[SEMEP 2021] - CHEMISTRY

Accuracy - measures the closeness of individual values with

OUTLINE the correct value
I. Measurements Example:
A. Accuracy and Precision Consider the center of the target as the correct value.
B. Unit Conversion
II. Law of Chemical Combinations
A. Law of Conservation of Mass
B. Law of Constant Composition
C. Law of Multiple Proportions
D. Law of Reciprocal Proportion
E. Gay Lussac‘s Law of Gaseous Volume
III. Matter
A. States of Matter
B. Composition of Matter
C. Properties of Mater
IV. Intermolecular Forced of Attraction
A. Dipole-dipole Image source: Hazra, Avijit & Gogtay, Nithya. (2017). Biostatistics Series Module
B. Ion-Dipole 7: The Statistics of Diagnostic Tests. Indian Journal of Dermatology. 62. 18.
C. Hydrogen Bonding 10.4103/0019-5154.198047.
V. Colligative Properties Explanation:
A. Vapor Pressure Lowering
B. Boiling Point Elevation o Neither accurate nor precise: This means that the
C. Freezing Point Depression values are numerically far from each other and
VI. Gas Laws from the correct value.
A. Boyle‘s Law
B. Charles‘ Law o Precise but not accurate: The values are in close
C. Gay-Lussac‘s Law proximity to each other but still far from the
D. D. Avogadro‘s Law correct value.
E. Combined Gas Law
F. Ideal Gas Law o Accurate but not precise: The values are within
VII. Periodic Table the correct value range but they are still far from
A. Family/Groups each other, thus they are not precise.
B. Periods
C. Effective Nuclear Charge o Both accurate and precise: The values are within
D. Periodic Trends the correct value and are in close proximity with
VIII. Solutions and Solubility each other.
A. Solution
B. Solubility SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
IX. Chemical Reactions Significant figures are the meaningful digits in a measured or
A. Balancing Equation calculated quantity. Although meaningful, it has to be noted
B. Common Types of Reactions that the last digit is uncertain.

 How to determine the number of significant figures for a

measured quantity:

I. MEASUREMENTS 1. From left to right, count the digits with the first digit
that is not zero.
A. ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Precision - measures the closeness of individual values with Ex. 0.01234 cm has 4 significant figures.
each other

1
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY

2. In any given case, nonzero digits are always

significant so they should be counted.

Ex. 14,985 km has 5 significant figures.

299,792,458 m/s has 9 significant figures.

3. Zeros between nonzero digits should be counted.

Ex. 904 kg has 3 significant figures

4. Zeros preceding a nonzero number are never

significant and only indicate the position of hte
decimal point.

Ex. 0.05 mm - 1 SF
0.0423 L - 3 SF Image source: https://www.texasgateway.org/resource/mole-
conversions7
5. Zeros at the end of a number are significant if the METRIC VS IMPERIAL
value contains a decimal point.

Ex. 40.000 - 5 SF Metric System

1.30 x 108- 3 SF  This is used as the system of measurement in most
5600 - 2 SF (because it does not contain a decimal countries, known for its easy specification of unit.
point)  In 1960, the system of units called the International
System (Systeme International) was formulated and has
6. Exact numbers (from definition or number of objects) units derived from the metric system.
can be considered to have an infinite number of
significant figures.

Ex. 2.54 in - infinite SF

1000 m - infinite SF
9 books - infinite SF
Note: In determining the number of significant figures for
exponential notation, the 10n is not included in the count.

HOW TO DETERMINE THE SIGNIFICANT

FIGURE OF A CALCULATED QUANTITY:
1. Addition and subtraction
The resulting value should have the same number of
Image source:
significant figures as the value with the least number https://www.realnfo.com/toc/Basic_Electrical_Engineering/Fundamental_of_Physi
of decimal places. However, you have to add or cs/Physical_Quantities
subtract the numbers as is before rounding them off.

Ex. 17.89 + 22.563 + 9.674 = 50.127 ≈ 50.13

43.24 - 23.2 + 18.904 = 38.944 ≈ 38.9
2. Multiplication and division
The resulting value should have the same number of
significant figures with the value that has the least
number of significant figures. Remember to multiply or
divide the values first before rounding them off.
Imperial System:
 This is the unit of measurement used in the United
Kingdom, the Commonwealth, and the United States. The
units commonly associated with this system are inches
(in.), yards (yd.), miles (mi), pounds (lb), ounces (oz), and
feet (ft).

Ex. 56.723 x 24.3 x 1.2 = 1654.04268 ≈ 1.7 x 103

89.5/5.4 = 16.57407407 ≈ 17

References:
Brown, TL., Lemay, H.E., Bursten, B.E., Murphy, C.J., Woodward, P.
M., & Stoltzfus, M.W. (2018). Chemistry: The Central Science (14th
edition). Pearson. 24-33.
Chang, R., & Goldsby, K.A. (2016). Chemistry, Twelfth Edition. New
York: McGraw-Hill Education. 19-23.

B. UNIT CONVERSION:
Common conversion chart:

2
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY

64 cm ÷ 1 hm / 10000 cm = 6.4 x 103 hm

Reference: Metric Math Conversion. Online Math Learning. (n.d.)
https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/metric-math.html

TEMPERATURE CONVERSION

For temperature, there are three units commonly used:

Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. Kelvin is the SI temperature
scale. To convert Celsius to Kelvin, you can use the following
formula:

Image source: https://study.com/academy/lesson/english-system-of- Example: Determine the Kelvin temperature of an object if it is

measurement-definition-history-advantages-disadvantages.html
measured with a temperature of 41.3 degrees Celsius.
Imperial to Metric
K = 41.3 + 273.15 = 314.45 K ≈ 314.5 K

Aside from Kelvin, other common units of temperature used

are Celsius and Fahrenheit, with a conversion factor of:

Example:

What is 78.6 °C in Fahrenheit?

Image source: https://www.theschoolrun.com/what-are-imperial-units
Answer: 199.08 °F or 199 °F
METRIC CONVERSION
What is 21.23 °F in Celsius?\

Answer: -5.9833333 °C or -5.983 °C

References:
Zumdahl, S.S. & Zumdahl S. A. (2014). Chemistry, 9th edition. California: Brooks
Cole. pg 8-11.

Image source: College Board. (2018). Quantitative Skills in the AP Sciences. AP LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS
Central. https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/pdf/chapter-1-quantitative-skills-ap- A. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
sciences.pdf
 French chemist Antoine Lavoisier proposed it in 1789, and
he based it on the data that he obtained after carefully
The metric system is easier to convert and use. Each prefix in studying different combustion reactions.
the line chart differs by a multiple of 10 from the next prefix.
 According to this law, the mass of the products in a
Moving to the right would mean to multiply the power of ten to
chemical reaction must equal the mass of the reactants.
how many jumps it needs to get to the desired unit. Moving to
 ―Mass can neither be created nor destroyed.‖
the left would mean to divide the powers of ten to how many
jumps it needs to get to the desired unit.
Total mass reactant = Total mass Product
Sample Calculation:
Moving to the right example:
Convert 10.5 decigrams (dg) to milligrams (mg)

Since there are two jumps to the right, you need to multiply the
value by 100.
H=1.008 g/mol
10.5 dg x 100 mg/1 dg = 1050 mg Cl=35.45 g/mol
HCl=36.458 g/mol
Moving to the left example: For 1 mol HCl, the mass is 36.458 g.
Convert 64 cm to hm (hectometers)
Na=22.99 g/mol
Since there are 4 jumps to the left, you need to divide the value H=1.008 g/mol
by 10000. O=16 g/mol
NaOH=39.998 g/mol
3
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY

For 1 mol NaOH, the mass is 39.998 g.

Answers: NaCl = 58.44 g and Water = 18.016 g. C.LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS

Finally, getting the total mass of the products and the
reactants:
36.458 g + 39.998 g = 58.44 g + 18.016 g = 76.456 g
Therefore, it satisfies the law of conservation of mass.
However, suppose the equation is not balanced. In that case,
the reaction will violate the law of conservation of mass, and
the succeeding calculations will be incorrect.
 John Dalton
 ―Law of multiple proportions states that when two elements
combine with each other to form more than one
compound, the weights of one element that combine with
a fixed weight of the other are in a ratio of small whole
numbers.‖

B.LAW OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION

 Joseph Proust
 ―A chemical compound always contains the same
elements combined together in the same proportion by
mass.‖
 For example, pure water obtained from different sources
such as a river, a well, a spring, the sea, etc., always
contains hydrogen and oxygen together in the ratio of 1:8 D.LAW OF RECIPROCAL PROPORTION
by mass.  Jeremias Richter
 ―If two different elements combine separately with the
Sample Calculation: same weight of a third element, the ratio of the masses in
Carbon Dioxide C = 12 g which they do so are either the same or a simple multiple
O = 32 g of the mass ratio in which they combine.‖

What if? C = 50 g
O=?

First, get the ratio:

Then, multiply the ratio to the given, making sure that the
corresponding unit will be canceled:

Try This! GAY LUSSAC’S LAW OF GASEOUS VOLUME

 ―When gases react together to form other gases, and
when all volumes are measured at the same temperature
and pressure: The ratio between the volumes of the
reactant gases and the gaseous products can be
expressed in simple whole numbers.‖

C = 100 g
H =?
Answer: 25 g H

4
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY
III.MATTER
Definition: Matter is any substance that has mass and takes up
space by having volume. It is neither created nor destroyed,
following the Mass Conservation Law.
A.STATES OF MATTER
Solid
 has a fixed shape and volume;
 particles are tightly packed;
 the gaps between particles are tiny, hence it is
enough to compress them;
 force of attraction is adamant;
 rate of diffusion is very low
Liquid
 has a fixed volume but now fixed shape;
 particles are less tightly packed;
 can take the shape of any container in which they are
kept;
 force of attraction is weaker than solids;
 rate of diffusion is higher than that of solids
Gas
 has no definite shape nor volume;
 particles are far from each other, thus can move
freely;
 has the highest compressibility compared to solids
and liquids;
 force of attraction is negligible;
 rate of diffusion is higher than solids and liquids
Plasma
 consists of particles with extremely high kinetic energy
Bose-einstein condensate
 within a few degrees of absolute zero, the motion of
the molecules becomes negligible. As this brings
down the kinetic energy, the atoms no longer stay
separate, but they begin to clump together.
 light slows down as it passes through a BEC; it also
show properties of a superfluid which implies, it flows
without friction
B. COMPOSITION OF MATTER
 Atoms - single neutral particles;
 Molecules - neutral particles made of two or more atoms
bonded together;
 Ions - positively or negatively charged particle
o Cation - positively charged ion (+)
o Anion - negatively charged ion (-)
 Atomic Structure - refers to the structure of an atom
comprising a nucleus (centre) in which the protons
(positively charged) and neutrons (neutral) are present.
The negatively charged particles (electrons) revolve
around the centre of the nucleus
o Dalton‘s Atomic Theory (John Dalton)
 Every matter is made up of atoms.
 Atoms are indivisible.
5
 Specific elements have only one type of atoms in
them.
 Each atom has its own constant mass that varies
from element to element.
 Atoms undergo rearrangement during a chemical
reaction.
 Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed
but can be transformed from one form to another.
o Thomson Atomic Model (J.J. Thomson)
 Cathode Ray Experiment - It has a tube made of
glass which has two openings, one for the
vacuum pump and the other for the inlet through
which a gas is pumped in
 Thomson described the atomic structure as a
positively charged sphere into which negatively
charged electrons were embedded.
 ―Plum pudding model‖ - where the pudding
describes the positively charged atom and the
plum pieces describe the electrons
o Rutherford Atomic Theory
o Bohr‘s Atomic Theory (Neils Bohr)
 Subatomic Particles
o Protons
 positively charged subatomic particles. The
charge of a proton is 1e (1.602 × 10^-19)
 mass = approximately 1.672 × 10^-24
 The total number of protons in the atoms of an
element is always equal to the atomic number of
the element.
o Neutrons
 mass of a neutron is almost the same as that of a
proton;
 electrically neutral particles and carry no charge;
 different isotopes of an element have the same
number of protons but vary in the number of
neutrons present in their respective nuclei.
o Electrons
 charge of an electron is -1e (-1.602 × 10^-19);
 the mass of an electron is approximately 9.1 ×
10-31;
 due to the relatively negligible mass of electrons,
they are ignored when calculating the mass of an
atom
 Electronic Structure of Atoms
o Aufbau’s principle: The filling of electrons should
take place in accordance with the ascending order of
energy of orbitals:
 Lower energy orbital should be filled first and
higher energy levels.
 The energy of orbital α(p + l) value it two orbitals
have same (n + l) value, E α n
 Ascending order of energy 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s,
3d, . . .
o Pauli’s exclusion principle: No two electrons can
have all the four quantum numbers to be the same or,
if two electrons have to placed in an energy state they
should be placed with opposite spies.
o Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity: In case of
filling degenerate (same energy) orbitals, all the
degenerate orbitals have to be singly filled first and
then only pairing has to happen.
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY
C.PROPERTIES OF MATTER
 Physical Properties
o attribute of matter that is independent of its chemical
composition; any characteristic that can be measured;
o Examples:
 Density - mass per unit volume of a substance;
 Solubility - ability of a substance to dissolve;
 Latin:solubilis - ―capable of
being dissolved‖
 Melting point - temperature from solid to liquid
state
 Boiling points - temperature at which a liquid boils
(or changes to gas)
 Electrical conductivity
 Chemical Properties
o characteristics that can only be measured or observed
as matter transforms into a particular type of matter
o Examples:
 Reactivity - tendency of matter to combine
chemically with other substances;
 Flammability - tendency of matter to burn; it
reacts with oxygen and transforms into various
substances;
 Toxicity - the extent to which a chemical element
or a combination of chemicals may harm an
organism;
 Acidity - substance's ability to react with an acid;
acids react with bases to create water, which
neutralizes the acid
 Physical Versus Chemical
o The difference between the two properties is the
reaction of any characteristic of matter
 Physical properties refer to any characteristic of
matter that can be observed WITHOUT changing
the identity of the substances that make it up;
while
 Chemical properties refer to any characteristic of
matter that can be observed as it REACTS WITH
or changes into a different substance
IV. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules,
and they are responsible for the non-ideal behavior of gases.
Furthermore, intermolecular forces are interactions, aside from
covalent or ionic bonding, that consist of the forces that cause
the aggregation of the components of a substance forming a
liquid or a solid or the condensed phases of matter.
Intermolecular forces vary in strength among different
substances. However, they are often significantly less than
intramolecular forces—ionic, metallic, or covalent interactions.
Thus, they require less energy in which, for instance, less
energy is needed to vaporize a liquid or melt a solid than to
break covalent bonds.
6
Figure 1. Intermolecular and intramolecular forces (Brown &
Lemay, 2012)
It can be seen in the figure above the difference between the
intermolecular and intramolecular forces. As an example to
show that intermolecular forces require lesser energy, to
vaporize the liquid HCl at its boiling point to overcome the
intermolecular attractions, it needs 16 kJ/mol. On the other
hand, it requires 431 kJ/mol to break the covalent bond in HCl.
Prior to discussing the properties of condensed matter, we
must understand first the various types of intermolecular
forces. There is the hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole, and ion-
dipole.
A.DIPOLE-DIPOLE
Dipole-dipole, together with dipole-induced dipole, and
dispersion forces, make up the van der Waals forces. This type
of intermolecular force is an attractive force between polar
molecules, that is, between molecules having dipole moments.
The molecules with polar bonds often behave in an electric
field with a center of positive charge and a negative charge,
exhibiting a dipole moment. By lining up wherein the positive
and negative ends are close to each other, the molecules
having dipole moments could attract each other
electrostatically.
B.ION-DIPOLE
Ion-dipole force is an electrostatic force responsible for the
attraction between ions, either a cation or an anion, and
dipoles or polar molecules. The cations are attracted to the
negative end of the dipole, while anions are attracted to the
positive end of the dipole. The magnitude of the attraction
increases as either the ionic charge or the magnitude of the
dipole moment increases. Ion–dipole forces are significant for
ionic substances in polar liquids, such as a solution of NaCl in
water.
C.HYDROGEN BONDING
Hydrogen bonding is a special type of intermolecular attraction
between the hydrogen atom in a polar bond (particularly H - F,
H - O, and H - N) and nonbonding electron pair on a nearby
small electronegative ion or atom usually F, O, or N (in another
molecule). Hydrogen bonds can be considered a type of
dipole-dipole attraction. Because N, O, and F are so
electronegative, a bond between hydrogen and any of these
elements is quite polar, with hydrogen at the positive end
(remember the + on the right-hand side of the dipole symbol
represents the positive end of the dipole):
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY
Figure 2. Sample dipole representation (Brown & Lemay,
2012)
The hydrogen atom has no inner electrons. Thus, the positive
side of the dipole has the concentrated charge of the nearly
bare hydrogen nucleus. This positive charge is attracted to the
negative charge of an electronegative atom in a nearby
molecule.
EFFECT OF IMFA ON PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
(INCREASE/DECREASE)
Liquids have a variety of structural traits and behaviors due to
intermolecular interactions. This part discusses the effect of
intermolecular forces of attraction on boiling point, melting
point, surface tension, and viscosity of liquids.
 Boiling point and Melting point
The strength of intermolecular attractions working among
molecules is typically reflected in the boiling temperatures of
substances. Before molecules can enter the vapor phase,
enough energy must be given to overcome the attractive
interactions between them at the boiling point. If substance A
requires more energy than substance B to separate the
molecules held together by stronger intermolecular forces,
substance A has a higher boiling point than substance B. This
principle is also the same as the melting point of substances A
and B. the boiling point and melting point of substances
increases with stronger intermolecular forces.
 Surface tension
Intermolecular forces pull molecules in a liquid in all directions,
thus, there is no chance for them to be drawn in one direction.
Nevertheless, other molecules pull molecules at the surface
downward and sideways, but not upward away from the
surface. As a result of these intermolecular interactions, the
molecules are drawn into the liquid causing the surface to
tighten like an elastic film.
Surface tension refers to the measure of the elastic force on
the surface of a liquid. It is the amount of needed energy for
the surface of the liquid to stretch or increase by a unit area.
Liquids with high surface tension mean that they also have
strong intermolecular forces.
 Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid‘s resistance to flow. There is a
high tendency that the liquid will flow more slowly if it has
greater viscosity. Liquids having high viscosity means that it
also has strong intermolecular forces.
References:
Brown, T. L., Lemay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C. J., & Woodward, P. M.
(2012).
Chemistry: The central science (12th ed.). Pearson Education.
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Zumdahl, S. S., & Zumdahl, S. A. (2007). Chemistry (7th ed.). Houghton Mifflin.
7
V.COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
The photo above shows an illustration of two different setups:
(a) pure water and (b) an aqueous solution (e.g. pure water +
NaCl). What do you think is the effect of adding solute to a
pure solvent in terms of vapor pressure, boiling point, and
freezing point of the solution (increase, decrease, or remains
the same)?
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
 Are physical changes which result from adding solutes into
a solvent.
 Colligative properties depend only on the number of
solutes present in a solution, and not on the identity of the
solutes. In Layman‘s terms, it does not matter what kinds
of solutions are added to a solvent.
A.VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING
Vapor pressure is a measure of the tendency to change
material into its gaseous or vapor state. Higher pressure
implies weaker intermolecular forces of attraction in the liquid
state, hence the more volatile (tendency to evaporate) the
liquid is.
When an amount of solute is added to a solvent, its vapor
pressure is lowered. From the above explanation, we can
conclude that its volatility decreases. Hence, the rate of
evaporation decreases.
Note that vapor pressure is indicated by a liquid‘s evaporation
rate.
This is quantified using Raoult’s Law:
Psoln= Xsolvent Psolvent
Where:
Psoln is the observed vapor pressure when a solution is added
Xsolvent is the mole fraction
Psolvent is the vapor pressure of the pure solvent
B.BOILING POINT ELEVATION
The boiling point of pure water is 100 oC, but the boiling point of
seawater is around 104 oC. Why is this so?
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY

The boiling point is the temperature when a liquid turns into a

gaseous form through the application of heat. More specifically,
it happens when the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the
pressure of its external environment.
The boiling point is inversely proportional to the vapor
pressure. By colligative properties, vapor pressure is lowered
which implies that the boiling point is elevated.
When the vapor pressure is lowered, the intermolecular forces
of attraction between the molecules are strengthened. Hence,
there will be more heat or energy required to separate the
molecules.
Note the the boiling point of a solution is always greater than
the boiling point outfits corresponding pure solvent
VI. GAS LAWS
Like other forms of matter, gases also are made up of
molecules that behave in different manners. Changes in the
physical conditions such as pressure, temperature, and volume
caused the varying behaviors of gases.
Gas laws are an analysis of this behavior of gases. In the study
of gas laws, variables of state (i.e. Pressure (P), Volume (V),
and Temperature (T)) are essential in the analysis of gas
nature. For simpler definition
A.BOYLE’S LAW
 Proponent: Robert Boyle (1627-1691)
 Original Experiment: Performed in J-Tube using the
trapped air through observing the effect of adding Mercury
to the open end of the tube (similar to Figure 1)

The boiling point elevation can be computed by the

formula:

ΔT b = Kb msolute ί

Where:
ΔTb is the change of boiling point temperature
Kb is the molal boiling point elevation constant (depends on
the solvent)
msolute is the molality of the solute in the solution
i is the van‘t Hoff Factor; = number of ions in solution; is 1 for
non-electrolytes

C.FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION

The freezing point is observed at the temperaure at which a
liquid turns into solid state when cooled. Lowering down the
temperature also slows down the molecules of a substance,
while the intermolecular forces takes place. This will lead to
arrangement of the molecules to form a pattern.
When solutes are added to a solvent, there will be an
interference on the pattern-formation of the substance.
Hence, the solution will require a lower temperature to freeze
than the pure substance.
For instance, a pure water freezes at 0 oC, but a saline solution
typically freezes at around -2 oC.
Figure 1. Representation of J-tube experiment of Robert
Boyle
Source:
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch4/gaslaws3.html
 Observation: If temperature is kept controlled (or constant)
and pressure is increased, then the volume would
decrease. Thus, it was concluded that the volume of a
fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure at constant temperature. This relationship can
be represented as graph (similar to Figure 2).

Note that the freezing point of a solution is always lower than

the freezing point of the solvent.
The freezing point is inversely proportional to the concentration
of the solute. Increasing the concentration of the solutes leads
to a lower freezing point.

The freezing point depression can be calculated through

the formula:

ΔT f = Kf msolute ί

Where:
ΔTf is the change of boiling point temperature
Kf is the molal boiling point elevation constant (depends on the
solvent)
msolute is the molality of the solute in the solution
i is the van‘t Hoff Factor; = number of ions in solution; is 1 for Figure 2. Graphical representation of Boyle‘s Law
Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/states-of-matter/gas-laws/
non-electrolytes

8
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY

Boyle‘s Law: The volume of a fixed amount of gas is inversely

proportional to its pressure at constant temperature.

Eqn 1
Since the relationship between the Pressure and inverse of
volume is deemed linear then,

Eqn 2
Where k is the proportionality constant or the slope of the line
of P vs 1/V

Further manipulation will result to the following equation.

Wherein this implies that at a given temperature, the product of
the volume and pressure of gas is constant.

Eqn 3
For various Boyle‘s Law problem calculations, Eqn 2 and 3 are
commonly used.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Calculate the pressure in atmospheres in a motorcycle engine
at the end of the compression stroke. Assume that at the start
of the stroke, the pressure of the mixture of gasoline and air in
the cylinder is 745.8 mm Hg and the volume of each cylinder is
246.8 mL. Assume that the volume of the cylinder is 24.2 mL
at the end of the compression stroke.
Given:
P1=745.8 mm Hg ; V1=246.8 mL ; V2=24.2 mL
Required:
P2 in atm
Solution:
1. Using and manipulating Eqn 3 to generate the
equation for P2
Figure 3. Graphical representation of Charles Law
Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/states-of-matter/gas-laws/
To present the Charles Law in equation,
VαT
Since the relationship between volume and temperature of
gases at constant pressure is linear, then
Eqn 4
Where k is the proportionality constant or the slope of the line
of V vs T
Further manipulation will result to the following equation.
Wherein this implies that at a given temperature, the quotient
of the volume and temperature of gas is constant.

2. Substituting the given values Eqn 5

For various Charles Law problem calculations, Eqn 4 and 5 are
commonly used.

3. Converting mm Hg to atm PRACTICE PROBLEM 2

Assume that the volume of a balloon filled with H2 is 1.00 L at
Answer: 10 atm
25°C. Calculate the volume of the balloon when it is cooled to
B.CHARLES LAW -78°C in a low-temperature bath made by adding dry ice to
 Proponent: Jacques Charles (1746-1823) acetone.
 Original Experiment: He trapped a sample of gas in a Given:
cylinder with a movable piston in water bath at different V1=1 L ; T1=25°C ; T2=-78C
temperatures. Required:
 Observations: Charles noticed that the volume of a gas is V2 in atm
directly proportional to its temperature. Solution:
 Charles Law: At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed 1. Using and manipulating Eqn 5 to generate the equation for
amount of gas is directly proportional to the absolute V2
temperature (in Kelvin (K) or Rankine (R)). For graphical
representation, see Figure 3.

2.Converting the given temperatures to absolute temperature

scale, Kelvin (K)

9
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY

PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
At 20 oC, a confined ammonia gas has a pressure of 2.5 atm.
At what temperature would its pressure be equal to 760 mm
Hg?
3.Substituting the given values
Given: T1=20°C ; P1= 2.5 atm ; P2=760 mm Hg
Required: T2
Solution:
1. Convert the unit of pressures given to either atm or mm Hg.
In this solution, I prefer to convert the pressure units to atm.
Answer: 0.6545 L
P1=2.5 atm
P2=760 mm Hg × 1 atm 760 mm Hg=1 atm
C.GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW 2.Convert the unit of temperature to absolute temperature
 Proponent: Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1746-1823) scale.
 Observation/s: While building an air thermometer, Gay- T1 ℃+ 7 9 K
Lussac accidentally discovered that at fixed volume and 3.Derive the equation for T2 using Eqn 8.
mass of a gas, the pressure of that gas is directly
proportional to the temperature.
 Gay-Lussac‘s Law: At constant volume, the pressure of a
fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature (K or R). Graphical representation of this
relationship of pressure (P) and temperature (K) at
constant volume is shown in Figure 4. 4.Substitute the given and calculated values.
T2=1 atm 293.15 K2.5 atm=117.26 K

Answer: 117.26 K
D. AVOGADRO’S LAW
 Proponent: Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro
(1776-1856)
 Observation/s: He provided explanations as to why
compounds reacted in definite ratios and on how the
amount of gas affects its volume. Through his paper, he
wrote that
 ―Equal volumes of all gases, kept at the same pressure
and temperature, contain the same number of molecules.‖
 This observation further implies that the volume of a gas is
directly proportional to the number of moles of gas present
at a given temperature and pressure.
The mathematical representation of the above observation can
be expressed as,
Vαn Eqn 9
Where n is the number of moles of gases
Further mathematical manipulation of the above relationship
Figure 4. Graphical representation of Gay-Lussac‘s Law. will result to
Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/states-of-matter/gas-laws/ V=kn Eqn 10
The mathematical representation of the law is shown by Eqn 6. Where k is the proportionality constant or the slope of the line
P∝T Eqn 6 of V vs n
Further manipulation of this relationship will result to a linear
equation.
P=kT Eqn 7
Where k is the proportionality constant or the slope of the line Eqn 11
of P vs T Using the concept of moles such that it is the ratio of mas and
molecular mass of gases.
Wherein this implies that at a given volume of gas, the quotient
of the pressure and temperature of gas is constant.
Eqn 12
Where m is the mass of gases and M is the molar mass of
gases
Accordingly, we know that the density is the ratio between
mass and volume.
Eqn 8
Eqn 13
For various Gay-Lussac‘s Law problem calculations, Eqn 7 and
Where m is the density
8 are commonly used.
Further manipulation of Eqn 10
10
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY

oxygen tank at 1500 psi is more marketable. What is the

temperature requirement of the desired tank?
Given: V1= 5 L ; P1=2000 psi ; T1=25 oC ; V2=3L ; P2=1500
psi
Required: T2
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4 Solution:
1. It must be noted that absolute temperature is required.
A 7.25 L sample of Nitrogen gas (N2) is determined to weigh
Therefore, we must convert T1 to K.
21 g. How many moles of nitrogen gas would there be in a 20 L
T ℃ 9 K
sample provided that the temperature and pressure remains
2.Use Eqn 19 to find T2.
the same. Also, find the proportionality constant of the
Answer: 134.17 K
Avogadro‘s equation for n2.
Given: V1= 7.25 L ; V2=20 L ; m1=21 g
Required: n2
Solution:
1. With the given values, we can first calculate the
proportionality constant or slope of the line V vs n of the
nitrogen gas. We do this through the molar mass of N2 which
is 28 g/mol using Eqn 14. Also, we can use the initial
conditions. F. IDEAL GAS LAW
As we discussed above, gases can be described in terms of
four variables: pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T), and
the amount of gas (n). There are five relationships between
pairs of these variables in which two of the variables were
allowed to change while the other two were held constant.
2.Using the Eqn 10, we can now determine the number of
moles of N2 for the final condition. Mathematical Constant
Relationship
Representation Variables
Boyle‘s Law P α /V T and n
Charles Law VαT P and n
Gay-Lussac‘s
PαT V and n
Law
Avogadro‘s Law Vαn P and T
E. COMBINED GAS LAW
No one is credited for the Combined Gas Law. Combination of Each of these relationships is a special case of a more general
the Boyle‘s Law, Charles Law, and Gay-Lussac‘s Law will relationship known as the ideal gas equation.
result to this relationship of variables of state. From the PV=nRT Eqn 20
previous discoveries of Boyle, Charles, and Gay-Lussac, the In this equation, R is a proportionality constant known as the
following statements were deduced: ideal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature. The
o The volume of a fixed amount of gas is inversely value of R depends on the units used to express the four
proportional to its pressure at constant temperature. variables P, V, n, and T.

International System of
Variable English Units
Units (SI Units)
o At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed amount of T K R
gas is directly proportional to the absolute P atm psi
temperature (in Kelvin (K) or Rankine (R)).
V L ft3
VαT
n mol lbmol
o At constant volume, the pressure of a fixed mass of
8.314 Jmol-K=0.08205L- 1.985 Btulbmol-
gas is directly proportional to the absolute R
temperature (K or R). atmmol-K R=10.731ft3-psilbmol-R
PαT
Therefore, we can tell that the pressure and volume of a gas Another important concept in various gas laws problems is the
are inversely proportional to each other but are both directly concept of Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP).
proportional to the temperature of that gas. Mathematical Temperature Pressure
manipulations of the said relationship are shown below. ℃ 7 K 1 atm=101.325 kPa=760 mm Hg=760
℉ torr=14.676 psi

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
The oxygen tank manufacturer used to produce 5.0 L oxygen
tanks at 2000 psi and 25 oC. Statistics suggests that the 3.0 L
11
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
Let's calculate the molecular weight of butane if 0.5813 gram of
this gas fills a 250.0-mL flask at a temperature of 24.4°C and a
pressure of 742.6 mmHg.
Given: Gas species=Butane (C4H10) ; m= 0.5813 g ; V= 250 mL;
T= 24.4 oC ; P=742.6 mmHg
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY
Required: Molecular weight (M) of butane
Solution:
1.The required parameter is the molecular weight. Going back
to the Eqn 12, we know that
2.From the problem, we can notice that there is no given
number of moles (n). We can utilize Ideal gas equation (Eqn
20) to find n.
3.Using the equation for molecular weight,
Answer: 58.13 g/mol
VII. PERIODIC TABLE
In 1986, it was Dmitri Mendeleev who created the framework
for the periodic table that we use today. The periodic table of
elements is a useful tool in the realm of chemistry that
arranges the different elements into columns and rows
according to increasing atomic number. Besides presenting the
elements in a neat and organized way, the table also gives a
hint to various properties according to their position in the
periodic table.
There are several ways to divide the periodic table; however,
we will only be focusing on two:
· Family/Groups – ―columns‖
· Periods – ―rows‖
Shown below is another way the periodic table is divided.
Figure 1. Periodic table of elements with color coded s-, p-, d-,
and f-blocks
Source: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/periodic-
table/#view=table&property=ElectronConfiguration
A. FAMILY/GROUPS
The elements of a periodic table are arranged in columns.
Using the group number, we can determine the number of
valence electrons of an element in their neutral state. Valence
electrons are the number of electrons found in the outermost
shell.
12
All elements in the same group have the same number of
valence electrons. For example, boron from group 3A (third
column that has elements in the second row) has three valence
electrons and so does gallium. Of course, there will always be
exceptions with helium having only two valence electrons.
Generally, as we go from left to right of the periodic table, the
number of valence electrons increases.
B.PERIODS
The periods of a periodic table, on the other hand, do not only
represent the row number. They also give an idea on what the
energy level of an element is or the number of shells there are.
Note that instead of saying for certain that the row number is
equal to the energy level, it only gives an idea. However, for
certain, the number of shells increases as we go down the
periodic table.
Using the periodic table there are two patterns of trends to look
out for: across a period (horizontal, left to right or right to left)
and down a group (vertical, top to bottom or bottom to top).
Combining these two, we can make a general diagonal trend.
C. EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE
Before we proceed to the different trends of the periodic table,
the concept of effective nuclear charge must first be discussed.
Most periodic trends are reliant on this and thus will be helpful
in their understanding.
Zeff = Z – S
Zeff – effective nuclear charge
Z – atomic number (number of protons)
S – shielding constant
Recall that the nucleus of an atom contains a positive charge,
the strength of this charge is determined by the number of
protons in an element. Since electrons have a negative charge,
the nucleus tends to pull the surrounding electrons closer.
However, as explained in a concept called shielding, the
electrons of every shell can produce a ―shielding‖ effect that
protects other electrons from being pulled in by the positive
charge. This shielding effect is most effective when there are
inner shells that are packed with electrons; these electrons
have a negative charge and can affect the net positive charge
that reaches the outer electrons.
D.PERIODIC TRENDS
1.ATOMIC SIZE/ATOMIC RADIUS
Atomic size or radius is called as such because it is measured
through getting half the distance between two nuclei of the
same element joined by a single bond. In simpler terms, it is
the size of the atom.
 Across a period:
Horizontally, the main factor for the change of atomic size is
the change in the number of valence electrons. Since the
shielding effect is constant (no new inner shells are added) and
the Z only increases, the Zeff will also increase. With a stronger
Zeff, the outermost electrons will be pulled in more and
decrease the atomic size or radius.
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY

This could be likened to having an attractive person in the
middle of the room; the more attractive the person is, the more
strongly they‘ll drive people towards them.
 Down a group:
Down a group, the number of energy shells increases. With the
addition of shells, the shielding effect also increases and tends
to increase the atomic size or radius because the Zeff
experienced by the outermost electrons is less.
Without the valence electrons, you can imagine this as
enclosing a box in another box and another box thus
increasing the space taken up with each addition of a box.
However, if you want to relate the previous metaphor, the
added shells could be the person‘s body guards that drive the
people away.
 Summary:
Left to Right: Decreasing
Top to Bottom: Increasing
2.METALLIC CHARACTER
Metallic character is the tendency for a metal to lose its
electrons to form a cation. It is a measure of how reactive a
metal is. A higher metallic character would mean that the
element has a high tendency to lose electrons, in other
words, it is easier for them to lose electrons.
other words, it is indirectly proportional to metallic character. A
high metallic character would mean that electrons are lost
easily and require little energy; likewise, a low metallic
character would mean that it is difficult to remove electrons and
would require a lot of energy.
Usually, when talking about ionization energy, what is being
referred to is the first ionization energy. When there‘s a first
ionization energy, that means that there is also a second, third,
fourth, and so on. First ionization energy is the energy required
to remove the first valence electron from an atom. The ranking
matters because as more and more electrons are being
removed, the energy needed for the succeeding ionizations
increases. For now, we‘ll be focusing on the first ionization
energy.
A useful way of understanding this is through knowing about
the noble gas configuration. The noble gases are found on the
rightmost end of the periodic table. These elements are very
stable and tend to neither lose nor gain electrons. Below is a
graph of the ionization energies of the elements as the atomic
number increases. Notice that the noble gases have the
highest ionization energies in each of their own periods.
Elements such as Li, Na, and K (alkali metals) are only one
loss of an electron away from achieving the stability through
the noble gas configuration. Their configuration explains why
alkali metals tend to have low first ionization energies.

Knowledge from the atomic size trend can be used to predict

the trend for metallic character as well. Since Zeff is stronger on
those with smaller atomic sizes because the electrons are
pulled in closer, what do you think will be the trend for metallic
character?

 Across a period:
The arrangement of the periodic table conveniently places
reactive metals that easily form cations on the leftmost side of
the table and elements that tend to gain electrons to form
anions on the right. Furthermore, a stronger Zeff makes it harder
to pull electrons away from the atom and so make losing an
electron harder. The Zeff increases from left to right, as such,
metallic character decreases from left to right.

 Down a group:
If you may recall, the number of shells of an atom increases
down a group, increasing the shielding effect as well. A
stronger shielding effect would mean that electrons are held
more loosely. Loosely held electrons due to a weaker Zeff
means that electrons can be lost easily to form cations. Thus,
metallic character increases from top to bottom.
 Summary:
Left to Right: Decreasing
Top to Bottom: Increasing
3.IONIZATION ENERGY
Ionization energy is differentiated from the other trends as the
energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom
in its ground state (even though ions can be produced by
adding an electron).
The amount of energy needed to remove an electron is directly
proportional to how difficult it is to remove that electron. In
Figure 3. Ionization Energies
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/ionization-energy/
In contrast, the halogens and elements near the right side of
the table have relatively high ionization energies to those in
their period. For example, chlorine (Cl) has seven valence
electrons; to reach a noble gas configuration, chlorine can
either lose seven electrons (to achieve the configuration of
Neon) or gain one electron (to achieve the configuration of
Argon). Because gaining a single electron would be easier,
chlorine will have a low tendency to even begin to lose the first
of seven electrons.
 Across a period:
As mentioned earlier, elements that have less electrons that
must be lost to reach a noble gas configuration tend to have
lower first ionization energies. Alkali metals on the left require
less energy to remove an electron compared to the halogens
or noble gases on the right. Thus, ionization energy increases
from left to right.

13
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY

electrons, these elements have no need for additional

 Down a group:
Similar to the previous trend, the ionization energy is also
affected by the atomic size. More shielding would mean that
the outermost electrons are held more loosely. When an
electron is held loosely, it requires less energy to remove that
electron. As the atomic size increases from top to bottom, the
ionization energy decreases.
 Summary:
Left to right: Increasing
Top to bottom: Decreasing
 Additional Information:
o The Other Ionization Energies
Something to remember about its second, third, fourth, and
other ionization energies is that it is always increasing.
However, recall that the noble gas configuration is always the
aim of the atoms in removing their electrons.
electrons. This is especially true for helium, neon, and argon.
For better visualization, when we arrange Na, Cl, and Ar in
order of increasing electronegativity, the answer should be Ar <
Na < Cl.
 Down a group:
As we go down a group, Zeff decreases due to the increasing
number of shells. Consequently, electronegativity also
decreases.
These two patterns can explain why the most electronegative
elements are fluorine, oxygen, and nitrogen (FON). These
three elements are found on the top right of the periodic table.
 Summary:
Left to right: Increasing (with exception of noble gases)
Top to bottom: Decreasing

o What happens when an element reaches a noble gas

configuration?

When the element reaches a noble gas configuration through

consequent ionization, the ionization energy required to
remove the next electron suddenly increases. Take for
example nitrogen, fluorine, and sodium. Table 2. General periodic table trends.
Table 1. Ionization Energy (kJ/mol) Property Definition Left to Top to
Element # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Right Bottom
of
v.e.
Z Atomic Increasing Increasing
Nitrogen 5 1402 2855 4576 7473 9442 53250 64340 number

Valence # of Increasing ---

Fluorine 7 1680 3375 6045 8407 11020 15160 17860 92010
Electrons (ve )-
outermost
electrons
Sodium 1 496 4563
Shielding Protection --- Increasing
Reference: Ionization Energy. (2020, August 22). of ve from
-

https://chem.libretexts.org/@go/page/614
Z
4.ELECTRONEGATIVITY Z eff Effective Increasing Decreasin
In contrast to metallic character, electronegativity is the nuclear g
tendency or ability of an element to attract electrons rather than charge
to lose them. Again, we may relate here the concept of Zeff. The
effective nuclear charge is essentially the force that attracts
shared electrons during bonding. A stronger Zeff means there is Atomic Size of the Decreasin Increasing
more tendency to draw in electrons, a weaker Zeff means that Size/Radius atom g
the element will be more willing to give electrons in a bond.
Metallic Tendency Decreasin Increasing
Let‘s use H2O as an example. Oxygen is more electronegative
Property to LOSE e -
g
than hydrogen and will tend to draw in the electrons of
hydrogen while they are bonded. If you are familiar with polar
molecules, you must be familiar with partial charges. Since Ionization Energy Increasing Decreasin
oxygen is more electronegative, oxygen will be partially Energy needed to g
positive, and the two hydrogens will be partially negative. LOSE e -

 Across a period: Electronegativit Tendency Increasing Decreasin

Zeff increases as we go from left to right of the periodic table, so
electronegativity also increases from left to right. However, y to g
noble gases are an exception. Having complete valence
14
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY

 Cannot be separated by a simple filtration. The

ATTRAC particles should be small enough to pass through a
Te -
filter paper.
 Very stable. The particles of solute should
Don‘t forget to take note of important exceptions such as that in continuously bond with that of the solvent.
electronegativity. In all the other properties there are also
exceptions that need not to be discussed. TYPES OF A SOLUTION
There are three types of solution, namely: saturated solutions,
unsaturated solutions, and supersaturated solutions.
VIII.SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY  Saturated solutions are solutions that contain the
A.SOLUTION maximum solute that the solvent is capable of
Solution, by its prime definition, is a homogenous mixture
dissolving at a given temperature.
composed of two or more substance combined – these
 Unsaturated solutions are the opposite, these are the
substances are classified either as a solute or solvent.
 Solute refers to the substance being dissolved while type of solution that contains less than the maximum
solvent is the substance doing the dissolving. To set solute that the solvent is capable of dissolving at a
apart solute and solvent, one must remember that given temperature.
solvent is relatively larger in amount compared to  Supersaturated solutions, lastly, are solutions that
solute. contain more than the maximum solute that the
 It is a general knowledge that water is the universal solvent is capable of dissolving at a given
solvent for a fact that it has the capability to dissolve temperature.
most solutes than any other liquids.
 A substance in different phases may combine to form CONCENTRATION AND DILUTION
a solution, the solution formed will always end in a  The concentration of a solution is a measurement of the
single phase. amount of solute dissolved per given amount of solvent or
 The table below shows the different kinds of solutions in solution.
terms of the state of the solute and solvent, an example in  A concentrated solution is a solution that has a relatively
each type is also provided.
large amount of dissolved solute
 A dilute solution, as opposed to a concentrated solution, is
State one that has a relatively small amount of dissolved solute.
Example
Solute Solvent In general, the concentration of a solution is often
Gas Gas Air measured in molarity.
Carbon dioxide  Dilution is a procedure of adding solvent to the solution to
Gas Liquid decrease its concentration. This process ensures that the
in soft drinks solute remains constant, but the solvent is increased,
Hydrogen gas in thereby decreasing the concentration.
Gas Solid
palladium metal
Alcohol and MOLARITY
Liquid Liquid
water Concentration is often measured in molarity. Molarity is
Water vapor in defined as the number of moles of solute in a liter of
Liquid Gas solution – this can be shown as:
air
Dental
Liquid Solid
amalgams
Solid Solid Steel
Camphor in SOLUBILITY
Solid Gas  Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of a
nitrogen gas
substance that could dissolve in a specific amount of
Solid Liquid Coffee drink solvent under a given temperature.
 The intermolecular forces between the particles of the
solute and solvent basically determines the solubility of the
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOLUTION solution, the stronger the intermolecular forces, the greater
the solubility of the solute in the solvent.
The following are the characteristics that a chemical solution
 Solubility always goes by the thumb rule, “like dissolves
should possess:
like” which means:
 A homogenous mixture consisting of two or more
o polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents
substances.
o nonpolar molecules are soluble in nonpolar solvents
 Should exist in one phase.
o polar and nonpolar molecules just do not mix
 Does not scatter a light beam.
 The particles should not be visible to the naked eye. FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

15
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY
Pressure and temperature are direct factors that affect
solubility.
 If you increase the temperature, the amount of solute
that can dissolve under a specific amount of solvent
also increases.
 Pressure is only significantly applicable to gases.
Gas solubility increases as the partial pressure of the
gas atop the liquid increases and vice versa.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF
SOLUBILITY
 The dissolution of solids in water depends upon the
collision between the solvent and the solid, if these
interactions are increased, then the solubility, in return,
increases. An increase in the temperature provides more
kinetic energy that as a result, boosts the movement of the
molecules causing them to collide in a greater frequency,
and thus, if you increase the temperature, the rate of
solubility increases as well.
 Another factor is the surface area of the particle – small
particles dissolves faster than big ones because more
surface area of it is exposed in the solvent
 Lastly, agitating the solution by the means of stirring or
swirling will also fasten the dissolution process because it
evenly distributes the particles throughout the solution by
allowing the solute to continually be in contact with the
solvent.
XI.CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Chemical reactions are processes where the
conversion of reactants (starting materials) into products (final
materials) is shown. It is usually a symbolic representation of
the process, and shows how much reactants and products are
involved.
It is important to note that chemical reactions must be balanced
in order to conform to the Law of Conservation of Matter.
Furthermore, the energy input or output in the reaction must
also be balanced.
When dealing with actual chemical reactions in the
laboratory, there are some indicators that can be observed in
order to say that a chemical reaction is occurring or has
occurred. Some of these indicators may include:
 Formation of bubbles
 Formation of precipitate
 Change in color
 Change in volume
 Change in odor
 Change in temperature
 Change in pH, and;
 Emission of light
A. BALANCING EQUATION
A chemical equation is said to be balanced if the number of
atoms for each element in the reactant side is equal to the
number of atoms for each element in the product side. Take a
look at an example of a balanced chemical equation:
16
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Notice that the number of C atoms in the left side of the
reaction (6) is equal to the number of C atoms in the right side.
Same as with the H and O atoms on both sides.
When given an unbalanced equation, the following steps may
be done in order to come up with the balanced equation:
Write down your unbalanced chemical equation and list down
all the elements present in both the reactants and products
side.
If possible, start with an element found in one compound on
each side of the equation.
Change the coefficients (the numbers in front of the compound
or molecule) so that the number of atoms of the element is the
same on each side of the equation. Note that balanced
equations usually have integers as coefficients. (For you may
encounter several equations which use halves).
Once you have balanced one element, do the same thing for
the remaining elements. Remember that coefficients are the
only ones that must be altered -- and not your subscripts.
Other considerations in writing and balancing
chemical equations are as follows:
There may be times where the physical states of the
compounds involved are noted in parentheses.
Take note that a balanced chemical equation uses the smallest
whole-number coefficients -- so watch out if your coefficients
can still be reduced to lowest terms.
B. COMMON TYPES OF REACTIONS
There are four common types of chemical reactions that may
take place. These types differ from the combining and splitting
compounds, and may also differ in the resulting states of the
products.
A. COMBINATION OR SYNTHESIS REACTION
A type of chemical reaction that occurs when two reactants
combine and form a single product. This usually takes the form
of A + B → AB.
EXAMPLES:
2 CO(g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g)
H2O(l) + SO3(g) → H2SO4 (aq)
B. DECOMPOSITION
A chemical reaction wherein a single reactant splits into two
different products. This is seen as the reverse of the synthesis
reaction, and this reaction takes the form CD → C + D.
EXAMPLES:
CaCO3 (s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
2NaCl (s) → 2Na (s) + Cl2 (g)
C. SINGLE DISPLACEMENT
A type of reaction where an element reacts with a compound
and replaces another element within it. It can be considered as
‗switching places‘ between an element and a compound seen
in the reactants. This can be recognized in the form AB + C →
AC + B.
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARS‘ SOCIETY
SEMEP 2021 – CHEMISTRY

EXAMPLE:
Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Mock Quizzes (15 minutes)
D. DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT Mock Quiz 1:
A chemical reaction wherein two compounds exchange places
and form new ionic compounds. This type of displacement can
https://test.gclocked.com/?form=-MoRsPtwyGtua-
be easily distinguished in the form AB + CD → AC + BD. QMCBgv
Mock Quiz 2:
EXAMPLE:
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) https://test.gclocked.com/?form=-
MoRnxcuA4k45gX7B9IH
C. ENERGY CHANGES

As mentioned earlier, chemical reactions inevitably involve

heat -- whether it may be added or not. Energy change in
chemical reactions is important to note since it tells us the
nature of the reaction on whether it may occur spontaneously
or not. Some important terms on energy change are as follows:

Endothermic reactions refers to reactions that absorb heat from

its surroundings. You may think of endothermic reactions as
reactions which are ‗colder‘ than the surroundings (Recall that
the second law of thermodynamics states that heat transfer
spontaneously occurs from higher temperatures to lower
temperature -- hence explaining the absorption of heat).

Exothermic reactions, on the other hand, refers to reactions

that give off heat to its surroundings. Again, recalling the
second law of thermodynamics, the surroundings this time are
‗colder‘ than the system -- hence explaining the movement of
heat from the system to the surroundings.

It is also important to note the change in enthalpy

(ΔH) and heat (q) in the equations. Take note that when q and
ΔH are both positive, then the reaction is said to be
endothermic since heat is absorbed. Otherwise -- such that q
and ΔH are both negative, then the reaction is considered
exothermic.

A good way of depicting both endothermic and

exothermic reactions is through the water cycle. An
endothermic reaction can be observed in vaporization of water
by absorbing heat from the surroundings, specifically from the
sun. As heat is absorbed, water then changes state.
Meanwhile, as water vapor is condensed into rain, heat must
be released in order for those vapors to change state -- giving
the idea of an exothermic reaction.

17