11.1-11.3 Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

Anatomy & Physiology II
Lymphatic System & body defenses

Outline:
I. The Lymphatic System
A. Lymphatic vessels
B. Lymph nodes
C. Other lymphoid organs
II. Body Defenses

A. Innate defense system
1. Surface membrane barriers
2. Cells and chemicals
Outline:
II. Body Defenses (contd.)
B. Adaptive defense system
1. Antigen
2. Cells
3. Humoral (antibody-mediated) immune
response
4. Cellular (cell-mediated) immune response
C. Organ transplant and rejections
D. Disorders of immunity
Outline:
III. Developmental aspect of lymphatic system and body
defenses
IV. Interrelation among other organ systems
Outline:
B. Lymph nodes
II. Body Defenses

The Lymphatic system
• Consists of two semi-independent parts:
1. Lymphatic vessels
2. Lymphoid tissues and organs
• Lymphatic system functions
o Transports escaped fluids from the cardiovascular
system back to the blood
o Plays essential roles in body defense and resistance
to disease
Outline:
B. Lymph nodes
II. Body Defenses

Lymphatic vessels
• Lymph consists of excess tissue fluid and plasma proteins
carried by lymphatic vessels
• If fluids are not picked up, edema occurs as fluid
accumulates in tissues
• Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics) pick up excess fluid
(lymph) and return it to the blood
Figure 11.1 shows the relationship between the blood vessels and lymphatic vessels.
As pointed by the pink arrow, the tissue fluid that goes out of the capillaries will
become lymph and will enter the lymph capillaries
Figure 11.2 shows how edema looks like which is a
consequence of failure to pick up fluids that accumulates
in tissues. Edema can also be a consequence of high
blood pressure
Source:https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/symptoms-of-cardiovascular-disorders/edema
Lymphatic vessels
• Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)
o Form a one-way system
o Lymph flows only toward the heart
Figure 11.1 shows the one way system of lymphatic vessels where lymph flows only
towards the heart (see pink arrow)
Lymphatic vessels
• Lymph capillaries
o Weave between tissue cells and blood capillaries
o Walls overlap to form flaplike minivalves
o Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
o Capillaries are anchored to connective tissue by
filaments
o Higher pressure on the inside closes minivalves
o Fluid is forced along the vessel
Figure 11.3a shows how the lymphatic capillaries (green vessels in the photo above)
weaves itself to the blood capillaries. Figure 11.3b shows the flaplike minivalve of the
lymphatic capillary as well as the filaments that it uses to anchor to connective tissues
Lymphatic vessels
• Lymphatic collecting vessels
o Collect lymph from lymph capillaries
o Carry lymph to and away from lymph nodes
o Return fluid to circulatory veins near the heart
ü Right lymphatic duct drains the lymph from
the right arm and the right side of the head
and thorax
ü Thoracic duct drains lymph from rest of body
Figure 11.1 highlights the location of the lymphatic collecting vessels
Note: In the end, the lymph from
these ducts are drained to the
subclavian veins (from right
lymphatic duct to right subclavian;
from thoracic duct to left
subclavian vein)
Figure 11.4 highlights the different regions of the body that is drained by
the right lymphatic and thoracic duct
Lymphatic vessels
• Lymphatic vessels are similar to veins of the cardiovascular
system
o Thin-walled
o Larger vessels have valves
o Low-pressure, pumpless system
• Lymph transport is aided by:
o Milking action of skeletal muscles (similar to how
skeletal muscles can open valves of veins when it is
“squeezed” by the muscles)
o Pressure changes in thorax during breathing
o Smooth muscle in walls of lymphatics
Outline:
B. Lymph nodes
II. Body Defenses

Figure 11.1 shows the relationship of the lymph nodes to the lymphatic vessels in
terms of location
Lymphatic nodes
• Lymph nodes filter lymph before it is returned to the

blood
• Harmful materials that are filtered:
o Bacteria
o Viruses
o Cancer cells
o Cell debris
Lymphatic nodes
• Defense cells within lymph nodes
o Macrophages—engulf and destroy bacteria, viruses,
and other foreign substances in lymph
o Lymphocytes—respond to foreign substances in lymph
Lymphatic nodes
• Most lymph nodes are kidney-shaped, less than 1 inch long,
and buried in connective tissue
o Surrounded by a capsule
o Divided into compartments by trabeculae
• Cortex (outer part)
o Contains follicles—collections of lymphocytes
o Germinal centers enlarge when antibodies are released
by plasma cells
• Medulla (inner part)
o Contains phagocytic macrophages
Figure 11.5 shows the parts of the lymphatic nodes. Highlighted are the
cortex and the follicle cells and germinal center in it and the medulla.
Lymphatic nodes
• Flow of lymph through nodes
1. Lymph enters the convex side through afferent
lymphatic vessels
2. Lymph flows through a number of sinuses inside the
node
3. Lymph exits through efferent lymphatic vessels
Because there are fewer efferent than afferent vessels,
flow is slowed
Figure 11.5 shows the flow of lymph from the afferent lymphatic vessels to
the efferent lymphatic vessels
Outline:
B. Lymph nodes
II. Body Defenses

Other lymphoid organs
• Several other lymphoid organs contribute to lymphatic
function (in addition to the lymph nodes)
o Spleen
o Thymus
o Tonsils
o Peyer’s patches
o Appendix
Figure 11.6 shows the location of other lymphoid organs in the body
• Spleen
o Located on the left side of the abdomen
o Filters and cleans blood of bacteria, viruses, debris
o Provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation and
immune surveillance
o Destroys worn-out blood cells
o Forms blood cells in the fetus (this function will later
on be passed to the bone marrow)
o Acts as a blood reservoir
• Thymus
o Found overlying the heart
o Functions at peak levels only during youth
o Produces T-lymphocytes
• Tonsils
o Small masses of lymphoid tissue deep to the mucosa
surrounding the pharynx (throat)
o Trap and remove bacteria and other foreign
pathogens
o Tonsillitis results when the tonsils become congested
with bacteria
• Peyer’s patches
o Found in the wall of the small intestine
o Similar lymphoid follicles are found in the appendix
o Macrophages capture and destroy bacteria in the
intestine
• Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
o Includes:
ü Peyer’s patches
ü Tonsils
ü Appendix
o Acts as a sentinel (indicator of the presence of a
disease) to protect respiratory and digestive
tracts
Questions?
Outline:
B. Lymph nodes
II. Body Defenses

Body defenses
• Innate (nonspecific) defense system
o Mechanisms protect against a variety of invaders
o Responds immediately to protect body from foreign
materials
• Adaptive (specific) defense system
o Fights invaders that get past the innate system
o Specific defense is required for each type of invader
o The highly specific resistance to disease is immunity
Outline:
B. Lymph nodes
II. Body Defenses

Innate (nonspecific) body defenses
• Innate body defenses are mechanical barriers to
pathogens (harmful or disease-causing microorganisms)
and include:
o Body surface coverings
ü Intact skin
ü Mucous membranes
o Specialized human cells
o Chemicals produced by the body
• Table 12.1 provides a more detailed summary
Surface membrane barriers
• Surface membrane barriers, such as the skin and mucous
membranes, provide the first line of defense against the
invasion of microorganisms
o Protective secretions produced by these membranes
ü Acidic skin secretions inhibit bacterial growth
ü Sebum is toxic to bacteria
ü Mucus traps microorganisms
ü Gastric juices are acidic and kill pathogens
ü Saliva and tears contain lysozyme (enzyme that
destroys bacteria)
Cells and chemicals: Internal defenses
• Cells and chemicals provide a second line of defense
o Natural killer cells and phagocytes
o Inflammatory response
o Chemicals that kill pathogens
o Fever
• Natural killer (NK) cells
o Lyse (burst) and kill cancer cells, virus-infected cells
o Release chemicals called perforin and granzymes to
degrade target cell contents
• Inflammatory response
o Triggered when body tissues are injured
o Four most common indicators (cardinal signs) of
acute inflammation
1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Pain
4. Swelling (edema)
• Inflammatory response (contnd.)
o Damaged cells release inflammatory chemicals
ü Histamine
ü Kinin
o These chemicals cause:
ü Blood vessels to dilate
ü Capillaries to become leaky
ü Phagocytes and white blood cells to move into
the area (called positive chemotaxis)
Figure 11.7 is a flowchart that
shows the cascade of
inflammatory events after an
injury.
Release of kinins, histamines

and other chemicals cause
blood vessels to dilate,
capillaries to become leaky and
WBCs to enter the area.
Dilation of blood vessels can

lead to increase blood flow,
capillaries becoming leaky can
lead to edema and clotting
proteins in the area while WBCs
are for removal of damaged
tissues and pathogens. This will
all eventually cause healing
• Functions of the inflammatory response
o Prevents spread of damaging agents
o Disposes of cell debris and pathogens through
phagocytosis
o Sets the stage for repair
• Process of the inflammatory response
1. Neutrophils migrate to the area of
inflammation by rolling along the vessel wall
(following the scent of chemicals from
inflammation)
2. Neutrophils squeeze through the capillary walls
by diapedesis (passage of blood vessels through
the intact walls of the capillaries) to sites of
inflammation
3. Neutrophils gather in the precise site of tissue
injury (positive chemotaxis) and consume any
foreign material present
Figure 11.8 shows the process of inflammatory
response through phagocytes such as neutrophils
• Phagocytes
o Cells such as neutrophils and macrophages engulf
foreign material by phagocytosis
o The phagocytic vesicle is fused with a lysosome, and
enzymes digest the cell’s contents
Figure 11.9 shows a scanning electron micrograph of phagocytosis
by a macrophage as it ingest a bacillus-shaped bacteria (encircled)
Figure 11.10 shows the
steps involved in
phagocytosis by a
microphage
• Antimicrobial proteins
o Enhance innate defenses by:
ü Attacking microorganisms directly
ü Hindering reproduction of microorganisms
o Most important types
ü Complement proteins
ü Interferon
• Antimicrobial proteins: complement proteins
o Complement refers to a group of at least 20 plasma
proteins that circulate in the plasma
o Complement is activated when these plasma
proteins encounter and attach to cells (known as
complement fixation)
• Antimicrobial proteins: complement proteins (contnd.)
o Membrane attack complexes (MACs), one result of
complement fixation, produce holes or pores in cells
ü Pores allow water to rush into the cell
ü Cell bursts (lyses)
o Activated complement enhances the inflammatory
response
Figure 11.11 shows activated complement proteins forming a membrane attack
complex after complement fixation. This causes formation of pores that allow
water to rush into the cell causing cell lysis
• Antimicrobial proteins: interferons
o Interferons are small proteins secreted by virus-
infected cells
o Interferons bind to membrane receptors on healthy
cell surfaces to interfere with the ability of viruses to
multiply
• Fever
o Abnormally high body temperature is a systemic
response to invasion by microorganisms
o Hypothalamus regulates body temperature at 37ºC
(98.6ºF)
o The hypothalamus thermostat can be reset higher by
pyrogens (secreted by white blood cells)
o High temperatures inhibit the release of iron and zinc
(needed by bacteria) from the liver and spleen
o Fever also increases the speed of repair processes
Outline:
1. Antigen
2. Cells
response
Adaptive body defenses
• Adaptive body defenses are the body’s specific
defense system, or the third line of defense*
o Immune response is the immune system’s
response to a threat
o Antigens are targeted and destroyed by antibodies
*Remember that the first line are the surface membrane and barriers and second are cells
and chemicals
• Three aspects of adaptive defense
o Antigen specific—the adaptive defense system
recognizes and acts against particular foreign
substances
o Systemic—immunity is not restricted to the initial
infection site
o Memory—the adaptive defense system recognizes and
mounts a stronger attack on previously encountered
pathogens
• Two arms of the adaptive defense system
o Humoral immunity = antibody-mediated immunity
ü Provided by antibodies present in body fluids
o Cellular immunity = cell-mediated immunity
ü Targets virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and
cells of foreign grafts
Outline:
1. Antigen
2. Cells
response
Antigens
• Antigens are any substance capable of exciting the
immune system and provoking an immune response
o Examples of common nonself* antigens
ü Foreign proteins provoke the strongest response
ü Nucleic acids
ü Large carbohydrates
ü Some lipids
ü Pollen grains
ü Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses)
*nonself antigens are those that are not found in the cells of your body. “Self” antigens
include the antigens A and B in our red blood cells that are used to determine blood type
Antigens
• Self-antigens
o Human cells have many protein and carbohydrate
molecules
o Self-antigens do not trigger an immune response in
us
o The presence of our cells in another person’s body
can trigger an immune response because they are
foreign
ü Restricts donors for transplants
Antigens
• Haptens, or incomplete antigens, are not antigenic by
themselves
o When they link up with our own proteins, the
immune system may recognize the combination as
foreign and respond with an attack
o Found in poison ivy, animal dander, detergents,
hair dyes, cosmetics
Outline:
1. Antigen
2. Cells
response
Cells of the adaptive defense system
• Crucial cells of the adaptive system
1. Lymphocytes—respond to specific antigens
o B lymphocytes (B cells) produce antibodies and
oversee humoral immunity
o T lymphocytes (T cells) constitute the cell-
mediated arm of the adaptive defenses; do not
make antibodies
2. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)—help the
lymphocytes but do not respond to specific
antigens
• Lymphocytes
o Arise from hemocytoblasts of bone marrow
o Whether a lymphocyte matures into a B cell or T cell
depends on where it becomes immunocompetent
• Immunocompetence
o The capability to respond to a specific antigen by
binding to it with antigen-specific receptors that
appear on the lymphocyte’s surface
• Lymphocytes (contnd.)
o T cells develop immunocompetence in the thymus and
oversee cell-mediated immunity
ü Identify foreign antigens
ü Those that bind self-antigens are destroyed. Self-
tolerance is important part of lymphocyte
“education”
o B cells develop immunocompetence in bone marrow
and provide humoral immunity
• Immunocompetent T and B lymphocytes migrate to the
lymph nodes and spleen, where encounters with
antigens occur
• Differentiation from naïve cells into mature
lymphocytes is complete when they bind with
recognized antigens
• Mature lymphocytes (especially T cells) circulate
continuously throughout the body
• Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
o Engulf antigens and then present fragments of
them on their own surfaces, where they can be
recognized by T cells
o Major types of cells behaving as APCs
ü Dendritic cells
ü Macrophages
ü B lymphocytes
o When they present antigens, dendritic cells and
macrophages activate T cells, which release
chemicals
Outline:
1. Antigen
2. Cells
response
Humoral (antibody-mediated) immune response
• B lymphocytes with specific receptors bind to a
specific antigen
• The binding event sensitizes, or activates, the
lymphocyte to undergo clonal selection
• A large number of clones is produced (primary
humoral response)
• Most of the B cell clone members (descendants) become
plasma cells
o Produce antibodies to destroy antigens
o Activity lasts for 4 or 5 days
o Plasma cells begin to die
• Some B cells become long-lived memory cells capable of
mounting a rapid attack against the same antigen in
subsequent meetings (secondary humoral response)
o These cells provide immunological memory
Figure 11.12 shows clonal
selection of a B cell. Read
slides 77-78 for a more
detailed explanation.
• Active immunity
o Occurs when B cells encounter antigens and produce
antibodies
o Active immunity can be:
ü Naturally acquired during bacterial and viral
infections
ü Artificially acquired from vaccines
• Passive immunity
o Occurs when antibodies are obtained from
someone else
ü Naturally acquired from a mother to her fetus
or in the breast milk
ü Artificially acquired from immune serum or
gamma globulin (donated antibodies)
o Immunological memory does not occur
o Protection is short-lived (2–3 weeks)
• Passive immunity (contnd.)
o Monoclonal antibodies
ü Antibodies prepared for clinical testing for
diagnostic services
ü Produced from descendants of a single cell line
ü Exhibit specificity for only one antigen
ü Examples of uses for monoclonal antibodies
-Cancer treatment
-Diagnosis of pregnancy
-Treatment after exposure to hepatitis and rabies
Figure 11.13 shows a flowchart of the types of humoral
immunity
• Antibodies (immunoglobulins, Igs)
o Constitute gamma globulin part of blood proteins
o Soluble proteins secreted by activated B cells
(plasma cells)
o Formed in response to a huge number of antigens
• Antibody structure
o Four polypeptide chains, two heavy and two light,
linked by disulfide bonds to form a T- or Y-shaped
molecule
o Each polypeptide chain has a variable (V) region and
a constant (C) region
ü Variable regions form antigen-binding sites, one
on each arm of the T or Y
ü Constant regions determine the type of antibody
formed (antibody class)
Figure 11.14 shows the structure of an antibody
• Antibody classes
o Antibodies of each class have slightly different roles
and differ structurally and functionally
o Five major immunoglobulin classes (MADGE)
1. IgM—can fix complement*
2. IgA—found mainly in secretions, such as mucus or
tears
3. IgD—important in activation of B cell
4. IgG—can cross the placental barrier and fix
complement; most abundant antibody in plasma
5. IgE—involved in allergies
*Complement refers to a group of at least 20 plasma proteins that circulate in the plasma
(discussed in slides 57-59)
• Antibody function
o Antibodies inactivate antigens in a number of ways
ü Complement fixation: chief antibody ammunition
used against cellular antigens
ü Neutralization: antibodies bind to specific sites on
bacterial exotoxins or on viruses that can cause cell
injury
ü Agglutination: antibody-antigen reaction that
causes clumping of cells (if you still remember
blood typing in lecture 10: cardiovascular system)
ü Precipitation: cross-linking reaction in which
antigen-antibody complex settles out of solution
Figure 11.15 shows the mechanisms of antibody action as
described in the previous slide
Outline:
1. Antigen
2. Cells
response
Cellular (cell-mediated) immune response
• Main difference between two arms of the adaptive
response
o B cells secrete antibodies
o T cells fight antigens directly
• Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are activated to
form a clone by binding with a recognized antigen
• Unlike B cells, T cells are unable to bind to free antigens
o Antigens must be presented by a macrophage, and
double recognition must occur
o APC (Antigen presenting cells) engulfs and presents
the processed antigen in combination with a protein
from the APC
• Different classes of effector T cells
o Helper T cells
o Cytotoxic T cells
• T cells must recognize nonself and self through the
process of antigen presentation
o Nonself—the antigen fragment presented by APC
o Self—coupling with a specific glycoprotein on the APC’s
surface at the same time
• Cytotoxic (killer) T cells
o Specialize in killing infected cells
o Insert a toxic chemical (perforin or granzyme)
o The perforin enters the foreign cell’s plasma
membrane
o Pores now appear in the target cell’s membrane
o Granzymes (protein-digesting enzymes) enter and
kill the foreign cell
o Cytotoxic T cell detaches and seeks other targets
Figure 11.16 shows a step-by-step mechanism of action of
cytotoxic T-cells
• Helper T cells
o Recruit other cells to fight invaders
o Interact directly with B cells bound to an antigen,
prodding the B cells into clone production
o Release cytokines, small secreted proteins released
by cells have a specific effect on the interactions
and communications between cells (Zhang and An,
2007) (see table in slide 102 and read on the
different cytokines and what they do)
• Regulatory T cells
o Release chemicals to suppress the activity of T and
B cells
o Stop the immune response to prevent uncontrolled
activity
o A few members of each clone are memory cells
Outline:
1. Antigen
2. Cells
response
Organ transplants and rejection
• Major types of transplants, or grafts
o Autografts—tissue transplanted from one site to
another on the same person
o Isografts—tissue grafts from a genetically identical
person (identical twin)
o Allografts—tissue taken from a person other than an
identical twin (most common type of graft)
o Xenografts—tissue taken from a different animal
species (never successful)
Organ transplants and rejection
• Blood group and tissue matching is done to ensure the
best match possible
o 75% match is needed to attempt a graft
• Organ transplant is followed by immunosuppressive
therapy to prevent rejection
Outline:
1. Antigen
2. Cells
response
Disorders of immunity
• The most important disorders of the immune system
o Allergies
o Autoimmune diseases
o Immunodeficiencies
• Allergies
o Allergies, or hypersensitives, are abnormal, vigorous
immune responses
o The immune system overreacts to an otherwise
harmless antigen, and tissue damage occurs
• Types of allergies
o Immediate (acute) hypersensitivity
ü Seen in hives and anaphylaxis (allergic reaction)
ü Due to IgE antibodies and histamine
ü Anaphylactic shock is systemic, acute allergic
response and is rare
o Delayed hypersensitivity
ü Reflects activity of T cells, macrophages, and
cytokines
ü Symptoms usually appear 1–3 days after contact
with antigen
ü Allergic contact dermatitis (poison ivy, cosmetics)
Figure 11.17 shows a
step-by-step
mechanism of an
immediate (acute)
hypersensitivity
response
• Autoimmune diseases
o Occurs when the body’s self-tolerance breaks down
o The body produces auto-antibodies and sensitized T
lymphocytes that attack its own tissues
o Most forms of autoimmune disease result from the:
ü appearance of formerly hidden self-antigens or
ü changes in the structure of self-antigens, and
ü antibodies formed against foreign antigens that
resemble self-antigens
• Examples of autoimmune diseases
o Rheumatoid arthritis—destroys joints
o Myasthenia gravis—impairs communication between
nerves and skeletal muscles
o Multiple sclerosis—white matter of brain and spinal
cord is destroyed
o Graves’ disease—thyroid gland produces excess
thyroxine
• Examples of autoimmune diseases
o Type I diabetes mellitus—destroys pancreatic beta
cells, resulting in deficient insulin production
o Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)—affects kidney,
heart, lung, and skin
o Glomerulonephritis—severe impairment of kidney
function due to acute inflammation
• Immunodeficiencies
o May be congenital or acquired
ü Severe combined immunodeficiency disease
(SCID) is a congenital disease
ü AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is
caused by a virus that attacks and cripples the
helper T cells
o Result from abnormalities in any immune element
o Production or function of immune cells or complement
is abnormal
Outline:
defenses
Developmental aspect of lymphatic system and body
defenses
• Lymphatic vessels form by budding off from veins
• Lymph nodes present by fifth week of development
• The thymus and the spleen are the first lymphoid organs to
appear in the embryo
• Other lymphoid organs are poorly developed before birth
• The immune response develops around the time of birth
Developmental aspect of lymphatic system and body
defenses
• The ability of immunocompetent cells to recognize foreign
antigens is genetically determined
• Stress appears to interfere with normal immune response
• Efficiency of immune response wanes in old age, and
infections, cancer, immunodeficiencies, and autoimmune
diseases become more prevalent
Outline:
defenses
Figure 11.18 shows the
interrelationship of the
lymphatic system to other
organ systems. Mostly it is
through picking up excess
fluids and in fighting
against/destroying foreign
bodies or damaged cells.
This image is available in
page 456 of the book
Questions?

11.1-11.3 Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

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11.1-11.3 Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

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Anatomy & Physiology II

Lymphatic System & body defenses

II. Body Defenses

II. Body Defenses

II. Body Defenses

II. Body Defenses

• Lymph nodes filter lymph before it is returned to the

II. Body Defenses

II. Body Defenses

II. Body Defenses

Release of kinins, histamines

Dilation of blood vessels can

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