2023

THE CONDEMNATION
OF BLACKNESS:
Race, Crime, and the
Making of Modern
Urban America, With a
New Preface
AFR. 215 PAPER 3, BOOK RESPONSE

CRUZ
Fall 2023 Afr. 215

Abstract: The book "The Condemnation of Blackness" by Khalil Gibran

Muhammad is work very much like Michelle Alexander it dives in to the mind set
that is created. It explores the historical construction of race, criminalization, and
social perceptions of African Americans in the United States. It's a thought-
provoking read that delves into the intersection of race, crime, and social policy.

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The Condemnation of Blackness:

Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America, With a New Preface, book report
Afr. 215
Due December, 2023
Prof. Kevin Satterfield, Esq.

THE SYNOPSIS

Khalil Gibran Muhammad's book provides a detailed examination of the origins of racial

profiling and the construction of African Americans as inherently criminal in American society.

The book delves into the late 19th and early 20th centuries, highlighting how statistics,

criminology, and social sciences were used to portray African Americans as inherently prone to

criminal behavior. Muhammad illustrates how racial biases influenced policies, leading to

discriminatory practices in law enforcement, housing, and employment. The author traces the

roots of racial profiling to the post-Reconstruction era when new systems of surveillance and

control were established to monitor African American communities. He analyzes how these

systems perpetuated negative stereotypes, ultimately shaping public opinion and policies that

targeted black individuals. Muhammad also explores how influential figures in the fields of

sociology and criminology supported racial biases through their research, which reinforced

prejudices against African Americans.

"The Condemnation of Blackness" scrutinizes pivotal historical moments such as the

Great Migration, linking the migration of African Americans to urban centers with the

intensification of racial stereotypes and discriminatory practices. Muhammad emphasizes the

role of institutions, including the criminal justice system and media, in perpetuating racial

prejudices and shaping the public perception of blackness. Moreover, the book critically

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examines how the criminalization of African Americans was used to justify social and economic

inequality. It highlights how policies such as segregation and disenfranchisement were justified

by associating blackness with criminality, contributing to systemic oppression and hindering the

progress of African American communities.

Throughout the book, Muhammad challenges the narrative of inherent black criminality,

shedding light on how social, economic, and political factors contributed to the construction of

racialized notions of criminal behavior. He emphasizes the importance of understanding this

history to address ongoing issues of racial injustice and discrimination in contemporary society.

MEASURING CRIME

“The issue here was not whether crime was real. Instead, what struck

Selling as the key variable to expose and contextualize was the ideological

currency of black criminality.”

-Chapter 1

In the era of the New Deal in America, annual federal crime reports took precedence over

decennial census data, becoming the primary statistical measure of race and crime. This shift

elevated the significance of racial crime statistics, undoing progress established by black crime

experts dating back to the 1890s. Over time, the authors of these reports gradually eliminated the

"Foreign Born" category from crime tables. By the early 1940s, the category of "Black" became

the sole identifier of deviation from the normative "White" category, consolidating a perception

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of deviance linked explicitly to Blackness. The preceding fifty years witnessed an escalation in

statistical segregation and the expansion of residential segregation. These trends normalized the

perception of black inferiority, validated black inequality, and obscured alternative narratives

and resistance within the black community. This process significantly influenced race relations

throughout the latter half of the twentieth century.

Although the discourse surrounding black criminality in the urban North during the 1930s

was more contested compared to the 1890s, it still largely stemmed from segregationist

ideologies and practices. Competing visions of where African Americans belonged in modern

urban America shaped this discourse. Despite increased contestation, the prevailing ideas about

black criminality remained deeply rooted in segregationist thought. The emphasis on statistical

data and its interpretation molded perceptions of race, crime, and urban life. This phenomenon

not only solidified the notions of racial hierarchy but also influenced how society viewed and

interacted with different racial groups. It highlights the enduring impact of statistical discourse

on shaping societal attitudes and structures surrounding race and crime.

CHAPTER 1

In the first chapter of "The Condemnation of Blackness," titled "Saving the Nation: The

Racial Data Revolution and Negro Problem," Khalil Gibran Muhammad explores the emergence

of a racial data revolution during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in America. The chapter

delves into how statistics became instrumental in shaping perceptions of race and crime,

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particularly focusing on the categorization of African Americans as deviant. Muhammad

discusses the transition from relying on decennial census data to annual federal crime reports as

the primary source for understanding race and crime in New Deal America. He highlights how

these crime reports became the authoritative measure, superseding census data and influencing

perceptions of racial identity and criminality.

Moreover, the chapter emphasizes the significant impact of this shift in data collection

and reporting on African Americans. It notes the exclusion of the "Foreign Born" category from

crime tables, leading to the consolidation of the "Black" category as the sole marker of deviation

from the normative "White" category. This process exacerbated the stigmatization and

stereotyping of African Americans as inherently deviant or criminal. Additionally, Muhammad

explores how the statistical segregation and residential segregation prevalent during this period

contributed to the normalization of perceptions of black inferiority and justified racial inequality.

This statistical narrative not only obscured the diversity and complexity within the black

community but also perpetuated segregationist ideologies and practices.

Overall, this chapter lays the foundation for understanding how the racial data revolution,

particularly in crime reporting, played a pivotal role in shaping societal attitudes, reinforcing

racial hierarchies, and influencing policies that affected African Americans in America during

the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

CHAPTER 2

Chapter 2 of "The Condemnation of Blackness," titled "Writing Crime into Race: Racial

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Criminalization and the Dawn of Jim Crow," delves into the intersection of race, crime, and the

establishment of Jim Crow laws in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in America. Khalil

Gibran Muhammad explores how the perception of African Americans as inherently criminal

was institutionally constructed during this period. The chapter examines the post-Reconstruction

era when southern states began enacting laws aimed at segregating and disenfranchising African

Americans. Muhammad explores how crime statistics were manipulated to reinforce racial

stereotypes, specifically depicting African Americans as prone to criminal behavior. These

statistics were used to justify the implementation of discriminatory laws that restricted African

American rights and liberties.

Furthermore, Muhammad discusses the ways in which crime data and statistical analysis

were used to solidify the link between race and criminality. He highlights how certain criminal

acts were associated more heavily with African Americans, contributing to the creation and

perpetuation of racial hierarchies. The chapter also emphasizes the role of influential figures,

such as criminologists and social scientists, who played a part in legitimizing these racial biases

through their research and writings. These experts, often influenced by prevailing societal

attitudes, reinforced the idea of African American criminality through their interpretations of

crime statistics.

Overall, Chapter 2 explores how the intertwining of race and crime was deliberately

constructed during the Jim Crow era. It illustrates how crime statistics were utilized to justify

discriminatory laws and policies, perpetuating the narrative of African American criminality and

solidifying racial divisions in American society.

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CHAPTER 3

In Chapter 3 of "The Condemnation of Blackness" titled "Incriminating Culture: The

Limits of Racial Liberalism in the Progressive Era," Khalil Gibran Muhammad examines the

Progressive Era's efforts to address racial issues and crime through a lens of racial liberalism.

The chapter explores how Progressive Era reformers aimed to tackle societal problems, including

crime, through social and cultural reforms rather than solely through punitive measures.

However, Muhammad highlights the limitations of this approach, particularly regarding race and

crime.

During this era, a cultural analysis of crime emerged, focusing on environmental and

cultural factors as contributors to criminal behavior. However, Muhammad emphasizes how this

approach often led to the incrimination of African American culture itself, attributing criminal

tendencies to the cultural practices and values within African American communities. The

chapter scrutinizes how racial liberalism, purportedly aiming to uplift and reform society,

inadvertently reinforced racial biases and stereotypes. Muhammad examines the writings and

research of influential figures of the time, showcasing how their perspectives perpetuated the

idea that African American culture was inherently predisposed to criminality.

Furthermore, Muhammad explores how the cultural analysis of crime during the

Progressive Era failed to address structural inequalities and systemic racism, ultimately

reinforcing racial stereotypes rather than dismantling them. Despite attempts at reform, the

approach remained limited in addressing the root causes of racial disparities in crime statistics.

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Overall, Chapter 3 provides a critical examination of the Progressive Era's attempts at addressing

crime through cultural analysis. It highlights how the focus on cultural factors contributed to the

incrimination of African American culture, reinforcing racial biases and limiting the

effectiveness of reforms in addressing systemic racial inequalities within the criminal justice

system.

CHAPTER 4

In Chapter 4 of "The Condemnation of Blackness," titled "Preventing Crime: White and

Black Reformers in Philadelphia," Khalil Gibran Muhammad explores the endeavors of both

white and black reformers in Philadelphia to address crime during the late 19th and early 20th

centuries. The chapter delves into the efforts of reformers from diverse racial backgrounds who

aimed to prevent crime through various strategies. Muhammad highlights how these reformers,

both white and black, worked within their communities to develop initiatives focused on crime

prevention, social upliftment, and moral improvement.

White reformers primarily concentrated on controlling and containing crime through

institutional means, such as creating juvenile courts and advocating for probation services. Their

approach often emphasized the rehabilitation of offenders within the criminal justice system. On

the other hand, black reformers, who faced the challenges of racial segregation and limited

resources, focused on grassroots efforts within African American communities. They aimed to

uplift their communities by providing educational opportunities, social services, and moral

guidance to prevent crime.

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Muhammad underscores the complexities of these reform efforts, detailing how despite

their noble intentions, racial disparities persisted in the approaches taken by white and black

reformers. White reformers often overlooked the structural inequalities faced by African

Americans, while black reformers were constrained by limited resources and the pervasive racial

discrimination of the time. Overall, Chapter 4 highlights the divergent approaches taken by white

and black reformers in Philadelphia to prevent crime. It underscores the challenges faced by both

groups, the systemic racial disparities influencing their efforts, and the limitations of their

approaches in addressing the root causes of crime within the context of racial inequality and

segregation.

CHAPTER 5

In Chapter 5 of "The Condemnation of Blackness," titled "Fighting Crime: Politics and

Prejudice in the City of Brotherly Love," Khalil Gibran Muhammad delves into the political

landscape and the intertwined narratives of crime, race, and politics in Philadelphia during the

late 19th and early 20th centuries. This chapter focuses on the political dynamics surrounding

crime control efforts and how racial prejudices influenced political decisions related to law

enforcement and crime prevention strategies.

Muhammad explores how politicians, particularly during election periods, capitalized on

racial fears and prejudices to gain political support. He highlights how the portrayal of African

Americans as inherently criminal was exploited for political gain, shaping the discourse around

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crime in the city. The chapter delves into the strategies employed by politicians to appeal to the

fears of the predominantly white electorate, often using racialized narratives that associated

crime with African Americans. This approach influenced policy decisions and law enforcement

practices, leading to discriminatory policies and the reinforcement of racial segregation within

the criminal justice system.

Moreover, Muhammad examines the role of the media in perpetuating racial biases and

stereotypes. The media played a significant part in shaping public opinion by sensationalizing

crime stories involving African Americans, further solidifying the link between race and

criminality in the public consciousness. Overall, Chapter 5 sheds light on the complex

intersection of politics, racial prejudice, and crime control strategies in Philadelphia. It

underscores how political agendas and the exploitation of racial fears influenced policies and law

enforcement practices, contributing to the perpetuation of racial biases within the criminal justice

system.

CHAPTER 6

In Chapter 6 of "The Condemnation of Blackness," titled "Policing Racism: Jim Crow

Justice in the Urban North," Khalil Gibran Muhammad examines the manifestation of Jim Crow-

style justice and racial discrimination within the context of law enforcement in the northern

urban areas of the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The chapter

explores how despite being geographically distant from the traditional Jim Crow South, northern

cities exhibited similar patterns of racial discrimination within their criminal justice systems.

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Muhammad highlights the ways in which law enforcement and the legal system in urban

northern areas enforced racial segregation and perpetuated racial biases.

He discusses the practices of police departments and the justice system that

systematically discriminated against African Americans. This discrimination ranged from

unequal treatment in arrests, trials, and sentencing to the establishment of segregated facilities

within the criminal justice system. Muhammad also examines how law enforcement and the legal

system contributed to the criminalization of African American communities. The policing

strategies employed in these urban areas often targeted African American neighborhoods,

leading to higher rates of arrests and harsher treatment compared to white communities.

Furthermore, the chapter delves into the role of the judiciary in upholding discriminatory

practices and reinforcing racial hierarchies within the justice system. Judges and prosecutors,

influenced by racial prejudices, contributed to the marginalization and unequal treatment of

African Americans within the legal framework. Overall, Chapter 6 highlights the existence of

Jim Crow-style practices and racial discrimination within the criminal justice systems of northern

urban areas. It underscores how law enforcement and legal institutions in these regions

perpetuated racial biases, contributing to the systemic inequalities faced by African Americans

within the urban North during this period.

CONCLUSION

In the conclusion of "The Condemnation of Blackness," Khalil Gibran Muhammad

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synthesizes the book's central arguments and discusses the enduring legacy of racial biases in

crime statistics and criminal justice systems in the United States. Muhammad emphasizes how

the historical construction of crime statistics perpetuated racial stereotypes and contributed to the

criminalization of African Americans. He reflects on how these statistical narratives influenced

public perceptions and policy decisions, shaping the social and legal landscapes for generations.

Furthermore, the conclusion underscores the lasting impact of these historical trends on

contemporary discussions surrounding race, crime, and justice. Muhammad highlights the

importance of understanding the historical roots of racial biases within the criminal justice

system to address present-day disparities effectively. He advocates for a reevaluation of societal

perceptions and policies, emphasizing the need to confront and dismantle the deeply ingrained

racial biases that continue to influence law enforcement practices, sentencing, and the overall

treatment of marginalized communities within the criminal justice system.

Additionally, Muhammad encourages a more nuanced understanding of crime statistics,

urging for a critical examination of how these statistics are collected, interpreted, and used. He

stresses the importance of acknowledging the systemic inequalities embedded within the

statistical data to develop more equitable and just approaches to addressing crime and its root

causes. Overall, the conclusion of the book serves as a call to action, urging society to confront

historical legacies of racial biases in crime statistics and criminal justice systems. It emphasizes

the necessity of reforming policies and fostering a more equitable and fair approach to

addressing crime and racial disparities in contemporary society.

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THE FINAL THOUGHT

It can be said with ease to say there is some kind of bias and structure in the American

society that we live in today. It is another to observe the testimonies in a college class at John Jay

College from a young scholar professor whom is able to point out and explain the world full of

disparities (Satterfield, 2023). With an introduction to Alexander’s The New Jim Crow, with a

volume of powerful arguments that show the modern interwoven systems shown to make people

of color a clear target (Alexander, 2010). Whether it is the deviousness of government assisting

in crimes, then arresting them for it after. However in Muhammad, clearly reviews the span of

history and is able to show that the system is not just constructive as making a drug operation but

a race one, and that especially that may very much have always have been a race war. And going

against change has always been the issue if it was gentlemen and scholars like Web Dubois, or

organizations like Black Lives Matter (Christian, 2021). Even through its history it is clearly an

agenda being for filled now with jail populations representing the minority instead of the actual

population or in accordance with actual crime (Brown, 2023). But this has been the clear agenda

for hundreds of years, as made clear by Muhammed. With a country with 63 percent white and

12 percent black (Bleiker, 2020), the odds are more than obvious with such a high percentage of

voting power and the clear side of wealth. This is as early as in the era of the New Deal in

America, annual federal crime reports took precedence over decennial census data, becoming the

primary statistical measure of race and crime. This shift elevated the significance of racial crime

statistics, undoing progress established by black crime experts dating back to the 1890s. Over

time, the authors of these reports gradually eliminated the "Foreign Born" category from crime

tables. By the early 1940s, the category of "Black" became the sole identifier of deviation from

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the normative "White" category, consolidating a perception of deviance linked explicitly to

Blackness. It becomes a clear focal point in which the wealthy change the dynamics of voting

power and combine it with their wealth under a false flag of whiteness. The preceding fifty years

witnessed an escalation in statistical segregation and the expansion of residential segregation.

These trends normalized the perception of black inferiority, validated black inequality, and

obscured alternative narratives and resistance within the black community. This process

significantly influenced race relations throughout the latter half of the twentieth century.

Although the discourse surrounding black criminality in the urban North during the 1930s was

more contested compared to the 1890s, it still largely stemmed from segregationist ideologies

and practices. Competing visions of where African Americans belonged in modern urban

America shaped this discourse. Despite increased contestation, the prevailing ideas about black

criminality remained deeply rooted in segregationist thought. The emphasis on statistical data

and its interpretation molded perceptions of race, crime, and urban life. This phenomenon not

only solidified the notions of racial hierarchy but also influenced how society viewed and

interacted with different racial groups. It highlights the enduring impact of statistical discourse

on shaping societal attitudes and structures surrounding race and crime.

The book "The Condemnation of Blackness" serves as a poignant reminder of the

historical barriers faced by minority groups in their pursuit of equality in the United States. It

prompts reflection on the systemic challenges that have impeded the distribution of freedom

among culturally and racially distinct groups. The comparison with Michelle Alexander's "The

New Jim Crow" highlights the ongoing struggle against institutionalized racism within the

criminal justice system. Both texts shed light on the complexities of achieving equality,

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demonstrating the deeply embedded structural biases that perpetuate racial inequalities.

Regarding civil rights approaches, the discussion questions provoke contemplation on the most

effective path—whether a peaceful, incremental strategy focusing on legal frameworks or a more

radical one involving direct action and civil disobedience. The comparison with "The New Jim

Crow" underscores the need for multifaceted approaches that combine legal advocacy with

grassroots activism to dismantle deeply entrenched systems of injustice.

Additionally, the questions about civil rights versus civil liberties prompt consideration of

the government's role in establishing and safeguarding these rights. The reflections inspired by

both books underscore the importance of delineating between civil rights (pertaining to equal

treatment under the law) and civil liberties (individual freedoms protected by law), and the

government's responsibility to ensure both are upheld for all citizens. Ultimately, the discussions

and reflections inspired by these texts advocate for a comprehensive approach to address

historical injustices, necessitating legal reforms, societal shifts, and grassroots activism to foster

genuine equality and justice for all.

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References

- Alexander, M. (2010). The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness.
New Press.

-Bleiker, C. (2020, June 20). Blacks in the US targeted by an unfair justice system | DW |
20.06.2020. DW.COM. https://www.dw.com/en/blacks-in-the-us-targeted-by-an-unfair-justice-
system/a-53884696

-Brown, S. M. (2023, October). Report reveals that racial disparities in incarceration persist,
despite progress. The Final Call, pp. 23–23.

-Christian Spencer | Aug. 19, 2021. (2021, August 19). New report says US government
deliberately targeted Black Lives Matter. The Hill. https://thehill.com/changing-
america/respect/equality/568624-new-report-says-us-government-deliberately-targeted-black/

-Muhammad, K. G. (2019). The condemnation of blackness: race, crime, and the making of
modern urban America, with a new preface. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University
Press.

-Satterfield, Kevin, (2023) Fall semester Afri. 215: Police and Urban communities, John Jay
College of Criminal Justice.

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