, AppendixC

Rulesof Thumbl
CENERAL
Safeiy and overdesign philosophies va¡y among professionals. Some say that if a plant can be
debotdeDecked,it w¿r olerdesigned and too expersive in the first place. Others emp}asize tbe ¡isk
to one's reputation if a plút cMot operatear rhe ¡ameplate capaciq a¡d within product speciñ-
cations. I recoÍmend not including a¡ overdesignfactor, becauseconserative allowa¡ces are buill
into most of the design data atrd €qüations.Piloa planf labo.ato¡f, or researchequipment, o¡ the
other hand, should be overdesi$ed to provide flexibility. Approximately 507¿excesscapacity is a
reasonablealiowance in such instdces.
Pressüe drops ¡hroush pipelines connectins equipnent (typically in thc vicinity of 0.03 bar)
de Bc¡eraily sn.il comparedwilh those in the e4uipmentitselt Aver¿geflow veloci¡jes nomally
range fron I to 4 nVs Jo¡ pipes ca¡rying liquids úd process vapo¡s and 3 to 10 m/s for lin€s

AUXILIARYFACITITIES
Compr€ss€d provided
airis commonly at 3, 10.20,or 30bargpressure. dewpointsare
Respective
indicated in Figure 5.3. Instrument air is normally ai 3 barg wiú a dew poi¡t of 0'C.

PRocEssSTEAM

Traditjonal st¿ndardspecificaliors a.reas foüows:

DesiSnatio. Pr€ssure(ba¡a) Temp€raruÉ ('c)

45 400 Guperh@tcd)
33 239 (stuatedl
17 204 (s¡lumted)
9 175(satüatedl
4.5 ¡43 GdDrar¿d)

CooLrNc WarrR

Tempemtureof coolins wator to processis mmally 30"C. It is usually heatedto about 45'C before
returnirg to the cooli¡g tower Lower tempcraturesare possible in dry climates.

DfiTNERAL¡ZED
WarER roR BotLERs

T¡is contains 30 to 40 ppm soljds. Up to 320 ppm is suitable fo¡ cooling lower feedwater
'A$enble¡ wn¡ úe ¡ld óf the Univdsity ol New Hmpshne Clemicd Enginedng Cl^s oI 1982,S. M. Hsiehas¡ri4,
a¡d UNH Cl6s ol 2002,DonCHu¡ asisti¡s.

573
574 APPENDIXE5

ELEcrntclrY

Eleciricity is usuaÍy purchasedoffsile. S€e discussionof d¡ives and power recove¡y machinesfor
exceprions.Llecnicirycos|Jcan be estinr¡tedu.ing Tableó.3.

REFR¡GEMNI

Usual& a fluoroc¿rbon fluid, available at tempe¡aturesftom +5 to -60'C. Costs depeDdo¡ tem-

perahue r€quiEd; seeFisure 5.11 atrd Tabl¿ 6.3 fo¡ specificr.

Water a¡d aft polution conside¡ationsdictate a[owable levels of plaú emissions.Legal Suidelines
a¡e a complex tunction of poütics a¡d location. Se¿Táble 11.3 for typical standards.

SouD aND L|QulDWarEs

Soüd a¡d nonaqueousliquid wasterlispos¿lcostscan be estimatedfiom data containedin Table 6.3.

CONVEYORS

Aulprot scrpwcotueyor.Capableof coDveying shcky.sm ny soüds.S¡mulrdeous nir ing.

heating, cooling, and drying can be acconplished. Liniied in diameter and fle"libility of
pau.
Beh conveJof, High'c¿pacity, long-distancet¡a¡sportation, especially for ninerals and orcs.
M¿{iÍun incline is 30o. Number of tums is linited.
Aptun coñveyor Sinild to beli conveyor Used when convey€dmatenals m inconpatible
with belrs.
Buck"tclMatot Besrlor ver¡rcaltij ti ng of nonstickymaterials.L suali) u.ed for abr¿s;ve
material aanspof such as miDer¿ls atrd ores. Rugged md dependable. Can¡ot be made
tot¿lly leak-fiee for controlled envimrments or non mbient pressur€s.
Contiauousfow coweyor. Conve¡ient sef-fe€ding, self disch Bitrg.¡r€quendy chosenfor
rclativelylow capa{¡tyoperationssherc convenieoce dd versa¡iütyare required.Unsuit
able for highly abrasiv€,lümpy, or sticky narerials. Cm follow tofuous horizontal and
vemcalpaüs.
PneuMtic codelor Employed for high-volume, shor-distance.tr¿nsport. Avoid large
lMps, abrdive solids, and explosive gas-solid mixtures. Flexible, compact, inexposive.
low maintenarce. dusrcoo¡rolimpondr.
Vb/atory conveyox For nonsticky materials. Operation under cuum or controlled aÍn}
spherespossible. Drying, sieving, heáting, atrd cooling c¿n be co¡ducl€¡ simultaneously.

CRUSHERS,
M¡LLS,CRINDERS

. For coarse c6hin9, nse primary crushers sch 6 jatr ^td g'rutory rnits \9htch ^re
capableof handliry la¡ge qua¡rities of friable naieriak up to 2 n in ditmefeL
. To cr¡rsh lunps of 0.5 n or stla\er diamete4 impact and m devices ñe \!e^lly
employed.
. Fo. fnc crushing or coarse sii¿iis, lse pa , bowl, .in|'mu, or aíñnon ni (100 ym
ro I cm).
 RuLes
of Thumb

FJr ine Einding, chaosabal, tud, ot high-spee¿hanúE¡ fl¡ll (1 to 100 pm).

To ptodrce s\bnicronetu pa4rcles,use a lire or ultrafine grinder such as alatd ¿r¿l8)
mill (0.1 to I pn).

DRIVES AND POWER RECOVERY MACHINES

DRrvEs

Elecríc nttols arc almosr always t¡sed when less than 100 kW of shaft power is needed.
They are competitive rrith sleam torbines at highe¡ power levels as well.
Stuam ruñínes arc lrequendy enployed for dnving centritugal pumps, compressors, or
generatorswhere speedsand dema¡ds are relarively cons¡ant.
lnterÚI combwtion eryines ee usually reservedfor rcnole locations or mobilc applications.
Cornbustion gas lurbines are choscn for remote, mobile, or other noftonventioMl appli
cations where high speed,high capaciry, md Iixedload seryice are needed.Beanse of
maierials limitatio¡s, combustior gas temperaturcsnormally fall below 750'C.

PowrR RrcovrRYMacHrNEs

Avoid lirge ineversible or unnecessarydmps in processstreampressureswhen possible. OtheMise,

m expandershould be €onsideredif available power is sreater tha$ 100 kW Thmitlirg valves re
usually used to drop the pressuresof processslreamsif powe¡ ¿vailab¡eis less úan 100 kW.
In new plants where single drives or continuous electric lower needs of 1000 kW or greater
de found, coseneration should be considered.It will econonically feasible if thcre is a matching
need for low Fcssure process steam. Otheúise. the purchaseof electric power from an offsite
source will usually be less expensive.
Axial turbinesde employedfor po\rer recovery where flow ntes, tulet tempemtures,or pressure
drops a¡e high-
Radial flow or lurboexpandoB de used to recover power jn mmy applications where ¡nlet
ten!€mtures do Dot exceed550oC.

EVAPORATORS
AND VAPORIZERS

1. Stepsin desiSningvaporizen.
a. Determine superiicial vapor velocity, ¡/.

& = o o6lqlpsl"'

b. Calculate cross seciional area and diameter of a vefical, cyli¡drical ulorizer (ff
diameter is larger than 4 n1,use a horizont¡l pressurevessel,nultiple vertical vesseh,
or special ent¡ainrnentsepaútion.)
c. Calculate hoat duty of vaporize¡ frorn O = ¡r¡¡-
d. Calculate heat trmsfer area- Process süsamsaturated at 4.5. 9. 17. or 33 büa or
supe¡heatedto 400'c at 45 bda:s the likely hoat so¡fce.
e. Calculate hei8ht ofjacket required.
f. Allow one addilional dianeter for vapor d;sengagemenl,dd dete¡mine to.al height
of vapoiizer If height is nore than four times diameter,intemal hoating coils should
 APPENDTX
C Rutes of Thumb

2. Stepsin designins si¡gl+etrect evapomlols.

a- Use material balance to determirc amout of vapor and liquid leavins.
b. Use eoergybalarcero determinehe¡t load.
c. C¿lcxlarehe¿rlransferarea',A = QIULl .
d. Determine power consumption il forced-circula¡io' ¿nd agitated-frtm units from
Figu¡e 4.5.
Stepsin designing multiple-effect evapor¿tors.
a. Detemine liquid flow scheme.Use forwad fe€d if the hea¡Eansfer coefficient of the
tust eff@t is gEater than that in úe last by less than 50 pe@nt. OtÍeMise mixed

b. Select number of etrects: four to six effects if boiüng point elevation (BPE) is
significdt; oiheMise, six to ten siagesare nomaly used.
c. Detenine stagesize.
1. Seleci gTe of evaporatorusing criteria i¡ Táblé 4 7.
2. Eslinate the vapor generatedin each efrect.
t. Calcular€lhe conceDBarions ol intermedi¿reüquid qtreams.
4. Estimaüetemp€mturesin the system.
5. Obtain overall hea¡aansfer coefficient ¿ ff ány U doesnot exce€d500 Jm'z s.K,
use ¿nothertype of evapora¡oro¡ rEanangethe feed seque¡ce.
6. Detemine tempe¡atureof the systen witf better values of ¿
7. Calculate arcas of each evapo¡ato¡tFquatiotr (4.29)1.
8. Dereminepowerco¡sumption.

FURNACES
l-mace¡areusualypurchased
d packagen
unirs.
ln pr¡cess heating, steam is normaly used 6 the working fluid if the required heat is iD the
ffBe of 100 to 250oC. A special themal fluid is usuatly employed in the tempeÉture lange
of250 Lo400'C.
Steañ genemto6 or boile¡r a¡e usually chosen ;n preference to other fimac€s if they can
penbrm lhe neededservice.
Dircrfrcd heaterycar,be srnply consideredasprocessvesselsüat Foüde 10 to 60 s esidence

I ¿írect-ired fur@es arc oftei enployed to vaporize or heat processsúeamsindirecdÍ

lncinerotors are turrares design€dto dispose of unwanted wastes.
Ov€¿r a¡e desi$ed to naintain solid objecb at high tenpera¡¡res for extendedperiods.
Firc-tube ünits aft e'r,ployell primarily for generatingmodestamountsof low-pressue satumted

Watertube boilers aft üed to geneüre high-F€ssure or superheatedsieaÍL Steam at 45 bda

Eessure superheatedlo 40OoCis a typical m¡xinum. Saturat€dsteamat prEssure¡i¡sins from 1?
to 33 bar¿ is also commonly gene¡ated.

GASMOVERS,
COMPRESSOR'
AND EXHAUÍERS
Farsopemre
ne¡rI am.Prcssur€
drcpsarensu¿lly vdryfromó0!o
lelsúrú 15kPa.Etrciencies
80 perce¡t. Vari¿tion in density or spe¡ific volune is lEss than 10%.
Blowers op€nte with plessure drops of 3 kPa to 5 bar. They re noE expensive than fa¡s.
Efñciencies range fmm 70 to 85 percent.For vacuum operation, efficiencies are lower, usualy 50
to 70 percent.
 Rulesof Thumb

Compressorsare for high-presüre operation, f¡om 2 to 3000 bda. Typic¡l efficiencies are 60
to 8070. Staged compressors are usually employed if the compression ratio is geater than 4.
Reciprocal pislon types are comon when üe pressureis aboac 1000 bara.
Ejectols de employed lbr corrosive gasesand vapors at pressurerangesfmm 0.01 to 5 bda.
Efficiencies de comparatively low (25 to 30 l€rcent). With no moving pafs, ejeclors aJe alnost
mainlena¡ce ftce. Capitai cost is low. Ejocrrrs de not rccon¡nended if the processstrem should
not be diluted with a motive fluid.

SErrcrroNCRrrFRra

1 . Rotary blowers o¡ comFessor de often chosenfor presures ranging fro¡n low vacuum
to 10 bda and for flow ¡ates of less thú 20 std mr/s.
Cenlrifugal blowe¡s or compressorsre usu¿lly prefeftd for high capacity and corstant
delivery pressure.TheJ arc favored wben discha¡se pressuresare below 15 ba¡a-
l . Reciprocating positive displacementcompressorsare chosen¡t ultrahig¡ prcssuresüd

CAS.SOtIDCONTACTORS
Tunnelconrac¡og te úsnally employedin small scaleoperations.Temperaturescan be vdied along
the ¡rnnel lengü-
Rotury contuctots are used in most large-scale bulk solid'gd processesbecause of üeir
flexibility and large capacilies-
Towet contactors arc atnacdve for conholled atmospheroad vacuun operation. Capaciiies
de limited. Maximum lsmperature ;s 300oC.
Vibrcting conv¿yorcontdcro¡r give excellen¡ contacting cfñciency fo¡ solids tha¡ a.renot easily
suspe¡dedin a luid bed.
Drum ¡lryen te ofren nsedfor siunics and pa¡tes thal will ¡ol flow thmugh other cont¡c¡ors.
Scruw .¿¿rq'¿¡r de employed for handline gunny, sticky, or other problem solids.
Gr1,ity shalr unírs ptovidehigh-efflciency contact a¡d large-capacityoperation.The solid must
be relatively rigid and sirong. Blast fumaces dd linestone calciners de exdples of gravity sh¿ft

Flui¡l be¡l contactors Ne popular fo. particulate solids cxcept for gulllJny. friable. or fragile

Spouted-bedcottactory üe employed when solids are too large ro fluidize but tle advan¡ages
of a fluid bed are desired.
Pne natic cow¿lor contact¿ñ a€ üsed proninently i¡ drying. cooling, and reacting. They
are limited to fine pádicle maierials thal dry or rcact in shot times.
Sptuy drye|coolerc arc relativcly expensiveto operate.They de usuálly enployed whe¡ special
clrar¿cteristicssuch as dispersibiliry a¡d pourability m desi¡ed in the final product or if heat-
se¡sitive materials are invoived.

HEATEXCHANCERS

S | | p l . l D r N r F ] F r o w P a r HA r . oE \ c H A N c r T
Ry p r

l. Flow path.
a. Conosivc fluids de usually passedon rhe rube side.
b. High-pressürc fiuids usually pass on úe tube side. Plate exchangersare ¡ot recom-
mendedfor pressu.esabove 10 bam-
578 RÚtesof Thumb
APPENDIXC

c. Foulins or scaling fluids a¡e placed on the tube side of fixed-tube exchangen. ff
depositsc¡n be removedby high-velocity steamor waterjets, fouling fluids flay also
prss on the shell side of exchangen that can be exposedfor clerÍlng.
d. Highly viscous fiüds are usua[y placed in rhe shel side of convenional shell ¡¡d-
tube exchangers.Pla¡e exchaúgersare attmctive for such s€rvice. For viscosines
grearerúa¡ I P¿.'. scnped walt e\chdgers are anffdve.
e. CondensingEpo.s a¡Eusu¡lly pl&ed on the shell side.
2. Excharg€r type. Gee Table 4.12)

STEP2, SPECTFY
HE r D![Y

Delfmi¡e exchangerduty ftom an eoergyb¿lúce on one 'ide. Allow uP lo l0 percenrlos¡es

dependingon shell-side|fmpenrüe.

S||P 3. DflrRMrNr ^7, (SErTrxr)

1 Approach ^?s ale approximately 10'C for liqoids or systems wilh high heat trmsfer

Approach ^7s are approximately 50'C for gases or syslems with low heat lr¿rsfer

OvERAu HEAÍ TMNS;E¡CorFFlcrrNrI/ (SEETaBLE4.15)

SrEp4. DEIE¡M|NE

AREAA = 0/U^?.
Srrp 5. CalcurarE HEATTRANSTER

STEP6. CHoosE CoNsrRUcBoN MArER¡aLs

Pressuredmps árc appmximaldy 0.2 to 0.6 be for üquid heating, cooling, or boiling. For conden
sation or heat túnsfer to or from gases,pressuredrops N approxirotely 0.1 ba¡.

MIXERS

MrxrNc oF FLUTD5
HAvrNc MoDERATE
VlscosrÍEs

Combustioounirs.eactors.a¡d orherequipmeorwherega milormiry is requireduse/,idJ¿¡

mixing. Power consunption of a flüd jet increaseslinea¡ly wiú the squa¡eof viscosity. For intense
jet ninng of liquids having a viscosity of 0.01 Pa s, a pressureditrerential of 300 \ar is required.
Motiotrl$ ni,ers arerdealfor viscous fluid müing when turbulenceis not nlcessary or desired.
Sp¿¡8as are conmorly enployed in extremely cormsive sibrationsr€quiring g6-liquid contact
for brief periods and with mild agitafon. The ¡ecoÍmended gas rate is 0.004 m% per squaremeter
of t¿¡k üoss section for Inild agitatioa 0.008 for rclatively cornpleteagiration, and 0.02 for violent

Prcpeller anl turbiw agirat¿¡r aE usualy employed in chenical process plmis. Propellers
seldon exceed0.5 m itr diameter Turbine impeler diametersare linited to about 3 In. In general,
tubines are best for suspensionof soüds, dispe$ion of imniscible üquids, heat traÍsfer enhance-
menl a¡d promotion of chemical rea.tion.
For mixing of miscible liquids ard solutiors, modente agitation wirh either a proPler or a
bübine inpeller is reco¡¡mended, requiring a specific power consunption of 0.3 to 0.7 kwfl13.
For suspeDsionof solid paricl€s, if sesling veiocity is less tha¡ 0.01 tr/s, nild agitarion can
be achievedwith either a propeler or a turbine impelel For up to 0.05 r/s setding velocity, eidÉr
 Rulesof lhumb 579
will sere under vigo¡ous agitaiion. From 0.05 to 0.1 r/s, intense
agirarion wilh a propeller is

I n ¿ g j t d r e rd¿ ¡ t , . l h e t i q ü i dh e i g h ti , u \ r ¡ ¿ l ! b e t ú e c nI a n d 1 . 5
.. n m e s , h ev e s { e d
t rdmc,er.
v e c s ent e ¡ g h ta\ r eu s u d l i yt . 5 r o 2 . 0r i m e ,r h ed i m e r e r
To create an e¡nulsion, p¡opeller agitarors¿¡e employed with high
specific power

MrxrNc or SoL¡DsañD pasrEs

alonCwith simoltaneoussqueezing.divi.ring. a,adfoldi¡g is necessarf

lCrjation ar viscosiry of üe
paste c¡easesabove 200 pa.s.
To r¡ix heavy,stitr, a¡d gummy mareriatssuch as clays. pastes,
, adhesives,light potymers, a¡d
doughs, us€ a ¿¿€a¿¿¿
EJt¡ude¡,r are ideat for parres or nonabrasive semisolids rhar
are reasonabtywell mixed bul
rquj'e high shearunde' presure ro
Bi\e impro\edconsrqren.y.
M itiaq mlts üe efr|ptoted commo,rl) tor;..peñins dddrriverdd
-..- ¡igmc¡ | . inlo hea\y potymer
Rotol míkts 2¡e eftecrire with nodesily viscous nonsricky pastes and
- sofr lümpy sotids or
cates-

PROCESS
VESSELS

DNTltLATIoN

m o F , e L o n o m i cr dh ú r i q u i d - r i q u ei dx ü r c d o no r o r h e rc o m p e r i , i !ree c h n i q
P ^ : ' ] u¡¡less
rues. " : l 1 l : j .Urere
1 4 , , i\ ¿ good
letuon for di\ütr.üon nor ro *or\. rl ,. U.r¡Jty rhc ber rechruquelor
sepam¡ingniscible Liquid mixtures.
ln distilling th¡ee-compo¡ent milrures, rate úe lighresr overhead
. frcm the first rower and feed
the bottoms ro rhe second¡ower fo¡ sepdario¡.
moreIhff lhreecomponer¡tr. sepd]|e oDeby one mrhe,rhar qpt,¡ringJre sucaminlo rko
,ror
mur¡rcomponenr miirure.. Tl¡e numbe,ofcojumr( is rhesamee|lher$;). buaencrg requrreñenr\
are less for t¡e fo.mer.

' Sequercesyieldins equal moiat

division in distilare and bot&rmsare prefered.
. Separationsof compoDenlshaving
sinilar votatjlities shoutd b€ Dade ;n úe absenceof
omer compo¡ents.
. High pu¡iry separarionsshould
be ¡eservedunrit iast.
Operatedistillation towers ¡r rhe iowesr feasibte prcssure.This js
usually dicr¡ted by cooling
waler. which cao hold rhe condenserremperatureas tow
as 40"C.
Arways look for ways lo use the larent heat of an overheadproducr
to lowe¡ reboiler duty.
Reboilels and pa¡rial condensersact as additionat srag

CAs AssoRproN
Cas tcm!€mtures leaving abso¡bersare usualy wirhin 2.C
of the eDlering liquid ¡empcraru¡e.
EeUTPMENT
SpEctF¡caT|oN
,/rmr a¡e.used to lash, mix, serde, and relain liquids
or gases.Votr¡mesa¡e bared on averagc
res'denlchme, of proce$ flujd,. Drumr c¿n be one¡red sither
honzon,ajtyor \cric¿ v .t h;v
commonl) r¿ngeup ro ¿ m in diameÉf and 20 m rn
tengú¡.
: Unles exranúus ferors
dichre otheñüe.
560 APPEND¡X
C RUIesof Thumb

Fl¿rl¡ dffis re used to separatea liqr¡id-vapormix¡¡re.A liquid residencetime of approxi-

mately600 s is common.
Holdup ¿runs ha\e typlcal residencetimes of 300 to 600 s.
MiEr.ltuns ha\e 1eryrh-rt)-dianeüerütios of l:1 to 2:1.
SeüIer dnnlt ha\e1er8\-ro-diameúer r¿¡ios of 2 to 4. Residencetinos ar€ approimately 300
to 600 s.
Iow¿'r are used to sepa$te conponents dlat a¡e 'tnergicalll' conbined----commonv gas-
liqlid, liquid'liquid, ad liqüd-solid nixturcs.
For ¡rot tm¿¡¡ tower heisht = (numb€r of theoretic¿lstages)x Gtage height/(kay ef8cie¡cy)

(NXH,)

0.5D43for D> 1.0 n

Pressuedropis r¡suállyne¿r1 ka per stage.

Dametersra¡gero 4 m. heiShr" ro 60 m.
Fú packe¿towerc,a.nve k'we¡ height= (nunberof stages)x (heightof a theoreticarphte)

ll¿ = (]V)(HETP)

For distillation, HETP = 0.5Dpr for D > 0.5 n.

For gd absorption, HETP = D3.
For both distillatioD and absorp.ion, HEIP = D for, < 0.5 n.
Bubble and sp¡ay towers have low co..ntactingefficienci€s.They aI€ used where the nunber of
sragesis Elatively sn¿ll. Heights range to 40 m. cas rcsidence time is appmxima¡ely 60 s.

PUMPS

Shaft power (úr) and power consumption lP) arc requircd in pünp design and cost estimation.
CentriÍuqdl ftdíal pronps ue employed widely in chem¡calprocesseswhere fluids of moderate
viscosity arc mised ro modestpressures.
híal fuw pmps ñ nsen for moviry lalge volunes ai low ditreEntial pressures.
R¿generativeor tuúine punps are often chosenfor low-fiow. high-pressureserices.
Positire displacenent puitps a¡e used when liqüd viscosities arc large, flow rates are sn¿lt,
or cmfully meLercd liqLrd ñ€s áJedesired.
Reciprocatitg piston punps re often rcquired if extr€mely high pressures@ reqüired at

VolunetX dkplacenent pmpr can be used when direct contact punping is not possible or
fluid displacementpumping is merely more convenienr(e.s., in laboratory or remporary situa¡ions).

REACTORS

Reactorsusudllyfall uDderrhec¿tegories of mixeB. pro{essvessets.tumaccs.8e-solidconhctors.

heat exchangers,or other types of process equipment that have been adapüedor nodiñed for a

Iilet tempem¡ue, pressure,md concenlration ale necessa¡/ for specification of a reactor.

Fquilibrium analysis should be made to rule out impossible Ésults and to defne the limits of
 Rutesof Thumb 581

In ísothettual reacfnrs, of riose whore lempemruresdrcp wiü mnve.sion, the volume required
ro¡ a glve¡1conve.sion is larger i a we stirre¿ thai i a pl¿8 lo), operarion.
In adiabatic exothenic reactions, well stined reacto¡s requúe üe teasr volume excepr ncar
equilibrium conve¡sions.
hothenal perfomsce and general temlemture ed concenrrarionconrrol are accomplishc.l
nore easily in well stiÍed ¡eaclors.
Some well stined cxotbermic reacron have mutripte stabte oleraring rnodes.
Plug flow bebavior cd be approachedin well srired reactorsby ptacinS mutriple reactors i!

Bolh energy balanccsa¡d mate¡iat bajancesde usu¿lly necessary10 detemjne ¡eacror size.
If Fessure drops de large, ar thDugh a tong ptug flow or packed-bed reactor, it may be
necessaryto design the reacror i¡ increments.

FLU|DBEDSANDPacxEDBEDS

Fluid beds gi\e inrimare fluid-solid contacr and uniform temperaiure .listribution (tenperature
ditrelences lss th¿n 5'C from point to poinO. rhey de Seneraly we stined when re;gth-to
d¡ameterratios.a¡e l€ss tha¡ 2. For ¡arios $eater than 4. rhey approachplug flow behavior
PackeAbeú ñ geíerally plug flow devices.To provide unifom flow distriburion, bed heigh¡
should be ¡o less rhan half the diaÍrerer.

SEPARATORS

CENTR¡FUGAL
SEpaRAro¡s

Employed wherc p¡ficles have very tow senling velocilies.

r. Sedinenration cetuñitg¿r a¡e ideal for cla¡ification of dilute tiquid-solid systems an¡l
for sep¿rationof inúisicible liquid mix¡¡¡es.
2. H¿lbial conveyor cehtiluser are suitabte for produci¡g relarivety dry cat6 from targe
ffows of concetrtratedslurries co¡taining moderatety fine clays or ores.
3. Coitinous conveyor entifusal ftterc Ne \sed i¡ applicationsinvolving sand like par_
ticles or c¡ys¡als having diametcrs larger thm 150 pm.
4. Cycloae sepantots Ne widety used for removjng sotid or üquid paricles fron gasesif
entrainmeni of sr¡rale¡ paraiclescan be totemred. cas cyclones a¡e limi0erl ar subarmo,
sphenc pressurebecauseof lealage tbrcugh the solids disctrffge.

ElEcrRosrarlc PR€crp¡TAToRs

Used with corosive or high-lemperaruregasesfor co ection of ulhanne particles.

CRÁvlry aND IMPTNGEMENT

SEpaRAroRs

L If setdingvelocityis lessú¿¡ 0.1 rl/s, anda pressüredifferentiatof 10kpa is avaitable,

?,cycLone separator\\11 generallybe moreecononicalthú a s¿xtinpdrum.
Liq-urdk¡1¡¡8 dtu% üe ^ot pralric¿turress\cdimcnrarion velocii) i, srearerrhan
0.001nr/s.
3. CkriÍrers úd thickercn are usuatly resrricledro aqueous-base¿l or other ñonroxic.
nonhaza¡doos syslems-Otberwise,useilters o¡ ccntntuSerypesepar¿rors.
Rakeanl spnal cla.esiferyare etrecrivein separatingcoarscsolidsor san¡lsfrom rhe
overaliflow of a nill-
582 APPENDIX
C Rutesof Thumb

FtrrÉRs

1 Bag fhers ^re hiql'ly efficient for colectirg submicromererpárticles from gas streams.
They are. howevea Iimited by maxi¡num fabric service terpemtures.
2. Car¡ti¿gefhen arc \sed pnmdily for tual cleaniDsor polishing of a lowconcentration
effluenr stream.High emciency and larse fluid capaciry are possible.
3. Sddrit¿¡r ¿¡e used pnmadly in wastewarer¿¡d culinary rrater treatnent pla¡ts. They
a¡e clea¡ed by flr¡shing with munterflow üquid.
4. Hoñzontal fhers te snirablefor sepaEtins conventional sluries. Cate wash¿bitity and
flexibiüty are excellent.
5. Rotary diskfl¡ers ate desiBnedfor relatiyely easynonüiti€al separationswhers nexibility
and efficie¡t cake washing a¡e not essential.
Rotary dtM fhers arc nsed h most liquid-solid chemical processfiltrations.
a. Rotary drum precoat units are the only continuous filters capábleof ultimate crystal-
clear cleaning of effluent streams.
b. Multicompaftnent media-covereddruns are popula¡ becauseof flexibiliry and cost.

a. me pbte and fmne ll¡¿¡ pr¿rs is noted for nexibility of design, filrer nedia a¡d
oper¿tion. t¿¿lege, drjpping. and high labor costs are drawbacks.
h Shell á¡d leaf filters are similar to plate and frame filten in perfor¡¡ance. Süghdy
rnor€ expensive,they a¡eusualy requiEd for filaation of toxic, odoml¡s, or hazardous

Sludgesftom liquid-solid processfilters contain about 50 wtTo solids-

PREssrs

1 . .tc/¿v p¡¿sr¿s are used to expressvegetable oils and to dewa¡erpaper p¡nps, plaslics,
imd rubber.They arc also sui¡ablefor a váriety of sludgesdd Fsidues, except ihose that
contain coarse ard abrasivesolids.
2. R ¿¡pr"rs¿r are widely used for dewateriDgpaperand fabrics. They cd acceptabrasive

ScREENS

1. Gtzzlt¿r aF used to sepa¡atepalticles larger than 5 cm.

2. VbtutinS $ tutary scre¿¿sare used if p¿fictes a¡e smaller.

SIZf-ENTARCEMENT
EQUIPMENT
Forproducts
demandi¡g
extreme choosea t¿ól¿tigpf¿rr.
uniformiryin sizeand€omposition,
OiheNise, use a /¿il pr"¿$ or pelkr nill, whirch operalesat higher capacity and ¡ lower in cosL
For Sumy pasles,use p¿¿l¿tnilk.
For malerials where heat is required, and shape of nnal product is a major considemtion, a
s.¡¿w ¿rt!/del is recommend€d.
PluB ni %¡ruders are ideal when nixing is desned (e.s., of catalysl or fertilize.t.
Aqslonerutors Eite aloosely packed product, and operating costs are low.
Pnl¿irs is a good choice for enrargi¡g sticky ard guinny materiats if they can be melted to a
fre€-flowing liquid. E¡ersy costs are relárively high, howevei
 Rutesof Thumb 583

STORACE
VESSETS
Capeity, lemperature,pressure,a¡d exposrre conditions must be known to specify storagevesscis.
Laryc atnaspheric pressurc$r¡¿g¿ r¿¿iJ ar€usually chosento conrainraw m;teri¿ts ror
;rocessing
or product¡ awairing shipmenr. In ihem,

1. Eirhe¡ an intemal veDtsyslem or a floaring roof h employed to compensarefor ambienr

remperatureaDdpressue changes.
2. Pressuresnust be wiúin a few kilopasc¿tsof ambie¿L
3- Thily d¿yd capacity is usu¿Iy sp@ifie.d for raw materiats m.l products to assure
uni.tem¡pted pl¿nt ope¡arion. Such sto¡age ta¡ls should be at least1.5 ri¡nes the siz€
of the transpof vessel. (Capaciriesof va¡ious shipping vesselsare Iisüedin Table 4.27,

¡i¡r de freque¡tly employed in sotids handting opeErio¡s, berweengrj¡ders, conveyors,and

so on, to provide suge capaciry.
Spheical or bullet shsped ¡¿'¡¿swirh thicker walls de used to accommoda{ehisher,Dressure
g¡s or bquid sroESe.
I aB€{cale <rorageof g¿.esis ohen accomptished by liquidryinSthe gas dd storiog !t .l
.ry¿8?¿/. tcmpemtuF¡nd felarivelymoderrDressuc_
DdJ rd¿kr are desiSnedwilh about 8 h¡ capaciry.Residenceti¡nesfor fe€d ranksaJeabour 1800s.
For batch tresfer within a stor¿gesystem,provide for one aansfer per shift ¡nd alow t5 mjn
_