SURVEYING LEC (REVIEWER)

SURVEYING CONCEPTS

Definition of Surveying

Surveying is an art and science of making measurements necessary to determine

the relative position of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or to
establish such points.

Major Division of Surveying

a. Plane surveying - involves surveys that are of limited extent. It considered the
portion of the earth being surveyed to be a plane surface.

b. Geodetic Surveying - a category of surveying that is applicable to large areas,

long lines and in establishing a network of points which are precisely located
with respect to position and elevation.

Kinds of Surveys

a. Topographic Surveys - surveys made for the purpose of securing field data
from which may be made a map representing the three-dimensional relations
of the earth surface.

b. Hydrographic surveying - refers to surveying of lakes, streams, reservoir,

oceans and other bodies of water.

c. Land Surveys - undertaken to establish boundaries, calculate land areas, and

to provide records and maps which show the proper location and subdivision
of lands.

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d. Route Surveying - surveys that supply data necessary to determine alignment,
grades, and earthwork quantities in connection with the location and
construction of engineering projects.

e. Cadastral Surveys - are urban and rural surveys that are undertaken for the
purpose of locating property lines and improvements in detail, primarily for use
in connection with the ownership, extent, value, and transfer of land.

f. Mine Surveying - are surveys necessary to fix surface boundaries of mining

claims, to establish position of all underground excavations and surface
structures of mines, to fix the positions and directions of shafts, tunnels and
drifts.

g. Photogrammetric Surveying- are surveys in which photographs, either

terrestrial or aerial, are used in connection with any of the kinds of surveys.

h. City Surveying - are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of
planning city improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference
monuments, and determining the physical features and configuration of the
land.

i. Construction Surveys - are surveys that are undertaken to provide data

regarding locations and elevations and structures that are of concern to
engineers, architects and builders.

j. Industrial Surveying - the use of surveying techniques in aircraft and other

industries where very accurate dimensional layouts are required.

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 CHAPTER 1: THEORY OF PROBABILTY

Mistakes vs Errors

Mistakes- are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspects of a

surveying operation is performed by the surveyor’s carelessness, inattention, poor
judgement and improper execution.

Errors- are the difference between a measured value and its true value. However,
measurements are never exact and there will always be a degree of variance regardless of
the survey instrument or method used.

Formula: E= Vt - Vm

Types of Surveying Errors:

 Systematic Errors- one which will always have the same sign and magnitude as
long as field conditions remain constant and unchanged.
 Accidental Errors- these errors are purely accidental in character. These are
caused by factors beyond control of the surveyor and are present in all surveying
measurements.

Sources of Errors:

 Instrumental errors- are caused by imperfectly constructed, adjusted, or

calibrated surveying equipment.
 Natural errors- are caused by variations in the phenomena of nature such as
changes in magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction, gravity,
and curvature of the earth.
 Personal errors- these errors arise principally from the limitations of the senses
of sight, touch and hearing of the human observer which are likely to be
erroneous or inaccurate.
 Random errors- these errors are not directly related to the conditions or
circumstances of the observation. Its magnitude and direction of the error are

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 subject to chance. For a single measurement or a series of measurements, it is
the error remaining after all possible systematic errors and blunders have been
eliminated.

Accuracy vs Precision

Accuracy- indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true value of
the quantity measured.

Precision- refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any physical
measurement is made.

Theory of Probability

Probability- defined as the number of times something will probably occur over the
range of possible occurences.

Theory of probability is based upon the following assumptions relative to the

occurrences of errors:

 Small errors occur more often than large ones.

 Large errors rarely happen; large ones may be taken as mistakes rather than
accidental errors.
 Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency that is,
they are equally probable.
 The mean of an infinite number of observations is the most probable value.

What is most probable value?

The most probable value of a group of repeated measurements made under similar
conditions is the arithmetic mean or the average. Most probable value refers to a

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quantity which, based on available data, has more chances of being correct than has any
other. The determination of most probable value from a series of measurements is the
principal use of the theory of probability.

Range of Probable Value

50% = 0.6745

90% = 1.644

95% = 1.959

Steps in Solving Probability of Error:

1. Compute Most Probable Value (MPV)/Mean/Average from a given set of data.

2. Compute error (E)/deviation/variance.

3. Compute probable error for the mean (PEm) and single (Pes)

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Where:

n = number of observations PEm= probable error of the mean

Pes = probable error of any single ∑𝑣 2 = summation of the squares of the

measurement residuals

4. Compute Most Probable Length (MPL), two values

MPL = (MPV +PEm)

MPL = (MPV – Pem)

5. Compute Relative Precision (R) or Relative Error (RE)

𝑃𝐸𝑚 1
𝑅𝑃 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑀𝑃𝑉 𝑅

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 CHAPTER 2: MISTAKES AND ERRORS

Steps in solving:

1. Illustrate & label the problem. Identify the given and the required.
2. Derive the general equation of the problem.
3. Compute total error for the length and width.
4. Compute final answer substitution.

 Errors in Tape Measurement (TAPE TOO LONG/ TOO SHORT)

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 CORRECTION DUE TO PULL

 CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE CHANGE

 CORRECTION DUE TO SAG

 CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE

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 CHAPTER 3: OPEN TRAVERSE

Traverse- is a series of consecutive lines whose ends have been marked in the field and
directions have been determine from observations. Types of traverse are open and close
traverse.

Open Traverse- boundaries are not closed

Close Traverse- boundaries are closed

Steps in solving Open Traverse problems:

1. Plot and label the traverse.

2. Compute interior angles of the traverse (isolate).

3. Compute the difference between the forward and back bearing of each line.

4. Adjustment of bearings of the traverse will start from the line with the least difference.
Use forward bearing of this line.

5. Adjusted forward and back bearing of a line must have the same magnitude but of
opposite direction

6. Adjust succeeding forward bearings of the other lines using its interior angles.

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 CHAPTER 4: CLOSE TRAVERSE

Steps in solving Close Traverse problems:

1. Plot and label the traverse.

2. Compute interior angle of the traverse.

3. Compute the error of the traverse.

4. Adjust interior angles by distributing the error equally to the computed interior
angles.

5. Compute the difference between the forward and back bearing of each line.

6. Adjustment of bearings: Re-plot the traverse and using the adjusted interior angles.

7. Compute the adjusted bearings of the traverse starting from the line with the least
difference of forward and back bearing

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 CHAPTER 5: DEFLECTION ANGLES

Deflection angle- is the horizontal angle observed from the prolongation of the
proceeding line, right or left, to the following line.

Bearing of a line:

The bearing of a line is the acute horizontal angle between the meridian and the
line. It is measured from either north or south toward the east or west and may within
any of the four quadrants such as the northeast (NE), northwest (NW), southeast (SE) or
southwest (SW).

Steps in solving Deflection Angle problems:

1. Plot and label the traverse.

2. Compute error of deflection angles using the following formula:

E = 360 Σ (R - L)

3. Compute for the mean Error.

4. Compute adjusted deflection angles by adding mean error to the given deflection
angle.

5. Re plot the traverse and using the adjusted deflection angles, compute its bearings.

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 CHAPTER 6: AZIMUTH ANGLES

Azimuth Angles

- Are horizontal angles observed clockwise from any reference meridian.

- In plane surveying, azimuths are generally observed from north.

Steps in solving Azimuth Angles problem:

1. Plot and label the traverse.

2. Compute interior angles. Compute traverse error.

3. Compute adjusted interior angles.

4. Compute difference of Forward and Back Azimuth (absolute value).

Δ A = [Fa - Ba], if Fa < Ba, then [Ba - Fa]

5. Subtract Δ A from 180.

6. After solving the differences, if (+), add half of the value of the difference to the azimuth
of the line. If (-), subtract the whole difference from the forward azimuth.

7. Re plot traverse and using adjusted interior angles, compute the adjusted azimuths.

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 CHAPTER 7: TRAVERSE AREA COMPUTATION

Steps in solving traverse area problems:

1. Plot the traverse and label properly.

2. Compute the latitude and departures.

 Latitude is the product of the distance and the cosine function of the bearing of
the line.

Latitude = [(distance) x [cos(bearing)]

 Departure is the product of the distance and the sine function of the bearing of
the line.

Departure = [(distance) x [sin(bearing)]

3. Compute the sum of all Latitudes and Departures, with due respect to its signs (+/-).
The answer represents the error in the line.

4. Compute corrections for each Latitude and Departure by Transit or Compass Rule.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Corrections = (Total Error in latitude) x
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

5. Compute adjusted latitudes and departures.

Adjusted Latitude = Computed latitude – Corrected latitude

Adjusted Departure = Computed departure – Corrected departure

6. Compute DMD and DPD factors.

- for the first column in DMD, copy the first value in Adjusted Departure

- for the first column in DPD, copy the first value in Adjusted Latitude

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7. Compute Double Area using the product of DMD factors and Latitude, and DPD factors
and departure.

Double Areas = ∑(DMD x Adjusted Latitude) or ∑(DPD x Adjusted Departure)

8. Compute area of traverse by dividing by two the commutative sum of the Double Area
(DMD or DPD).

CHAPTER 8: TRAVERSE MISSING DATA

To be able to compute the bearing and distance of a missing side of a traverse, review
the following;
1. traverse area computation
2. closure equation for latitude and departure
3. trigonometric identities
4. laws of sine, cosine & tangent
5. other related surveying formulas

Steps in solving Traverse Missing Data problems:

CASE 1: INVOLVING ONE LINE

1. Plot the traverse.

2. Compute latitude and departure
3. Compute missing latitude and
departure by closure equation.
4. Compute bearing using tangent
function.
5. Compute distance using
Pythagorean theorem.

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CASE 2: MISSING ADJACENT SIDES

1. Plot and label the traverse.

2. Draw dividing line EC.
3. Isolate CEAB and compute missing side CE.
4. Isolate CDE and compute angles C,D and E of the triangle.
5. Compute distance X and Y using Cosine law.

CASE 3: NON-ADJACENT SIDES

1. Plot and label the traverse.

2. Establish point F such that CF//AB, and AF//CB.
3. Compute missing side FD.
4. Isolate DCF and compute angles D,C and F.
5. Compute bearings Ø and β.

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 CHAPTER 9: TRAVERSE PARTITIONING

Steps in solving traverse partitioning problem:

1. Plot and label the traverse.

2. Compute total area – DMD/DPD.

3. Draw a dividing line base on the required in the problem and label it.

4. Draw another dividing line that creates a triangle and the two sides must be known.

5. Compute its bearing and distance - closure equation.

6. Compute the areas of two dividing.

7. Isolate the triangle that is needed and compute its distance and bearing of the line.

CHAPTER 10: LEVELING

Leveling is a term applied to various processes by which elevations of points or

difference in elevations are determined. It is vital in producing data for mapping,
engineering design and construction.

Leveling results are used in:

(1) Design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems and other facilities
having grade lines that best conform to existing topography;

(2) Lay out construction projects according to planned elevations;

(3) Calculate earthwork volumes and other materials;

(4) Investigate drainage characteristics of an area;

(5) Develop maps showing general ground conditions and

(6) Study earth subsidence and crustal motion.

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Types of Leveling:

Differential Leveling:

- The operation of determining elevation of points some distance apart by a series

of set-ups of the instrument along the general route.
- A rod reading back to a point of known elevation and forward to a point of an
unknown elevation is taken for each set-up.

Profile leveling

- The process of determining the difference in elevation between points at

designated short measured intervals along an established line to provide data
from which a vertical section of the ground surface can be plotted.

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 CHAPTER 11: STADIA READINGS

Part I. EVEN GROUNDS

Part II. UNEVEN GROUNDS

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