REVIEWER IN ETHICS
KEY CONCEPTS IN ETHICS:
The English word ethics is derived from ancient Greek
by word ethnikos, which means “relating to ones
character”.
Ethnikos Itself is derived from another Greek word, the
noun ethos means “character, disposition”.
Ethics in its broadest sense, usually delves on a very
encompassing question of “how we ought to live?”.
MODULE 4
CULTURE AND MORALITY
What is Culture?
Culture – is one of human dimensions. It shapes the
mind, belief, and morals of individuals in the society
 It varies from different groups of people
depending on their values and belief system.
 Defines the people in a particular society.
 Gives reason and purpose of the activities of the
people in various events and the reaction
towards certain condition or situation.
 Allows us to understand the human nature
dealing with other people and the morality
behind their act.
Culture is defined in various ways depending on the
perspective and profession of the individual.
• Edward Taylor (1642 – 1729) – American poet
defines culture to that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals,
custom, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by a member of society.
• It is a powerful human tool for survival, but is a
fragile phenomenon.
• It is constantly changing and easily lost because
it exist only in our mind.
Core Layers of Culture:
• First, the body of cultural traditions that
distinguish a specific society
 Language define the people and their culture.
Example: Italian, Samoan, Filipino, Japanese
 Spoken language/dialect
 Distinguish them from other people.
Second Layer: Subculture
 This occurs in a complex and diverse societies in
which people have come from many different
parts of the world.?
 They often retain much of their original cultural
traditions
 As the cultural differences between members of
a subculture and the dominant national culture
blur and eventually disappears.
 Subculture ceases to exist except as a group of
people who claim a common ancestry.
Example: Good deed and being Hospitable of the
Filipinos which can be adopted only in the subculture.
Third Layer: Culture consist of Cultural Universals:
• These are learned behavior patterns that are
shared collectively by all of humanity.
• The universal culture refers to the culture that
is common to all people around the world.
• The behavioral patterns of offering help or
providing assistance to the needy, greetings and
making query to the strangers are common to
most people.
• Through the universal pattern of culture, people
develop not only pattern of behavior but a kind
of morality which is acceptable universally.
What is Morality?
• It is a universal custom which allows the
individual to act accordingly which common to
all people despite the different patterned
behavior or cultural differences.
• Principles concerning the distinction between
right and wrong, good or bad behavior.
• A particular system of values and principles of
conduct especially one held by a specified
person or society.
• The extent to which an action is right or wrong.
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Role of Moral Behavior:
 Moral Behavior – is to act according to ones
moral values and standards
 Culture reflects the moral and ethical beliefs
and standards that speak of how people should
behave and interact with others.
 They act as prescriptions for correct and moral
behavior, lend meaning and coherence to life,
and provide a means of achieving a sense of
integrity, safety and belonging.
 Moral Behavior is more ambiguous though, so
perceives would be more likely to correct their
dispositional inferences in light of relevant
situational pressure.
From: Encyclopedia of Human Behavior (Second
Edition), 2012
Functions of Culture:
• 1. Culture provides identity to the people.
• 2. Culture mirrors the laws of the land.
• 3. Culture unifies people in ways that only those
who belong in that society understand.
• 4. Culture influences our concept of morality.
What is Cultural Relativism?
• Cultural relativism – is the view that moral
beliefs and practices vary with and depend on
the human needs and social conditions of a
particular culture.
• Moral Relativism – is a view that moral
judgements are true or false only relative to
some particular standpoint (for instance, that of
a culture or a historical period) and that no
standpoint is uniquely privileged over all others.
• Relativist often do claim that an
action/judgement etc. is morally required of a
person.
Example, if a person believes that abortion is
morally wrong, then it is wrong for her.
In other words it would be morally wrong for
Susan to have an abortion if Susan believed that
abortion is always morally wrong.
Understanding Filipino Culture:
• Filipinos view ethics together with the Filipino
culture.
• The Filipino values are considered the basis of
morality (Enriquez 1988)
• Values are Universal and neutral.
• Filipino values are viewed in both positive and
negative terms.
• The interpretation of values depend on how
people apply them to their lives.
Some of the Filipino Values (Timbreza, 2008) that are
viewed either positive or negative:
• 1. Utang na loob (endless payment of debt/debt
of gratitude).
• 2. Bahala na ( surrender/hope for God’s grace)
• 3. Manana habit ( delaying habit/patience)
• 4. Close family ties (dependency/love for family)
Seconds, similar Filipino values with conflicting ideas:
• Propriety (hiya) versus troubled
(Pagkabagabag)
• Personal versus duty/obligation
• Family solidarity versus universal principle and
general good.
• Pakikipagkapwa tao versus pakikisama
• In addition, Culture contributes to formation of
moral standards of the society and the
individual.
• Source: Ethics: In the Contemporary Perspective
by: Co, Garcia and Dumo
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MODULE 6: UNDERSTANDING THE ACT knowledge and freedom in the agents because
for the agent to will (in doing the act, the agents
HUMAN ACTS vs. ACTS OF MAN
must have knowledge of what the act is and
• Human acts are actions that proceed from the must also have the freedom to perform the act.
deliberate free will of a person. Thus, a voluntary act is willful act in itself.

• This acts are therefore done with knowledge Morality of Human Act:
and consent and willfully carried out by the
• Morality – is concerned with the knowingly
person.
chosen acts of human
• Human acts are characterized as:
person.
> the free and voluntary act of man
There are three sources/fonts of morality:
> acts done with knowledge and consent;
1. Intention
> acts which are proper to man as a rational being since
2. moral object
man has gifted with rationality and knowledge
3. circumstances
> acts which are conscious and under our control
and for which we are responsible. Every act with three good source/fonts is morally licit, it
is not a sin.
Acts of man, on the other hand;
Each source/font is evaluated as to its morality based
It refers to certain types of actions that are naturally
on the two Great Commandments:
exhibited by man and as such they are morally
indifferent because we cannot judge them to be either • Matt 22:38-39 “You shall love the Lord your God
to ethical or unethical. with all your heart, and with all your soul, and
with all your mind.”39. “You shall love your
> Co, et al (2014) assert that there are many kinds of
neighbor as yourself;”
act, but only human acts have ethical values.
• The morality of human acts depends three
> Acts which are neither good nor bad are amoral or
sources;
indifferent like sleeping and taking a bath.
> the object chosen, either a true or apparent good
> Amoral acts are not human acts, rather they are acts
of man. Dome by man, they are not conduct but > the intention of the subject who acts, that is the
activity. purpose for which the subject performs the act

CONSTITUENTS OR ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF > the circumstances of the act which includes its
HUMAN ACTS: consequences (Compedium, n. 367)

For an act to be considered a human act, it must Every moral act consist of three elements:
possess the following three characteristics:
• 1. The Objective act – what we do.
1. Knowledge. Babor (2008) affirms that a human
• 2. the subjective goal or intention (why we do
act is an act done with knowledge.
the act)
2. Free Will. Dupre (2013) claims that the concept
• 3. the concrete situation or circumstances in
of free will – the idea that we are free agents,
which we perform the act.
able to act as we please – is fundamental to all
ethical thinking.  The intention is the subject, the human person
who acts.
3. 3. Voluntariness. Babor (2008), asserts that
voluntariness requires the presence of
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 The moral object is of the act itself, the
objective act chosen by the human person.
 The inherent ordering of the act toward its
moral object determines the essential moral
nature (the inherent moral meaning) of the act
itself.
 In Moral Theology, an act is the knowing
choices of a human person. There are no
morally-neutral acts. Every knowingly chosen
act is either good or evil, either morally licit (at
least permissible without sin) or morally illicit (a
venial or mortal sin).
 “No human act is morally indifferent to one’s
conscience or before God.” (Congregation for
Catholic Eduction)
 “Freedom makes a person a moral subject.
When a man acts deliberately, man is, so to
speak, the father of his acts.
 Human acts, that is, acts that are freely chosen
in consequence of a judgement of conscience
can be morally evaluated. They are either good
or evil;
MODIFIER OF HUMAN ACTS:
• 1. Ignorance Modifiers.
Ignorance is the absence of knowledge which a
person ought to possess. It has two types;
Vincible ignorance – can easily be reminded through
ordinary diligence and reasonable efforts. Under the
category of vincible ignorance is the affected ignorance
that affirms that person keeps positive efforts in order
to escape responsibility or blame.
b. Invincible Ignorance:
• > It is the type which a person possesses
without being aware of it. If having awareness
of it, a person lacks the means to rectify it.
• > It renders an act involuntary. A person cannot
be held liable if he is not aware of his state of
ignorance.
 A person who becomes aware of the state of
ignorance he is in, has the obligation to rectify it
by exercising reasonable diligence in seeking
the needed information.
Vincible Ignorance on the other hand does not destroy
but lessens the volunariness and the corresponding
accountability over the act.
Affected ignorance – decreases voluntariness, increase
the accountability over the resultant act.
2. Passions/Concupiscence Modifiers:
- They are either tendencies towards desirable objects
or tendencies away from undesirable or harmful things.
Types of Passions:
a. Antecedent Passion – are those that precede an
act; predispose a person to act. Clouds the human
intellect to a certain extent and provides powerful
impulse towards the act.
b. Consequent Passion – are those that are
intentionally aroused and kept, thus voluntary in cause.
The desire of the will for some object is so strong; the
will may deliberately decide to excite within man some
passions which it uses to act more promptly and
vigorously.
3. Fear Modifier:
• Fear is the disturbance of the mind of a person
who is confronted by an impending danger or
harm to oneself or loved one. It is instinct for
self-preservation.
Types of Fear:
a. Grave Fear – aroused by the presence of
danger; regarded by most people as serious
judged to be serious by the one concerned.
b. Slight Fear – aroused by a danger that is not
serious.
Principles of Fear:
• a. Acts done with fear are voluntary.
• b. Acts done out of fear.
• c. Acts done because of intense fear or panic
are involuntary.
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Violence • It is something deeply embedded in an
individual but ingrained by being acquired not
• > It refers to any physical force exerted on a
being inborn.
person by another free agent for the purpose of
compelling said person to act against his will. Principles of Habits:

There are four types of violence committed by a  Habits are voluntary in cause, because they are
person: the result of previously willed acts done
repeatedly as a matter of fact.
1. Perfect Violence:
 Every action emanating from habit is said to
2. Physically Perfect Violence – in which all
partake of the voluntariness of those previous
posiible efforts of resisting is utilized.
acts.
3. Morally Perfect Violence – is that in which all
 Actions done by force or habit are voluntary in
powers of resistance should be used but not
cause, unless a reasonable effort is made to
employed for a good reason.
counteract the habitual inclination.
4. Imperfect Violence – is that in which some
 Therefore, as long as the habit is not corrected,
resistance is show but not as much as should
evil actions done by force of that habit are
be.
voluntary and accountable.
Principles of Violence:
Conclusion/Summary:
• a. External Actions or Commanded actions –
• To be moral is to be human;
are performed by a person subjected to
violence. • To be truly human is to be moral, being what
we are and acting as we should as members of a
• b. Elicited acts – those done by the will alone
human race is what morality all about.
are not subject to violence and are therefore
voluntary. • Being moral implies that we wisely use our
thinking ability.
• c. That which is done from perfect violence is
entirely involuntary; there is no moral • We are free, without freedom, there is no right
responsibility. or wrong

• d. That which is done under the influence of • To be moral is to use our freedom wisely, to use
imperfect violence is less voluntary and so the it in a human way.
moral responsibility is lessened but not taken
• Every choice we make, every action we take,
away completely.
matters. We can always make a difference.
5. HABITS:

• It is a lasting readiness and facility, born of

frequently repeated acts, for acting in a certain
manner.

• It is acquired inclination towards something to

be done.

• Sometimes is also called second nature.

• These are repeated actions performed by the

agent.
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Module 10
The Seven Step Model for Moral Reasoning
• The Seven-Point Model fro Moral Reasoning:
( Resource: Ethics; In the Contemporary
Perspectives by Co, et al.)
Step 1: What are the facts?
> What do we know?
> What do we need to know?
> What are the significant featires of the
particular situation which make it an ethical
situation?
>Is there some actual or potential harm involve
for an individual ot group?
>Does the situation relate to some basic human
goods which are beig created, distributed,
denied or threatened?
> Does it involve considerations of justice or
rights?
Step 2: What are the Ethical Issues?
At this point, some questions are to be
raised:
> Is it an issue of how to maximize
benefits and minimum harm?
> Is it an action on universal actions?
> or whether individuals are being
treated as ends and not merely as means?
> or whether a particular action is right
or good?
> Is it a question of a possible violation
of rights or a conflict between rights?
> Is is a question of the fair distribution of
benefits and burden?
• >Is it a question of how or whether to apply
some specific ethical principles?
• Moral sensitivity plays an important role in
understanding an ethical issue.
Here are some steps to enhance our moral sensitivity:
1. Learn the skills of listening and role playing
2. Use imagination for varied perspecives
3. 3. Hold in abeyance personal
judgements/assumptions to assess whether the
situation has moral implications
4. 4.Use appropriate terms in morality and ethics
in discussing the issue
5. 5. Avoid euphemisms. Use direct expressions.
6. 6. Do not excuse misbehavior.
7. 7. Learn to accept personal responsibility
8. 8. Be open to other points of view.
9. 9. Practice humility and accept sound
judgement/viewpoint.
• Step 3: Who are the Stakeholders?
• Stakeholders- any individual, institution (Group
or individual) with an interest or a role to play in
a decision-making.
• It is important to note that ethical decisions are
not always in a personal tone. We have to
consider other people who may be affected by
the decisions and determine the extent or
degree of such effect to themselves.
• Stakeholders claims should be ranked and
weighted accordingly.
• The process for weighing the competing claims
should be spelled out as much as possible.
• Step 4: What are the Alternatives?
• There are no good solutions without
alternatives at hand.
• Guide to Keep the alternatives;
• 1. Value-focused: all alternatives must have the
fundmental values ot ends necessary to be a
potential decision.
• 2. Clearly and consistently defined; altrnatives
must be founded on logical assumptions;
• 3. able to collaborate with people most
affected, considering the stakeholders’ interest
also matter a lot in the possible decision.
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• Step 5: What are the Ethics of Alternatives: 2. What are the magnitude of the consequences
and the probability that the consequence will
• In this step, we compare the alternatives with
happen
ethical principles. The purpose of this step is to
see if there is a clear decision that can be made 3. 3. Evaluate the short term vs, long tern\m
without further deliberation. consequence

The following are the Principles we can use in 4. 4. Some decisions have symbolic consequence
evaluating the ethical alternatives. meaning, such decision may send a different
message to another person.
1. The Utilitarian Principle: Which action
(alternative) will produce the most good and do 5. 5. Some decisions have secrecy consequence
the least harm? such that making it into public may yield
another unforeseen consequence.
2. The Principle of Justice: Which action treats
people equally or proportionately? What kind of 6. 6. Consider relevant cognitive barriers/biases.
Justice is at stake, distributive ot procedural?
7. 7. Consider what your decision would be if
3. The Right Principle: Which action respects the based upon on consequences only. The last one
rights of all who have a stake in the decision. is good test may help you decide to accept or
What type of rights are involved, positive or not to accept the chosen alternative.
negative?
• Step 7:What course of Actions are Needed to
4. 4. The Principle of Common Good: Which Undertake?
action serves the community as a whole, not
This step is also known as Decide and act step.
just some members?
The following are the authors suggested step to
5. 5.The Principle of virtue? Which leads me to sct consider in carrying out Rthical decisions:
as the sort of person I should be?
1. Provide justification that is right and best suited
After weighing all the alternatives in terms of right in the situation.
or wrong, good or bad, in the context of the
2. Bear in mind that going through the seven step
principles, the next thing to do is to select the best
justify the selection of an alternative to the
alternative where most, if not all ethical principles
fullest sense. So provide a brief summary on the
point out to. In this way, the choice of the
chosen alternative in accordance to the seven
alternative is still rational and so to be respected.
steps that it went through.
• Step 6: What are the Practical Constraints?
The Seven-Step of Ethical Decision Making Process
Since our initial decision on the choicw of of Douglas May (2002) provided the following
alternative is based on an ethical principle, we need considerations:
to test this choice on the presence of practical
Consider your character and integrity in the finality of
constraints that may prevent the chosen alternative
your alternative chosen.
from being acted upon.
Rely on your intuition as a credible source of a good
The following can be usd to evaluate the
decision-making.
consequences (May 2002):
Be prepared to response that may oppose your position
1. Think about potential positive and negative
by anticipating conflicting thoughts and preparing
consequencesfo affected parties of the decision.
counter arguments.

Always do a reflection on the outcome of your decision.

 REVIEWER IN ETHICS
Note: The above lessons has been discussed  Such reality is beyond human conventions and
previously. Hope this serve as an additional characterized as:
knowledge to all of you.
a. Objective c. unchanging e. universal

b. eternal d. immutable
MODULE 1: PART II
PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES:
Introduction to Moral Theories and Mental
 The second issue deals on how human beings
Frameworks
understand the concept of morality.
What are Moral Theories?
 Entails a psychological involvement (mental and
• A theory is a structured set of statements used emotional) in the apprehension of moral
to explain(or predict) a set of facts or issues concepts.

• A MORAL THEORY - explains why a certain  The mind dictates to the body what to do; such
action is wrong – or why we ought to act certain that our moral conduct and decisions are
ways, in short it is a theory of how we founded on our understanding that involves our
determine right or wrong conduct. feelings and reasoning.

• Main Component Areas in the Inquiry of  Actions are dependent and inseparable to our
Philosophical Ethics: inherent capacity to weigh, process, ponder and
decide to choose the right from wrong
1. METAETHICS:
APPLIED ETHICS: the Second component area in the
“Meta” is a Latin term which means after or
inquiry of Philosophical ethics.
beyond
. The term(Applied Ethics) - refers to a field of ethics
 This refers to the study of nature and meaning
that deals with ethical questions specific to profession,
of the ethical concepts as it searches for the
discipline, or practical realm.
origin or causes of right and wrong.
>It proposes that the right and wrong can be found
 It is concerned with the questions such as
within scenarios and in practical concerns.
“What is goodness”? Or What distinguished the
good from the bad? Are there moral facts?  here, ethical decisions that are supported by
What sets these facts into moral standards? Do are considered righteous
they conform or totally independent of our
 Empirically laded, some of these facts are
mental attitudes or social norms?
derived fromrelated past experiences of similar
Two Issues involved in the study of metaethics are: scenario.

1.the metaphysical issues concerning whether Examples of Applied Ethics:

morality exists independently among humans;
1. Bioethics – is he study of the ethical and moral
2. the psychological issues concerning the underlying implications of new biological discoveries, and
mental basis of our mental judgement and conduct. biomedical advance, as in the field of genetic
engineering and drug researches.
• METAPHYSICS ISSUES:
2. Environmental ethics – is the discipline in
> takes its root from the study of metaphysics(the
philosophy that studies the moral relationships
study of the fundamental nature of reality)
of human beings to and also the value and
>Metaphysical element of metaethics simply claims that moral status of the environment and its
moral values, concepts or thoughts have eternal truths nonhuman contents.
and possess some kind of objective reality.
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3. Professional ethics: - refers to the ethical norms,
values, and principles that guide a profession and
the ethics of decision made within the profession.
( code of professional ethics established by
professional organizations).
4. Legal ethics: - branch of philosophy that defines what
is good for the individual and for society and establishes
the nature of obligations or duties that people owe
themselves and one another.
5. Business ethics: - examines ethical rules and
principles within commercial context. Deals also with
controversial issues such as corporate governance,
insider trading, bribery, discrimination, corporate social
responsibilities.
6. Social ethics: - defined by what we have to agree on
in order a well functioning society;also concerns direct
dealing with people and standards of behavior so as not
to harm others.
7. Christian ethics: -
• Agape is the supreme moral principle of
Christian ethics. Its supremacy is backed by
Biblical theology.
• Christian ethics is not about personal or moral
issues alone; You got to have a broad picture of
what does God’s kingdom look like; what does
God delight in, what does God rejoice in, what
does it mean to love neighbor, having a
constant reflection upon who Jesus is, Loving
God and doing or obeying His will.
• NORMATIVE ETHICS: - the last component:
Normative Ethics is broken down into 3 Categories:
1. Deontology – derived from Greek word deon –
duty and logos –study. A theory that suggest
actions are good or bad according to a clear set
of rules.
it’s the normative ethical theory that the morality of
an act should be based on whether that action itself is
right or wrong under a series of rules, rather than based
on the consequences of the action.
2. TELEOLOGY: - from the Greek word telos which
means “end” and logos which means science.
 Teleological moral systems focus on the
consequences of any action.
 Often referred to as consequentialist moral
system.
 Usually the “correct consequences” are those
which are most beneficial to humanity, they
promote human happiness, human pleasure,
human satisfaction, human survival, or simply
the general welfare of all humans.
3. Virtue Ethics :
 Focuses on the issue on what moral character of
an individual is desirable or praiseworthy.
 Virtues are the most desirable traits or
character dispositions humans must have.
 These character traits will in turn allow a
person to make the correct decisions later in
life.

> it is the study of ethical actions; it investigates the set  Virtues are good habits, while vices are bad
of the set of questions that arise when considering how habits.
we ought to act (what actions are right or wrong); how
we ought to be (what character traits are good or bad).

 The concept of right is usually reserved to

actions and we ought not to perform as wrong
actions.

 The concept of morally good refers to the states

of human character that are desirable, worthy,
or morally acceptable.
REVIEWER IN ETHICS