Anatomy & Physiology II

Digestive System
Outline:
I. Digestive System
1. Anatomy of the digestive system
• Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
• Organs of the alimentary canal
• Accessory digestive organs
2. Functions of the digestive system
3. Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus
4. Activities in the stomach
5. Activities of the small intestine
6. Activities of the large intestine
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Outline:
I. Digestive System
1. Anatomy of the digestive system
• Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
• Nerve plexus
• Organs of the alimentary canal
• Accessory digestive organs
2. Functions of the digestive system
3. Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus
4. Activities in the stomach
5. Activities of the small intestine
6. Activities of the large intestine
Anatomy of the digestive system
• Two main groups of organs
o Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal, or GI, tract)—
continuous, coiled, hollow tube
ü These organs ingest, digest, absorb, defecate
o Accessory digestive organs
ü Include teeth, tongue, and several large digestive
organs
ü Assist digestion in various ways
Figure 13.1 shows the digestive organs in the body. This includes the organs of
the alimentary canal:mouth,pharynx,esophagus, stomach, small and large
intestine, anus, and accessory organs: teeth, salivary glands, pancreas, liver,
gallbladder.
Outline:
I. Digestive System
1. Anatomy of the digestive system
• Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
• Nerve plexus
• Organs of the alimentary canal
• Accessory digestive organs
2. Functions of the digestive system
3. Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus
4. Activities in the stomach
5. Activities of the small intestine
6. Activities of the large intestine
Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
• Summary of the four layers from innermost to
outermost, from esophagus to the large intestine
(detailed next)
1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis externa
4. Serosa
Figure 13.2 shows the layers of the tissue in the alimentary canal organs. From
innermost: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa (only visceral
peritoneum is shown). It also shows the cavity called the lumen
Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
1. Mucosa
• Innermost, moist membrane consisting of:
o Surface epithelium that is mostly simple
columnar epithelium (except for esophagus—
stratified squamous epithelium)
o Small amount of connective tissue (lamina
propria)
o Scanty smooth muscle layer
• Lines the cavity (known as the lumen)
Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
2. Submucosa
• Just beneath the mucosa
• Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve
endings, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, and
lymphatic vessels
Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
3. Muscularis externa—smooth muscle
o Inner circular layer
o Outer longitudinal layer
4. Serosa—outermost layer of the wall; contains fluid-
producing cells
o Visceral peritoneum—innermost layer that is
continuous with the outermost layer
o Parietal peritoneum—outermost layer that lines
the abdominopelvic cavity by way of the
mesentery (shown in next slide)
 Figure 13.3 shows the mesentery which is an organ that attaches the intestines
to the posterior abdominal wall

Source:https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/swollen-lymph-nodes/multimedia/mesentery/img-20007559
Outline:
I. Digestive System
1. Anatomy of the digestive system
• Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
• Nerve plexus
• Organs of the alimentary canal
• Accessory digestive organs
2. Functions of the digestive system
3. Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus
4. Activities in the stomach
5. Activities of the small intestine
6. Activities of the large intestine
Nerve plexus in the alimentary canal
• Alimentary canal wall contains two intrinsic nerve
plexuses that are part of the autonomic nervous system
o Submucosal nerve plexus
o Myenteric nerve plexus
• Regulate mobility and secretory activity of the GI tract
organs
Outline:
I. Digestive System
1. Anatomy of the digestive system
• Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
• Nerve plexus
• Organs of the alimentary canal
• Accessory digestive organs
2. Functions of the digestive system
3. Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus
4. Activities in the stomach
5. Activities of the small intestine
6. Activities of the large intestine
Organs of the alimentary canal
• The alimentary canal is a continuous, coiled, hollow tube
that runs through the ventral cavity from stomach to
anus
o Mouth
o Pharynx
o Esophagus
o Stomach
o Small intestine
o Large intestine
o Anus
Mouth
• Anatomy of the mouth
o Mouth (oral cavity)—mucous membrane–lined cavity
o Lips (labia)—protect the anterior opening
o Cheeks—form the lateral walls
o Hard palate—forms the anterior roof
o Soft palate—forms the posterior roof
o Uvula—fleshy projection of the soft palate
Figure 13.4 shows the parts of the mouth specifically the lips, hard palate, soft
palate, and uvula which are described in the previous slide.
Mouth
• Anatomy of the mouth (continued)
o Vestibule—space between lips externally and teeth
and gums internally
o Oral cavity proper—area contained by the teeth
o Tongue—skeletal muscle attached at hyoid bone and
styloid processes of the skull, and by the lingual
frenulum to the floor of the mouth
Figure 13.4 shows the vestibule, oral cavity and tongue which are described in
the previous slide. Observe how the tongue is attached at the hyoid bone
Mouth
• Functions of the mouth
o Mastication (chewing) of food
o Tongue mixes masticated food with saliva
o Tongue initiates swallowing
o Taste buds on the tongue allow for taste
Pharynx
• Serves as a passageway for foods, fluids, and air
• Food passes from the mouth posteriorly into the:
o Oropharynx—posterior to oral cavity
o Laryngopharynx—below the oropharynx and
continuous with the esophagus
Pharynx
• Food is propelled to the esophagus by two skeletal muscle
layers in the pharynx
o Longitudinal outer layer
o Circular inner layer
• Alternating contractions of the muscle layers (peristalsis)
propel the food
Figure 13.4 shows the oropharynx, posterior to the oral cavity and
laryngopharynx which comes after the oropharynx
Esophagus
• Anatomy
o About 10 inches long
o Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm
• Physiology
o Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing)
to the stomach
o Passageway for food only (respiratory system branches
off after the pharynx to larynx and then trachea,
through the help of the closing of the epiglottis, food is
directed to the esophagus rather than to the larynx
and respiratory tract. See lecture 12-respiratory
system)
 Figure 13.5 shows peristalsis in the esophagus. In simple terms, the movement
of the muscle is as if it “pinches” or constricts the upper portion of the
esophagus so that food goes downward (see pink circle)
Source:https://socratic.org/questions/does-a-bolus-of-food-move-through-the-esophagus-by-peristalsis-segmentation-regu
Stomach
• Structure of the stomach mucosa
o Simple columnar epithelium composed almost
entirely of mucous cells
o Mucous cells produce bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus
o Dotted by gastric pits leading to gastric glands that
secrete gastric juice, including:
ü Intrinsic factor, which is needed for vitamin B12
absorption in the small intestine
Figure 13.6 shows the gastric pits in the stomach that leads to gastric glands. It
also shows the surface epithelium lined by simple columnar cells
Stomach
• Structure of the stomach mucosa (contnd.)
o Chief cells—produce protein-digesting enzymes
(pepsinogens)
o Parietal cells—produce hydrochloric acid that activates
enzymes
o Mucous neck cells—produce thin acidic mucus
(different from the mucus produced by mucous cells of
the mucosa)
o Enteroendocrine cells—produce local hormones such
as gastrin
Figure 13.7 shows the cells found in the stomach mucosa. Hydrochloric acid
secreted by parietal cells are used to activate pepsinogen, secreted by the chief
cells, into pepsin
Small intestine
• The body’s major digestive organ
• Longest portion of the alimentary tube (2–4 m, or 7–13
feet, in a living person)
• Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
• Muscular tube extending from the pyloric sphincter to
the ileocecal valve
• Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the
mesentery
Figure 13.8 shows the location of the small intestine in relation to other organs
of the digestive system. As shown in figure 13.8b, the small intestine is
suspended in the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery
Small intestine
• Subdivisions
o Duodenum
o Jejunum
o Ileum
 Figure 13.9 shows the subdivisions of the small intestine: duodenum, jejunum
and ileum

Source:https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/the-small-and-large-intestines/
Small intestine
• Chemical digestion in the small intestine
o Enzymes produced by pancreas are carried to the
duodenum by pancreatic ducts
o Bile, formed by the liver, enters the duodenum via the
bile duct
o Hepatopancreatic ampulla is the location where the
main pancreatic duct and bile ducts join
Figure 13.10 shows pancreatic duct, bile duct and hepatopancreatic ampulla.
Sphincter is a circular muscle that maintains constriction of a passageway
Small intestine
• Structural modifications
o Increase surface area for food absorption
o Decrease in number toward the end of the small intestine
1. Villi—fingerlike projections formed by the mucosa
ü House a capillary bed and lacteal (lymphatic vessel
of the small intestine that absorbs digested fat)
2. Microvilli—tiny projections of the plasma membrane
of enterocytes (also called intestinal absorptive cells
=simple columnar) that secretes enzymes important
for digestion
3. Circular folds (plicae circulares)—deep folds of
mucosa and submucosa
 Figure 13.11 shows the villi
which are fingerlike
projections of the mucosa.
It also shows the capillaries
and lacteal as well as the
microvilli of enterocytes
that lines the villi. Plica or
deep folds are also shown.

Source:https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQADaNP1JsFpNrZQDNaOIAbh-r4k9yQeQzFww&usqp=CAU
Small intestine
• Peyer’s patches
o Collections of lymphatic tissue
o Located in submucosa
o Increase in number toward the end of the small
intestine
o More are needed there because remaining food
residue contains much bacteria
Figure 13.12 shows the location of the peyer’s patches in the small
intestine
Large intestine
• Larger in diameter, but shorter in length at 1.5 m, than
the small intestine
• Extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus
• Subdivisions (detailed next)
o Cecum
o Appendix
o Colon
o Rectum
o Anal canal
Figure 13.13 shows the subdivisions of the large intestine: cecum,
appendix, colon, rectum, anal canal.
Large intestine
• Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus to lubricate the
passage of feces
• Muscularis externa layer is reduced to three bands of
muscle, called teniae coli
o These bands of muscle cause the wall to pucker into
haustra (pocketlike sacs)
 Figure 13.14 shows the teniae coli and the haustra in the large
intestine. Epiploic appendages are small pouches of the
peritoneum filled with fat
Source:https://courses.lumenlearning.com/nemcc-ap/chapter/the-small-and-large-intestines/
Outline:
I. Digestive System
1. Anatomy of the digestive system
• Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
• Nerve plexus
• Organs of the alimentary canal
• Accessory digestive organs
2. Functions of the digestive system
3. Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus
4. Activities in the stomach
5. Activities of the small intestine
6. Activities of the large intestine
Accessory digestive organs
• Teeth
• Salivary glands
• Pancreas
• Liver
• Gallbladder
Teeth
• Teeth masticate (chew) food into smaller fragments
• Humans have two sets of teeth during a lifetime
1. Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
o A baby has 20 teeth by age 2
o First teeth to appear are the lower central incisors
2. Permanent teeth
o Replace deciduous teeth between ages 6 and 12
o A full set is 32 teeth (with the wisdom teeth)
Teeth
• Teeth are classified according to shape and function
o Incisors—cutting
o Canines (eyeteeth)—tearing or piercing
o Premolars (bicuspids)—grinding
o Molars—grinding
Figure 13.15 shows the decidious and permanent teeth classified
based on shape and function
Teeth
• Two major regions of a tooth
1. Crown
2. Root
Teeth
1. Crown—exposed part of tooth above the gingiva (gum)
o Enamel—covers the crown
o Dentin—found deep to the enamel and forms the
bulk of the tooth, surrounds the pulp cavity
o Pulp cavity—contains connective tissue, blood
vessels, and nerve fibers (pulp)
o Root canal—where the pulp cavity extends into the
root
Teeth
2. Root
o Cement—covers outer surface and attaches the tooth
to the periodontal membrane (ligament)
o Periodontal membrane holds tooth in place in the
bony jaw
Note: The neck (shown in next slide) is a connector between
the crown and root
ü Region in contact with the gum
Figure 13.16 shows a longitudinal section of the canine tooth and
its parts as described in the previous slides.
Salivary glands
• Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the
mouth
1. Parotid glands
o Found anterior to the ears
o Mumps affect these salivary glands
2. Submandibular glands
3. Sublingual glands
o Both submandibular and sublingual glands empty
saliva into the floor of the mouth through small
ducts
Figure 13.1 shows the location of the salivary glands
Salivary glands
• Saliva
o Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
o Helps to moisten and bind food together into a mass
called a bolus
o Contains:
Salivary amylase—begins starch digestion
Lysozymes and antibodies—inhibit bacteria
o Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
Pancreas
• Soft, pink triangular gland
• Found posterior to the parietal peritoneum
o Mostly retroperitoneal (organs with peritoneum on
their anterior side only)
• Extends across the abdomen from spleen to duodenum
Pancreas
• Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that
break down all categories of food
• Secretes enzymes into the duodenum
• Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic
chyme coming from stomach
• Hormones produced by the pancreas
o Insulin
o Glucagon
Figure 13.10 shows the location of the pancreas
Liver
• Digestive role is to produce bile
o Bile leaves the liver through the common hepatic duct
and enters duodenum through the bile duct
o Bile is yellow-green, watery solution containing:
ü Bile salts and bile pigments (mostly bilirubin from
the breakdown of hemoglobin)
ü Cholesterol, phospholipids, and electrolytes
o Bile emulsifies (breaks down) fats
Figure 13.10 shows the location of the liver. Bile produced in the liver leaves
through the hepatic duct. Bile enters the duodenum from the gallbladder
through the bile duct.
Gallbladder
• Green sac found in a shallow fossa in the inferior surface
of the liver
o When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the
cystic duct for storage in the gallbladder
o While in the gallbladder, bile is concentrated by the
removal of water
o When fatty food enters the duodenum, the
gallbladder spurts out stored bile
Figure 13.10 shows the location of gallbladder at the inferior surface of the
liver. It also shows the cystic duct where bile coming from the liver passes to
the gallbladder and the bile duct where bile leaves to the duodenum.
Outline:
I. Digestive System
1. Anatomy of the digestive system
• Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
• Nerve plexus
• Organs of the alimentary canal
• Accessory digestive organs
2. Functions of the digestive system
3. Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus
4. Activities in the stomach
5. Activities of the small intestine
6. Activities of the large intestine
Functions of the digestive system
• Ingestion—taking in food
• Digestion—breaking food into nutrient molecules
• Absorption—movement of nutrients into the
bloodstream
• Defecation—excretes to rid the body of indigestible
waste
Functions of the digestive system
• Essential processes of the GI tract
1. Ingestion—placing of food into the mouth
2. Propulsion—movement of foods from one region of
the digestive system to another
o Peristalsis—alternating waves of contraction and
relaxation that squeeze food along the GI tract
o Segmentation—movement of materials back and
forth to foster mixing in the small intestine
Figure 13.17 shows (a) peristalsis where food is squeezed downward due to wave
of contraction and relaxation and (b) segmentation where food is moved back
and forth to foster mixing.
Functions of the digestive system
• Essential processes of the GI tract
3. Food breakdown: mechanical breakdown
• Examples
o Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
o Churning of food in the stomach
o Segmentation in the small intestine
• Mechanical digestion prepares food for further
degradation by enzymes
Functions of the digestive system
• Essential processes of the GI tract
4. Food breakdown: chemical digestion
• Digestion occurs when enzymes chemically break
down large molecules into their building blocks
• Each major food group uses different enzymes
o Carbohydrates are broken down to
monosaccharides (simple sugars)
o Proteins are broken down to amino acids
o Fats are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol
Figure 13.18 shows a flowchart of the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates
(polysaccharides) to its building block/monomer- monosaccharides (e.g. glucose,
fructose) and how these monomers are absorbed from the intestine to the blood
in capillaries
Figure 13.19 shows a flowchart of the digestion and absorption of proteins to its
building block/monomer- amino acids and how these monomers are absorbed
from the intestine to the blood in capillaries
Figure 13.20 shows a flowchart of the digestion and absorption of fats and how its
building blocks are absorbed in the intestine to the lymph vessels or lacteals (of
monoglycerides and fatty acid) or in the blood in capillaries (if glycerol and short-chain
fatty acid)
 Figure 13.20 shows how bile helps in the emulsification of fat- a process where fats are
grouped into small clusters. This makes it easier for enzymes specifically pancreatic
lipase to act on fat during digestion

Source:https://www.nursingtimes.net/clinical-archive/gastroenterology/gastrointestinal-tract-3-the-duodenum-liver-and-pancreas-29-07-2019/
Functions of the digestive system
• Essential processes of the GI tract
5. Absorption
• End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood
or lymph
• Food must enter mucosal cells and then move into
blood or lymph capillaries
6. Defecation
• Elimination of indigestible substances from the GI
tract in the form of feces
Outline:
I. Digestive System
1. Anatomy of the digestive system
• Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
• Nerve plexus
• Organs of the alimentary canal
• Accessory digestive organs
2. Functions of the digestive system
3. Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus
4. Activities in the stomach
5. Activities of the small intestine
6. Activities of the large intestine
Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus
• Food ingestion and breakdown
o Food is placed into the mouth
ü Physically broken down by chewing
ü Mixed with saliva, which is released in response
to mechanical pressure and psychic stimuli
ü Salivary amylase begins starch digestion
o Essentially, no food absorption occurs in the mouth
Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus
• Food propulsion—swallowing and peristalsis
o Pharynx and esophagus have no digestive function
ü Serve as passageways to the stomach
o Pharynx functions in swallowing (deglutition)
ü Two phases of swallowing
1. Buccal phase
2. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus
• Food propulsion—swallowing and peristalsis
o Pharynx functions in swallowing (deglutition)
ü Two phases of swallowing
1. Buccal phase
—Voluntary
—Occurs in the mouth
—Food is formed into a bolus
—The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the
tongue
Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus
• Food propulsion—swallowing and peristalsis
o Pharynx functions in swallowing (deglutition)
ü Two phases of swallowing
2. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
—Involuntary transport of the bolus by peristalsis
—Nasal and respiratory passageways are blocked*
—Peristalsis moves the bolus toward the stomach
—The cardioesophageal sphincter is opened when
food presses against it

*remember the action of epiglottis that closes the opening to the larynx as it goes up during
swallowing, preventing food from entering the larynx
Figure 13.21 shows what occurs during swallowing as food is propelled downward to
the stomach. Read the steps indicated in the image.
Outline:
I. Digestive System
1. Anatomy of the digestive system
• Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
• Nerve plexus
• Organs of the alimentary canal
• Accessory digestive organs
2. Functions of the digestive system
3. Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus
4. Activities in the stomach
5. Activities of the small intestine
6. Activities of the large intestine
Activities in the stomach
• Food breakdown
o Gastric juice is regulated by neural and hormonal
factors
o Presence of food or rising pH causes the release of the
hormone gastrin (from enteroendocrine cells)
o Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce:
ü Protein-digesting enzymes (chief cells)
ü Mucus (mucous neck cells)
ü Hydrochloric acid (parietal cells)
Activities in the stomach
• Food breakdown
o Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach contents very
acidic
o Acidic pH
ü Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion
ü Provides a hostile environment for microorganisms
Activities in the stomach
• Food breakdown
o Protein-digestion enzymes
ü Pepsin—an active protein-digesting enzyme
ü Rennin—works on digesting milk protein in infants;
not produced in adults
o Alcohol and aspirin are virtually the only items
absorbed in the stomach
Activities in the stomach
• Food propulsion
1. Peristalsis: waves of peristalsis occur from the fundus
to the pylorus, forcing food past the pyloric sphincter
2. Grinding: the pylorus meters out chyme into the small
intestine (3 ml at a time)
3. Retropulsion: peristaltic waves close the pyloric
sphincter, forcing contents back into the stomach; the
stomach empties in 4–6 hours
Figure 13.22 shows how food propulsion occurs in the stomach delivering small
amounts of chyme (food mixed with secretions of the stomach) to the duodenum and
returning the rest back to the stomach.
Outline:
I. Digestive System
1. Anatomy of the digestive system
• Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
• Nerve plexus
• Organs of the alimentary canal
• Accessory digestive organs
2. Functions of the digestive system
3. Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus
4. Activities in the stomach
5. Activities of the small intestine
6. Activities of the large intestine
Activities of the small intestine
• Chyme breakdown and absorption
o Intestinal enzymes from the brush border (microvilli-
covered surface of enterocytes) function to:
ü Break double sugars into simple sugars
ü Complete some protein digestion
o Intestinal enzymes and pancreatic enzymes help to
complete digestion of all food groups
Activities of the small intestine
• Chyme breakdown and absorption
o Pancreatic enzymes play the major role in the digestion
of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
o Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme and provides
the proper environment for the pancreatic enzymes to
operate
Activities of the small intestine
• Chyme breakdown and absorption
o Release of pancreatic juice from the pancreas into the
duodenum is stimulated by:
ü Vagus nerves
ü Local hormones that travel via the blood to
influence the release of pancreatic juice (and bile)
—Secretin
—Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Activities of the small intestine
• Chyme breakdown and absorption
• Hormones (secretin and CCK) also target the liver and
gallbladder to release bile
o Bile
ü Acts as a fat emulsifier
ü Needed for fat absorption and absorption of fat-
soluble vitamins (K, D, E, and A)
Figure 13.23 shows how secretion and release of bile and pancreatic juice (containing
enzymes and bicarbonate) is controlled by hormones and/or the vagus nerve
Table 13.1 shows a summary of hormones and hormone-like products that controls the
digestive organs
Activities of the small intestine
• Chyme breakdown and absorption
o Water is absorbed along the length of the small
intestine (water follows the absorbed nutrients to the
capillaries due to osmosis, movement of water from
area of lower to higher solute conc.)
o End products of digestion
ü Most substances are absorbed by active transport
through cell membranes
ü Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
o Substances are transported to the liver by the hepatic
portal vein or lymph (liver can convert nutrients, store
or supply them to cells if needed)
Activities of the small intestine
• Chyme propulsion
o Peristalsis is the major means of moving food
o Segmental movements
ü Mix chyme with digestive juices
ü Aid in propelling food
Outline:
I. Digestive System
1. Anatomy of the digestive system
• Layers of tissue in the alimentary canal organs
• Nerve plexus
• Organs of the alimentary canal
• Accessory digestive organs
2. Functions of the digestive system
3. Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus
4. Activities in the stomach
5. Activities of the small intestine
6. Activities of the large intestine
Activities of the large intestine
• Nutrient breakdown and absorption
o No digestive enzymes are produced
o Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients
ü Produce some vitamin K and some B vitamins
ü Release gases
o Water, vitamins, ions, and remaining water are
absorbed
o Remaining materials are eliminated via feces
Activities of the large intestine
• Nutrient breakdown and absorption
o Feces contains:
ü Undigested food residues
ü Mucus
ü Bacteria
ü Water
Activities of the large intestine
• Propulsion of food residue and defecation
o Sluggish peristalsis begins when food residue arrives
o Haustral contractions are the movements occurring
most frequently in the large intestine
o Mass movements are slow, powerful movements
that occur three to four times per day
Activities of the large intestine
• Propulsion of food residue and defecation
o Presence of feces in the rectum causes a defecation
reflex
ü Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
ü Defecation occurs with relaxation of the
voluntary (external) anal sphincter
Figure 13.24 shows the external anal sphincter. When it relaxes defecation occurs. The
internal anal sphincter is also shown.
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Nutrition and Metabolism
• Most foods are used as metabolic fuel
o Foods are oxidized and transformed into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
o ATP is chemical energy that drives cellular activities
• Energy value of food is measured in kilocalories (kcal) or
Calories (C)
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Nutrition
• Nutrient—substance used by the body for growth,
maintenance, and repair
• Major nutrients
o Carbohydrates
o Lipids
o Proteins
o Water
• Minor nutrients
o Vitamins
o Minerals
Nutrition
• A diet consisting of foods from the five food groups (fruits,
vegetables, grain products, milk products, meat and its
alternatives) normally guarantees adequate amounts of all
the needed nutrients
• The five food groups are summarized next in Table 13.2
Table 13.2 shows the 5 basic food groups and the nutrients that can be taken from them
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Dietary recommendations
• Healthy Eating Pyramid
o Issued in 1992
o Six major food groups arranged horizontally
• MyPlate
o Issued in 2011 by the USDA
o Five food groups are arranged by a round plate
Figure 13.25 shows the two visual food guides explained in the previous slide
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Dietary source of major nutrients
• Carbohydrates
o Dietary carbohydrates are sugars and starches
o Most are derived from plants such as fruits and
vegetables
o Includes lactose from milk and small amounts of
glycogens from meats
Dietary source of major nutrients
• Lipids
o Saturated fats from animal products (meats)
o Unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, and vegetable
oils
o Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, and milk
products (dairy products)
Dietary source of major nutrients
• Proteins
o Complete proteins—contain all essential amino acids
ü Most are from animal products (eggs, milk, meat,
poultry, and fish)
ü Essential amino acids: those that the body cannot
make and must be obtained through diet
o Legumes and beans also have proteins, but the
proteins are incomplete
Dietary source of major nutrients
• Vitamins
o Most vitamins function as coenzymes (binds to an
enzyme and helps it to catalyze a reaction)
o Found mainly in fruits and vegetables
Dietary source of major nutrients
• Minerals
o Mainly important for enzyme activity
o Foods richest in minerals: vegetables, legumes, milk,
and some meats
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Metabolism
• Metabolism is all of the chemical reactions necessary to
maintain life
o Catabolism—substances are broken down to simpler
substances; energy is released and captured to make
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
o Anabolism—larger molecules are built from smaller
ones
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Carbohydrate metabolism
• Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred source to produce
cellular energy (ATP)
• Glucose (blood sugar)
o Major breakdown product of carbohydrate digestion
o Fuel used to make ATP
Carbohydrate metabolism
• Cellular respiration
o As glucose is broken down, carbon dioxide, water, and
ATP are formed
Carbohydrate metabolism
• Three main metabolic pathways of cellular respiration
1. Glycolysis
2. Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
3. Electron transport chain and oxidative
phosphorylation
Figure 13.26 shows a summary of what occurs in the three metabolic pathways of cellular
respiration from the breakdown of glucose until ATP (among other products) is formed.
Carbohydrate metabolism
• Hyperglycemia—excessively high levels of glucose in
the blood
o Excess glucose is stored in body cells as glycogen
or converted to fat
• Hypoglycemia—low levels of glucose in the blood
o Glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen to form
glucose, remember that glycogen is a
polysaccharide with glucose as its building
block/monomer), gluconeogenesis (generation of
glucose from non-carbohydrate source), and fat
breakdown occur to restore normal blood
glucose levels
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Fat metabolism
• Fats
o Insulate the body
o Protect organs
o Build some cell structures (membranes and myelin
sheaths)
o Provide reserve energy
• Excess dietary fat is stored in subcutaneous tissue and
other fat depots
Fat metabolism
• When carbohydrates are in limited supply, more fats are
broken down to produce ATP
o Excessive fat breakdown causes blood to become
acidic (acidosis or ketoacidosis)
ü Breath has a fruity odor
ü Common with:
—“No carbohydrate” diets
—Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus
—Starvation
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Protein metabolism
• Proteins form the bulk of cell structure and most
functional molecules
• Proteins are carefully conserved by body cells
• Amino acids are actively taken up from blood by body
cells
Protein metabolism
• Amino acids are broken down to form ATP mainly when
other fuel sources are not available
• Ammonia is released as amino acids are broken down for
fuel source. Ammonia is detoxified by liver cells that
combine it with carbon dioxide to form urea (excreted as
a component of urine through the urinary system)
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Central role of liver in metabolism
• Liver is the body’s key metabolic organ
• Roles in digestion
o Manufactures bile
o Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
o Degrades hormones
o Produces cholesterol, blood proteins (albumin and
clotting proteins)
o Plays a central role in metabolism
• Liver can regenerate if part of it is damaged or removed
Central role of liver in metabolism
• To maintain homeostasis of blood glucose levels, the liver
performs:
o Glycogenesis—“glycogen formation”
ü Glucose molecules are converted to glycogen and
stored in the liver (causing blood glucose level to go
down)
o Glycogenolysis—“glycogen splitting”
ü Glucose is released from the liver after conversion
from glycogen (causing blood glucose level to go up)
o Gluconeogenesis—“formation of new sugar”
ü Glucose is produced from fats and proteins (causing
blood glucose level to go up)
Central role of liver in metabolism
• Fats and fatty acids are picked up by the liver
o Some are oxidized/broken down to provide energy
for liver cells
o The rest are either stored or broken down into
simpler compounds and released into the blood
Central role of liver in metabolism
• Blood proteins made by the liver are assembled from
amino acids
o Albumin is the most abundant protein in blood
o Clotting proteins
• Liver cells detoxify ammonia
o Ammonia is combined with carbon dioxide to form
urea, which is flushed from the body in urine
Central role of liver in metabolism
• Cholesterol metabolism and transport
o Cholesterol is not used to make ATP
o Functions of cholesterol:
ü Structural basis of steroid hormones and vitamin D
ü Building block of plasma membranes
o Most cholesterol (85%) is produced in the liver; only
15% is from the diet
o Cholesterol and fatty acids cannot freely circulate in the
bloodstream
o They are transported by lipoproteins (lipid-protein
complexes) known as LDLs and HDLs (Low-density and
high-density lipoproteins)
Central role of liver in metabolism
• Cholesterol metabolism and transport
o Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) transport cholesterol to
body cells
ü Rated “bad lipoproteins” since they can lead to
atherosclerosis
o High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) transport cholesterol
from body cells to the liver
ü Rated “good lipoproteins” since cholesterol is
destined for breakdown and elimination
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Body energy balance
• Energy intake = Total energy output (heat + work +
energy storage)
o Energy intake is the energy liberated during food
oxidation/break down
ü Energy produced during glycolysis, citric acid
cycle, and the electron transport chain
o Energy output
ü Energy we lose as heat (60%)
ü Energy stored as fat or glycogen
Body energy balance
• Interference with the body’s energy balance leads to:
o Obesity
o Malnutrition (leading to body wasting)
Body energy balance
• Regulation of food intake
o Body weight is usually relatively stable
ü Energy intake and output remain about equal
o Mechanisms that may regulate food intake
ü Levels of nutrients in the blood
ü Hormones
ü Body temperature (in cases of fever due to
increased metabolism, the body also triggers you
to take in more calories)
ü Psychological factors
Body energy balance
• Nutrients yield different amounts of energy
• Energy value is measured in kilocalories (kcal)
ü Carbohydrates and proteins yield 4 kcal/gram
ü Fats yield 9 kcal/gram
Body energy balance
• Basic metabolic rate (BMR)—amount of heat
produced by the body per unit of time at rest
• Average BMR is about 60 to 72 kcal/hour for an
average 70-kg (154-lb) adult
Body energy balance
• Factors that influence BMR
o Surface area—a small body usually has a higher BMR
o Gender—males tend to have higher BMRs
o Age—children and adolescents have higher BMRs
o The amount of thyroxine produced is the most
important control factor
ü More thyroxine means a higher metabolic rate
o Strong emotions-can increase BMR
Body energy balance
• Total metabolic rate (TMR)—total amount of kilocalories
the body must consume to fuel ongoing activities
• TMR increases dramatically with an increase in muscle
activity
• TMR must equal calories consumed to maintain
homeostasis and maintain a constant weight
Body energy balance
• Body temperature regulation
o When foods are oxidized/broken down, more than
60% of energy escapes as heat, warming the body
o The body has a narrow range of homeostatic
temperature
ü Must remain between 35.6ºC and 37.8ºC
ü (96ºF and 100ºF)
Body energy balance
• Body temperature regulation
o The body’s thermostat is in the hypothalamus
o Hypothalamus initiates mechanisms to maintain body
temperature
ü Heat loss mechanisms involve radiation of heat
from skin and evaporation of sweat
ü Heat-promoting mechanisms involve
vasoconstriction of skin blood vessels and
shivering
Body energy balance
• Fever—controlled hyperthermia
o Results from infection, cancer, allergic reactions, CNS
injuries
o If the body thermostat is set too high, body proteins
may be denatured, and permanent brain damage
may occur
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Developmental aspect of the digestive system and
metabolism
• The alimentary canal is a continuous, hollow tube present
by the fifth week of development
• Digestive glands bud from the mucosa of the alimentary
tube
• The developing fetus receives all nutrients through the
placenta
• In newborns, feeding must be frequent, peristalsis is
inefficient, and vomiting is common
Developmental aspect of the digestive system and
metabolism
• Newborn reflexes
o Rooting reflex helps the infant find the nipple
o Sucking reflex helps the infant hold on to the nipple
and swallow
• Teething begins around age 6 months
Developmental aspect of the digestive system and
metabolism
• Problems of the digestive system
o Gastroenteritis—inflammation of the gastrointestinal
tract; can occur at any time
o Appendicitis—inflammation of the appendix;
common in adolescents
• Metabolism decreases with old age
• Middle-age digestive problems
o Ulcers (sores on the lining of stomach or intestine)
o Gallbladder problems
Developmental aspect of the digestive system and
metabolism
• Later middle-age problems
o Obesity
o Diabetes mellitus
• Activity of the digestive tract in old age
o Fewer digestive juices
o Peristalsis slows
o Diverticulosis (pockets called diverticula are formed
in the walls of digestive tract, most often in the
colon) and gastrointestinal cancers are more
common
II. Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Nutrition
• Dietary recommendations
• Dietary sources of major nutrients
2. Metabolism
• Carbohydrate
• Fat
• Protein
• Central role of liver
3. Body energy balance

III. Developmental aspect of digestive system

IV. Interrelation with other organ systems
Interrelationship with other organ systems

Figure 13.27 shows the

relationship of the digestive
system to other organ systems in
the body. Mainly one this is that
the digestive system supplies
necessary nutrients, upon
digestion and absorption, to the
cells which makes it possible for
cellular respiration to occur
generating ATP to be used during
cell activity. This image is also
available in page 531 of the book.
Questions?