evolution of Life 526
Chapter
32
27.1 Theory of Evolution 527 Animals: Chordates and Vertebrates 642
27.2 Evidence of Evolution 529 32.1 Chordates 643
27.3 Microevolution 536 32.2 Vertebrates: Fish and Amphibians 645
27.4 Processes of Evolution 538 32.3 Vertebrates: Reptiles and Mammals 649
27.5 Macroevolution and Speciation 545 32.4 Evolution of the Hominins 654
27.6 Systematics 547 32.5 Evolution of Modern Humans 658
xiv Contents
35
Glossary G-1
Chapter
Index I-1
Nature of Ecosystems 696
35.1 The Biotic Components of Ecosystems 697
35.2 Energy Flow 698
35.3 Global Biogeochemical Cycles 700
SCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE
xv
C H A P T E R
1
Biology: The Study
of Life
1
2 Chapter 1 Biology: The Study of Life
1.1 The Characteristics of Life variety of living organisms ranges in size from bacteria, much too
small to be seen by the naked eye, all the way up to 100-foot-tall
Learning Outcomes giant sequoia trees or 40-ton humpback whales. Humans are just
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
one of those species.
The diversity of life seems overwhelming, and yet all living
1. Identify the basic characteristics of life.
organisms have certain characteristics in common. Taken together,
2. Distinguish between the levels of biological organization.
these characteristics give us insight into the nature of life and help
3. Recognize the importance of adaptation and evolution
to life.
us distinguish living from nonliving organisms. All life generally
shares the following characteristics: (1) is organized, (2) requires
materials and energy, (3) has the ability to reproduce and develop,
Life. Everywhere we look, from the deepest trenches of the oceans (4) responds to its environment, (5) maintains an internal environ-
to the geysers of Yellowstone, we find that planet Earth is teeming ment, and (6) has the capacity to adapt to its environment. Next, we
with life. Without life, our planet would be nothing but a barren will explore each of these characteristics in more detail.
rock hurtling through space. The variety of life on Earth is stagger-
ing. Recent estimates suggest that there are around 8.7 million Life Is Organized
species on the planet, but this number does not include the bacteria Life can be organized in a hierarchy of levels (Fig. 1.2). In trees,
(Fig. 1.1), which historically have been difficult to identify. The humans, and all other organisms, atoms join together to form
humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae E. coli, 7,000× giant sequoia, Sequoiadendron giganteum
planet Earth
Figure 1.1 Diversity of life on Earth. If aliens ever visit our corner of the universe, they will be amazed at the diversity of life on our planet. Yet despite its
diversity, all life shares some common characteristics. (whales): ©iStockphoto/Getty Images; (E. coli): Source: USDA-ARS/Eric Erbe & Chris Pooley, photographers; (sequoia): ©Robert
Glusic/Getty Images; (Earth): ©Ingram Publishing/Alamy; (mushroom): ©IT Stock/age fotostock; (Homo sapiens): ©Blend Images/Ariel Skelley/Getty Images; (Euglena): ©blickwinkel/Alamy
Chapter 1 Biology: The Study of Life 3
Ecosystem
A community plus the physical environment
Community
Interacting populations in a particular area
Population
Organisms of the same species
in a particular area
Species
A group of similar, interbreeding organisms
human tree
Organism
An individual; complex individuals
contain organ systems
Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue leaf tissue
methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms
of the same or different elements
oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element; composed of
electrons, protons, and neutrons
4 Chapter 1 Biology: The Study of Life
Chemicals
The levels of biological organization extend beyond the indi-
vidual. All the members of one species (a group of interbreeding
Chemicals
organisms) in a particular area belong to a population. A tropical
grassland may have a population of zebras, acacia trees, and hu-
mans, for example. The interacting populations of the grasslands
make up a community. The community of populations interacts
with the physical environment to form an ecosystem. Finally, all
the Earth’s ecosystems collectively make up the biosphere.
Decomposers Heat
Life Requires Materials and Energy
Living organisms need an outside source of materials and energy
to maintain their organization and carry on life’s other activities. Figure 1.3 Chemical cycling and energy flow in an
Plants, such as trees, use carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy to ecosystem. In an ecosystem, chemical cycling (aqua arrows) and energy
make their own food. Humans and other animals acquire materials flow (red arrows) begin when plants use solar energy and inorganic nutrients
and energy by eating food. to produce their own food. Chemicals and energy are passed from one
The food we eat provides nutrients, which cells use as build- population to another in a food chain. Eventually, energy dissipates as heat.
ing blocks or for energy—the capacity to do work. Cells use en- With the death and decomposition of organisms, chemicals are returned to
ergy from nutrients to carry out everyday activities. Some nutrients living plants once more.
are broken down completely by chemical reactions to provide the chain as they feed on one another. The energy gradually dissipates
necessary energy to carry out other reactions, such as building and returns to the atmosphere as heat. Because energy does not
proteins. The term metabolism is used to describe all of the chem- cycle, ecosystems could not stay in existence without solar energy
ical reactions that occur in a cell. Cells need energy to perform and the ability of photosynthetic organisms to absorb it.
their metabolic functions, and it takes work to maintain the organi- Energy flow and nutrient cycling in an ecosystem climate
zation of a cell, as well as to maintain an organism. largely determine not only where different ecosystems are found in
The ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on Earth is the the biosphere, but also what communities are found in the ecosys-
sun. Plants and certain other organisms are able to capture solar tem. For example, deserts exist in areas of minimal rain, while
energy and carry on photosynthesis, a process that transforms solar forests require much rain. The two most biologically diverse
energy into the chemical energy of organic nutrient molecules. All ecosystems—tropical rain forests and coral reefs—occur where
life on Earth acquires energy by metabolizing nutrient molecules solar energy is most abundant. One example of an ecosystem in
made by photosynthesizers. This applies even to plants themselves. North America is the grasslands, which are inhabited by populations
The energy and chemical flow between organisms also de- of rabbits, hawks, and various types of grasses, among many others.
fines how an ecosystem functions (Fig. 1.3). Within an ecosystem, These populations interact with each other by forming food chains
chemical cycling and energy flow begin when producers, such as in which one population feeds on another. For example, rabbits feed
grasses, take in solar energy and inorganic nutrients to produce on grasses, while hawks feed on rabbits and other organisms.
food (organic nutrients) by photosynthesis. Chemical cycling
(aqua arrows in Fig. 1.3) occurs as chemicals move from one pop-
ulation to another in a food chain, until death and decomposition
Life Has the Capacity to Reproduce and Develop
allow inorganic nutrients to be returned to the producers once Life comes only from life. All forms of life have the capability
again. Energy (red arrows in Fig. 1.3), on the other hand, flows of reproduction, or to make another organism like themselves.
from the sun through plants and the other members of the food Bacteria, protists, and other single-celled organisms simply split in
Chapter 1 Biology: The Study of Life 5
time. That is, adaptations that result in higher reproductive success 1.2 The Classification of Organisms
tend to increase in frequency in a population from one generation
to the next. This change in the frequency of traits in populations Learning Outcomes
and species is called evolution. Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
Evolution explains both the unity and diversity of life. As
1. Describe how living organisms are classified.
stated at the beginning of this chapter, all organisms share the same
2. Distinguish between the three domains of life.
basic characteristics of life because we all share a common ancestor—
3. Explain the role of supergroups in the classification of life.
the first cell or cells—that arose nearly 4 billion years ago. During
the past 4 billion years, the Earth’s environment has changed dras-
tically, and the diversity of life has been shaped by the evolutionary Because life is so diverse, it is helpful to group organisms into
responses of organisms to these changes. categories. Taxonomy is the discipline of identifying and group-
ing organisms according to certain rules. Taxonomy makes sense
Check Your Progress 1.1 out of the bewildering variety of life on Earth and is meant to pro-
1. List the common characteristics of all living organisms. vide valuable insight into evolution. Systematics is the study of
2. Trace the organization of life from the cell to the biosphere. the evolutionary relationships between species. As systematists
3. Explain how adaptations relate to evolutionary change. learn more about living organisms, the taxonomy often changes.
DNA technology is now widely used by systematists to revise
Chapter 1 Biology: The Study of Life 7
c urrent information and to discover previously unknown relation- Eukaryotic Supergroups and Kingdoms
ships between organisms.
Historically, the classification of domain Eukarya divided organ-
Several of the basic classification categories, also called taxa,
isms into one of four kingdoms (Fig. 1.6). Protists (kingdom Pro-
are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and,
tista), which comprise a very diverse group of organisms, range
finally, species. These are listed in order from the most inclusive
(domains) to the least inclusive (species).
Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Protista
Domains
• Algae, protozoans,
Domains are the largest classification category. Based upon bio- slime molds, and
chemical and genetic evidence, scientists have identified three do- water molds
mains: domain Archaea, domain Bacteria, and domain • Complex single cell
(sometimes filaments,
Eukarya. Both domain Archaea and domain Bacteria contain colonies, or even
single-celled prokaryotes, which lack the membrane-bound nu- multicellular)
cleus and organelles found in the cells of eukaryotes in domain • Absorb, photosynthesize,
160× or ingest food
Eukarya.
Prokaryotes are structurally simple (Fig. 1.5) but metaboli- Paramecium, a single-celled protozoan
cally complex. Bacteria are found almost anywhere—in the water,
soil, and atmosphere, as well as on our skin and in our digestive
tracts. Although some bacteria cause diseases, others are benefi- Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi
cial, both environmentally and commercially. For example, bacte-
• Molds, mushrooms, yeasts,
ria can be used to develop new medicines, to clean up oil spills, or and ringworms
to help purify water in sewage treatment plants. Archaea live in • Mostly multicellular filaments
aquatic environments that lack oxygen or are too salty, too hot, or with specialized, complex cells
• Absorb food
too acidic for most other organisms. Because these environments
are similar to those of the primitive Earth, archaea represent the
first cells that evolved on the planet.
Amanita, a mushroom
Domain Bacteria
Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae
• Prokaryotic cells
of various shapes • Certain algae, mosses, ferns,
• Adaptations to conifers, and flowering plants
all environments • Multicellular, usually with
• Absorb, photosynthesize, specialized tissues,
or chemosynthesize food containing complex cells
• Unique chemical • Photosynthesize food
characteristics
6,600×
a.
8 Chapter 1 Biology: The Study of Life