Technical Note

One-Dimensional Coupled Infiltration and Deformation

in Unsaturated Soils Subjected to Varying Rainfall
L. Z. Wu1; L. M. Zhang, M.ASCE2; and X. Li3
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Abstract: Assuming that the water content and hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soil are exponential functions of the pressure head,
Green’s function is used to obtain analytical solutions to one-dimensional coupled rainfall infiltration and deformation in unsaturated soils
under varying surface rainfall flux. The analytical solution considers varying flux and pressure head at the top boundary and arbitrary initial
conditions. In particular, nonlinearly increasing rainfall intensity at the surface boundary is considered. The result indicates that the coupling of
seepage and deformation has a significant effect on the pressure-head profiles for the transient unsaturated seepage. The coupling effect is
closely related to the boundary conditions. The coupling effect almost disappears if ponding at the ground surface occurs. The ponding time is
different under the coupled and uncoupled conditions. There is a quick change in the pressure-head profiles near the time of ponding or peak or
discontinuous rain intensity. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000535. © 2015 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Unsaturated soil; Rainfall infiltration; Coupled seepage and deformation; Analytical solution.

Introduction
Increasing attention is being drawn to rainfall infiltration into
unsaturated soils because of environmental considerations and
other needs. One-dimensional (1D) infiltration into unsaturated
soils becomes an interesting topic due to the necessity of under-
standing the complex nonlinear response in unsaturated soils
(Garcia et al. 2011).
Water infiltration into unsaturated media has been a subject of
numerous investigations. Quantitative analysis of water flow in
unsaturated soils is often based on the Richards equation (Romano
et al. 1998; Parlange et al. 1999; Zhan and Ng 2004; Zlotnik et al.
2007; Crevoisier et al. 2009). Because of its nonlinear nature,
numerical methods have been used to analyze the problem of
unsaturated media (van Dam and Feddes 2000; Alonso et al.
2003). Although more restrictive assumptions are required,
analytical solutions are effective for assessing the accuracy of
numerical ones. Linearization of the Richards equation simplified
the analysis in numerous studies. For flow through unsaturated
homogeneous soils, many analytical solutions, both exact and
approximate, have been developed based on different types of
linearization of the Richards equation (e.g., Philip 1969; Warrick
1975; Prasad and Romkens 1982; Batu 1983; Pullan 1990;
Warrick and Parkin 1995; Basha 1999, 2000; Menziani et al.
2007). Laplace transformation, Fourier integral technique and
Green’s function were adopted to derive the analytical solutions
1
Professor, State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and
Geoenvironment Protection, Chengdu Univ. of Technology Chengdu,
China. E-mail: cewulz@gmail.com
2
Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Hong Kong Univ. of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay,
Kowloon, Hong Kong. E-mail: cezhangl@ust.hk
3
Associate Professor, Dept. of Geotechnical Engineering, School
of Civil Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong Univ. (BJTU), China
(corresponding author). E-mail: ceXuLi2012@gmail.com
Note. This manuscript was submitted on October 8, 2014; approved on
April 9, 2015; published online on June 24, 2015. Discussion period open
until November 24, 2015; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This technical note is part of the International Journal
of Geomechanics, © ASCE, ISSN 1532-3641/06015004(6)/$25.00.
(e.g., Batu 1983; Srivastava and Yeh 1991; Basha 1999, 2000;
Chen et al. 2001a, b; Huang and Wu 2012).
The analytical solutions in the literature often do not consider
coupling effects between infiltration and deformation in un-
saturated soils. However, the coupling effects of infiltration and
deformation in unsaturated soils are essential in many cases, e.g.,
seepage in loose packing colluvium formed by landslides, seepage
in municipal solid waste, and consolidation of artificial islands.
The ground surface was subjected to a constant rainfall flux in
analyzing 1D and two-dimensional coupled seepage and de-
formation in both single and layered unsaturated soils by
Wu and Zhang (2009), Wu et al. (2012, 2013). Varying flux
boundary conditions were considered in analytical solutions to
water infiltration without the coupled effect by Broadbridge et al.
(1996) and Chen et al. (2003), Chen and Tan (2005). Before
ponding the top ground is usually controlled by rainfall flux,
and after ponding a pressure-head boundary condition at the
top surface is predominant. The ponding time is of significance
in obtaining analytical solutions to unsaturated infiltration in
unsaturated soil analytically (Parlange and Smith l976;
Broadbridge and White 1987).
This paper discusses the effect of varying rainfall intensity at
the ground surface in analyzing 1D coupled infiltration and
deformation in unsaturated soils. Smiles and Raats (2004)
researched the effect of deformation (swelling and shrinking) on
hydraulic conductivity in unsaturated soils. Three kinds of rainfall
cases at the ground surface before and after ponding time are
emphasized in analyzing the coupled seepage and deformation in
unsaturated soils.
Governing Equations for Coupled Seepage and
Deformation
To analyze the coupled infiltration problem analytically, several
assumptions have to be made: (1) the liquid in unsaturated soils
obeys Darcy’s law; (2) the soil structure is deformable, but the
pore water is not compressible; (3) the volume change of the soil is
due to the wetting or drying of the soil only, and the volume
change due to total stress changes is not considered; (4) both

© ASCE 06015004-1 Int. J. Geomech.

Int. J. Geomech., 2016, 16(2): 06015004

 coefficient of permeability (Raats 1970) and water content change Using dimensionless space and time variables X = αx and T =
exponentially with the pressure head; and (5) the pore air pressure α2 ks t / P, and defining a new variable, W(X, T) = eαh ⋅ e −X / 2+T / 4 ,
in unsaturated soils remains constant. Eq. (6) can be rewritten as
In the analysis, both coefficient of permeability (Raats 1970; Chen ∂W ∂2 W
et al. 2001a) and water content vary exponentially with the pressure = (7)
∂T ∂X 2
head. Such treatment can give greater convenience in the derivation
of analytical solutions. The parameters involved in the exponential The initial conditions and boundary conditions, which are
permeability function and soil water characteristic curve can be controlled by the flux at the ground surface, are as follows:
determined empirically or be fitted to experimental data. At least, in
the concerned suction range, the permeability function and soil water W(X, 0) = eαhi −X / 2 = F(X) (8a)
characteristic curve can be of sufficient accuracy.  
∂W q
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On the basis of Darcy’s law and the conservation of water −W = − eT / 4 = f 1 (T) (8b)
∂X X=0 ks
mass, the 1D governing equation for coupled infiltration in
unsaturated soils can be obtained (Kim 2000; Chen et al. 2001a; W(L, T) = eαh0 e −L / 2+T / 4 = f 2 (T) (8c)
Wu and Zhang 2009) as

 where L = dimensionless length (αl); h0 = pressure head at the
∂ ∂ θ ∂ρ ∂h ∂Sr ∂h ∂εv lower bottom, which is zero when the bottom boundary is at the
k (h − x) = +n − Sr α c (1)
∂x ∂x ρ ∂h ∂t ∂h ∂t ∂t water table; hi = initial pressure head at infiltration time t = 0; and
q = boundary flux at the ground surface, i.e., X = 0.
where x = elevation; t = time; h = pressure head; k = coefficient
of permeability in the x-direction; Sr = degree of saturation; ρ =
water density; θ = volumetric water content; n = porosity; Analytical Solutions to 1D Coupled Infiltration
αc = (1−n)2 / (1 − n0 ) = coefficient related to porosity; εv = Problems Before and After Ponding
volumetric strain, εv = εx as εy = εz = 0 in a 1D problem; and
εv = positive for soil compression and negative for soil swelling. Boundary conditions involving gradually increasing rainfall
By substituting Eq. (2) into a force equilibrium equation for a intensity at the top boundary (see Fig. 1) are considered here. The
soil mass, the governing equation for the 1D stress-deformation analytic solutions to the 1D coupled and uncoupled problems
problem can be obtained considering these boundary conditions are analyzed.


∂ K
Kεv − (ua − uw ) + ½nSr ρw + (1 − n)ρs g = 0 (2)
∂x F Coupled Conditions
where ρs = density of soil phase; and g = gravitational acceleration. Green’s function was employed to solve the partial differential
The 1D stress–strain relationship associated with the normal equations (Basha 1999, 2000; Ozisik 1989). Before the ponding
strain can be written in an incremental form (Lloret et al. 1987): time tI , the general solution to Eqs. (7) and (8a) is

Z
dp d(ua − uw ) 1
dεv = + (3) h(X, T) = ln eX / 2−T / 4 Gjτ = 0 ⋅ F (x′) ⋅ dx′
K F α R
Z T   
where p = net mean stress (σ − ua ); (ua − uw ) = soil suction, ua = ∂G
+ Gf1 − f2 dτ (9)
pore air pressure, uw = pore water pressure; K = elastic modulus τ=0 ∂X
of the soil with respect to changes in net normal stresses; and F =  2 
 
elastic modulus of the soil with respect to a change in soil suction. 2 ∞ βm2 + L2 βm τ X
Here, the effect of total stress change on the volume change is G= ∑ 2 exp sin βm 1 −
L m = 1 βm + L2 + L L2 L
ignored, and the pore air pressure is assumed constant. Then,
 
X′
Eq. (3) reduces to ⋅ sin βm 1 − (10)
∂εv γ ∂h L
= − w (4)
∂t F ∂t
in which h = uw / γ w ; and γ w = ρw g.
Using Eq. (4), Eq. (1) can be rewritten as


∂ ∂ ∂h dSr ∂h γ w Sr αc ∂h
k (h − x) = nSr βw + n + (5) Case A
∂x ∂x ∂t dh ∂t F ∂t Case B
Case C
in which βw = compressibility of water.
q (m/s)

On the basis of Assumption (4), the hydraulic conductivity and

the volumetric water content are exponential functions of the
pressure head, as follows: k(h) = k s eαh , θ(h) = θs eαh . Here, k s =
coefficient of permeability at full saturation; θs = saturated
volumetric water content; and α = desaturation coefficient.
Because Sr = θ(h) / θs and βw = 0, the following can be obtained
from Eq. (5):


∂ ∂ ∂h
k(h) (h − x) = Peαh (6) 0
t (s)
∂x ∂x ∂t
Fig. 1. Gradually increasing rainfall intensity at the surface boundary
where P = θs α + γ w αc / F.

© ASCE 06015004-2 Int. J. Geomech.

Int. J. Geomech., 2016, 16(2): 06015004

 in which G(X, X′jτ) = Green’s function, which describes unsaturated
infiltration at X at time T due to surface rainfall; R = 1D finite region
½0, L. The eigenvalue βm satisfies βm cot( βm L) = − L.
When ponding occurs after t > tI , the rainfall will partially
infiltrate into soil, and the ground surface will remain saturated.
Then, the boundary will be controlled by the pressure head. Let
t′ = t–t I , when t′ = 0, i.e., t = tI ; substituting t = t I into Eq. (9)
gives the initial condition for the solution after tI . The differential
equation to the coupled problem after ponding can be written as


∂ ∂ ∂h
ks eαh (h − x) = Peαh (11)
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obtained, as well as its initial and boundary conditions, which
can be obtained from Eqs. (7) and (13a).
Then the solution to the 1D differential equation of the
uncoupled infiltration after ponding time tI is hðX, T′Þ. Here, T in
Eq. (7) is replaced with T′.
Examples and Analysis Results
In this study, the boundary conditions are prescribed, as usual, at the
lower and upper boundaries. Ignoring the variation of the ground

∂x ∂x ∂t′ water table, the lower boundary is fixed at x = l, where the pressure
head is zero, i.e., h0 = 0. The surface boundary is subject to varying
The initial condition hi′(t′ = 0) is rainfall intensity, i.e., the boundary at the surface boundary varies

Z with time:
1
h(X, t′)jt′ = 0 : = ln eX / 2−T / 4 Gjτ = 0 ⋅ F (x′) ⋅ dx′
α qjX = 0 = q0 eωt t ≤ tI
Z TI  R

∂G
+ Gf1 − f2 dτ (12)
τ=0 ∂X hj X = 0 = h0 t > t I (16)

where TI = α2 k s tI / P. where q0 = initial rainfall intensity; ω = parameter that describes the

If ponding occurs at the top boundary, the surface boundary is increasing trend of rainfall intensity with time; t I = ponding time; and
controlled by the pressure head h1 , which is zero as the ponding h0 = pressure head that controlled the top boundary after the ponding
water does not accumulate on the top surface. time. It can vary with ponding depth and is assumed to be zero.
Using dimensionless variables X = αx, T′ = α2 k s t′ / P, t′ = t–t I , Table 1 gives the parameters used in the examples. Three
and W′ = eαh ⋅ e −X / 2+T′ / 4 , the governing equation of the 1D cou- rainfall density cases are considered by varying the values of q0
pled infiltration problem with the pressure head boundary at the and ω, as shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1. In Fig. 1, Type A rainfall
top surface, i.e., Eq. (7) is obtained. Its initial and boundary represents rapidly increasing intensity in a short duration. Type C
conditions are as follows: rainfall is a long-term rain with no obvious increase in intensity.
Type B rainfall lies between Types A and C. The values of q0 and
W′(X,T′)jT′ = 0 = eαhi′eX / 2 = M(X) (13a) ω are external parameters that influence unsaturated infiltration in
unsaturated medium. Soil parameters, ks and α also affect the
W′(X,T′)jX = 0 = eαh1 eT′ / 4 = m1 (T′) (13b) unsaturated seepage, and are listed in Table 1. Therefore, a critical
time tI can be defined as
W′(X,T′)jX = L = eαh0 e −L / 2+T′ / 4 = m2 (T′) (13c)
t I = f (q0 , ω, ks , α) (17)
in which hj′= pressure-head profile at t′ = 0, i.e., Eq. (12).
By using Green’s function, the analytical solution to the If t is smaller than t I , no ponding phenomenon will occur.
coupled governing equation after tI is Fig. 2 shows the pressure-head profiles under the uncoupled and
(
Z coupled conditions before and after t I . The parameters are
1
h(X, T′) = ln e X / 2−T′ / 4
Gjτ = 0 ⋅ M (x′) ⋅ dx′ k s = 1:0 × 10 −4 m / s, q = q0 exp(ωt), q0 = 0:7 × 10 −4 m / s, ω = 4:0
α R × 10 −3 s −1 , α = 0:05 cm −1 , θs = 0:434, and F = 103 kPa. In Fig. 2,
Z T′    the upper boundary is subject to rainfall with its intensity of Type B
∂G ∂G
+ m1 − m2 dτ (14) shown in Fig. 1. The rate of the change of the pressure head gra-
τ = 0 ∂X ∂X
dually increases before tI and decreases after tI . Fig. 2 shows that
the ponding times for the coupled and uncoupled conditions are
different. The ponding time is 861 s for the coupled condition
Uncoupled Conditions and tI = 822 s for the uncoupled one. The value of t I for the
uncoupled case is more than that for the coupled case because
If the coupling effect is ignored and the compressibility of the pore of the positive value of F. Water infiltration into the collapsed
water is zero, the 1D coupled seepage problem, i.e., Eq. (5), can be unsaturated soil reduces the soil volume. The pressure-head
rearranged as difference caused by the coupling effect almost disappears when the


∂ ∂ ∂Sr ∂h top surface is controlled by the pressure head, i.e., t > t I . This
k(h) (h − x) = n (15)
∂x ∂x ∂h ∂t verifies that changing the top boundary greatly influences the
coupling effect. Meanwhile, the analytical solution is in accordance
Using dimensionless space and time variables X = αx and with such numerical methods as a computer program FlexPDE,
T = αk s t / θs , and defining a new variable, V = eαh ⋅ e −X / 2+T / 4 , one which is implemented to solve the governing equations.
can derive the differential equation of a 1D uncoupled problem, Fig. 3 demonstrates influence of the parameters (ω, ks ) on the
which is similar to the form of Eq. (7). pressure-head profiles. Fig. 3a shows the effect of ω on the
The analytical solution to the uncoupled governing equation pressure-head profiles at t = 301 s. In Fig. 3a, the key parameters
before the ponding time t I is hðX, T Þ, where T is replaced in are q0 / k s = 0:7, ω = 1:5 × 10 −2 s −1 , = 4:0 × 10 −3 s −1 and 1:0 ×
Eq. (9) with T(T = αk s t / θs ). 10 −3 s −1 , ks = 1:0 × 10 −4 m / s, F = 103 kPa, and α = 0:02 cm −1 .
When t > t I , let t′ = t–t I , the initial pressure-head profile is hi′ Parameter ω has an important role in the pressure-head profiles.
(t′ = 0), which is derived from Eq. (12). Introducing T′ = αks t′ / θs , Fig. 3b indicates the influence of k s on the pressure-head profiles
X = αx, and V′ = eαh ⋅ e −X / 2+T′ / 4 , the governing equation is under different cases at t = 799 s. In Fig. 3b, the key parameters

© ASCE 06015004-3 Int. J. Geomech.

Int. J. Geomech., 2016, 16(2): 06015004

 Table 1. Ponding Time for Several Types of Soil
Rainfall intensity
q0 exp(ωt) Ponding time t I
−1 −1
Soil type Example number q0 / k s ω (s ) Soil parameter α (cm )
a b
Soil parameter ks (m/s) Coupled (s) Uncoupled (s)
−2 −8
Clay a 0.5 1:5 × 10 0.01 1:0 × 10 806 736
b — — — 1:0 × 10 −9 959 889
Silt a 0.5 1:5 × 10 −2 0.05 1:0 × 10 −6 405 394
b 0.7 4:0 × 10 −3 0.05 1:0 × 10 −6 1,325 1,314
c 0.7 4:0 × 10 −3 0.02 1:0 × 10 −6 1,548 1,465
Sand a 0.5 1:5 × 10 −2 0.1 1:0 × 10 −4 268 262
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b 0.7 4:0 × 10 −3 — — 765 745

c 0.9 1:0 × 10 −3 — — 2,172 2,095
The parameter α is according to the references Zhan and Ng (2004).
a

b
The value of ks is primarily referring to Hillel (1998).

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 the F value is positive. The difference range of the pressure head
0 between the uncoupled and coupled conditions is related to α,
1 which is based on Zhan and Ng (2004). When α = 0:05 and
0:1 cm −1 the ponding times for both uncoupled and coupled
2 conditions are very close. With α decreasing to 0:01 cm −1 , the
3 difference between the cases becomes greater. The conclusions
coincide with the reference (Wu and Zhang 2009). For silt, the
4 ponding time for Case A is 405 s, and increases to 1,325 s for Case
Depth (m)

Initial condition B when the coupling effect is considered. It can be seen from
5 t=60 s(coupled) Table 1 that rainfall type has an important influence on the
6 t=60 s(uncoupled)
ponding time. For identifying dimensionless rainfall intensity,
t=400 s(coupled)
the ponding time for sand is the smallest under the same rainfall
7 t=400 s(uncoupled)
pattern. The value of α also influences the ponding time. The
t=tI(coupled)
8 ks=1.0 10-4 m/s
larger the α value is, the smaller the ponding time is. For long-term
t=tI(uncoupled)
t=6000 s(coupled)
α= 0.01 cm-1 rainfall, ponding occurs at the top surface after a long infiltration
9 θs=0.434
t=6000 s(uncoupled)
time. This indicates a greater ponding time difference between
10 the coupled and uncoupled conditions. The rainfall pattern plays
h (cm) an important role in the ponding time. According to Table 1, the
Fig. 2. Pressure-head profiles under both uncoupled and coupled con- difference between the uncoupled and coupled solutions is
ditions for 1D vertical infiltration (θs = 0:434, k s = 1:0 × 10 −4 cm/ min, significant for clays, but is negligible for silts and residual soils.
q = q0 exp(ωt), q0 = 0:8 × 10 −4 m/ s, ω = 2:0 × 10 −3 min −1 , F =
103 kPa, and α = 0:01 cm −1 )
Conclusions

are α = 0:01 cm −1 , k s = 1:0 × 10 −4 m / s, 1:0 × 10 −5 m / s and
1:0 × 10 −6 m / s, q0 / k s = 0:7, ω = 4:0 × 10 −3 s −1 , and F = 103 kPa.
The greater the coefficient of permeability at saturation, the faster
the pressure head moves. At t = 799 s, the top boundary ponds
for the uncoupled condition when k s = 1:0 × 10 −4 m / s. At this
time, the pressure head at the top boundary for the uncoupled
condition is about − 90 cm when k s = 1:0 × 10 −6 m / s. Rainfall
infiltration itself has a significant effect on the pressure-head
distribution. As for the same q0 / ks ( = 0:7) in Fig. 3b, ks = 1:0 ×
10 −4 m / s means q0 = 0:7 × 10 −4 m / s, and ks = 1:0 × 10 −6 m / s
implies q0 = 0:7 × 10 −6 m / s. A higher rainfall infiltration rate
results in much quicker water movement in unsaturated soil. This
can explain the great pressure-head difference from Fig. 3(b).
Based on the previous discussion, the parameters play a role in
the pressure-head profiles. The values of ks and ω are the most
important factors that greatly influence the pressure-head dis-
tribution. Parameters α and q0 / k s also affect the pressure-head
profiles (Wu and Zhang 2009).
Table 1 presents the ponding times in different cases. The
parameters in Table 1 are based on the references (Hillel 1998;
Zhan and Ng 2004). Under the same q0 / k s , the smaller the
coefficient of permeability at saturation ks is, the larger the
ponding time. The ponding time for the coupled condition is
always smaller than that under the uncoupled condition because
Analytical solutions to the 1D transient coupled infiltration and
deformation in unsaturated soils are obtained using Green’s function.
The analytical solutions consider changing rainfall intensity boundary
before and after ponding time. The analysis in the case studies in-
dicates that the coupling effect has a significant influence on the
pressure-head profiles for the transient unsaturated seepage in un-
saturated soil if the top boundary is controlled by flux. The coupling
effect almost disappears if ponding at the ground surface occurs. The
ponding time is different under the coupled and uncoupled condi-
tions. The ponding time is influenced by parameters ω and k s . The
results demonstrate that the boundary condition greatly influences the
pressure-head distribution and the coupling effect caused by un-
saturated seepage if a changing rainfall flux at the top boundary and a
water table at the lower boundary are assumed. The coupling effect is
closely related to the boundary conditions.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Basic Research Program of China (Nos.
2013CB733202 and 2012CB026104), the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Nos. 51479001, 411722807 and 41272005),
Excellent Youth Foundation of Sichuan Scientific Committee
(No. 2012JQ0007), and the fund of the State Key Laboratory

© ASCE 06015004-4 Int. J. Geomech.

Int. J. Geomech., 2016, 16(2): 06015004

 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0
0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

5 5
Initial condition Initial condition
6 6
w=1.5e-2(coupled) ks=1e-4(coupled)
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7 w=1.5e-2(uncoupled) 7 ks=1e-4(uncoupled)
w=4e-3(coupled) ks=1e-5(coupled)
8 ks=1.0 10-4 m/s
8 ks=1e-5(uncoupled) ks=1.0 10-4 m/s
w=4e-3(uncoupled)
w=1e-3(coupled) α=0.02 cm-1 ks=1e-6(coupled) tp=799s
9 θs=0.434
9 θs=0.434
w=1e-3(uncoupled) ks=1e-6(uncoupled)
10 10
(a) h (cm) (b) h (cm)

Fig. 3. The effect of model parameters on pressure-head profiles under both uncoupled and coupled conditions (θs = 0:434, k s = 1:0 × 10 −4 m / s,
q = q0 exp(ωt), q0 / ks = 0:5, and F = 103 kPa,): (a) the effect of w; ω = 1:5 × 10 −2 , 4:0 × 10 −3 , 1:0 × 10 −3 s −1 , α = 0:02 cm −1 at t = 301 s; (b) the
effect of ks : ks = 1:0 × 10 −4 , 1:0 × 10 −5 , 1:0 × 10 −6 m/ s, and α = 0:01 cm −1 at t = 799 s

of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection
(No. SKLGP2014Z009). The first author thanks the Innovative
Team of Chengdu University of Technology. The authors are
grateful to Professor P.A.C. Raats and other reviewers for their
excellent suggestions.
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