Article
5G Physical Layer-Based Procedure to Support
Time-Sensitive Networking
Faiza Bouchmal 1, *, Oscar Carrasco 1 , Yang Fu 1 , Jaime Rodrigo 1 , Jose F. Monserrat 2
Citation: Bouchmal, F.; Carrasco, O.;
Fu, Y.; Rodrigo, J.; Monserrat, J.F.;
Cardona, N. 5G Physical Layer-Based
Procedure to Support Time-Sensitive
Networking. Telecom 2024, 5, 49–64.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
telecom5010004
Academic Editor: Achilles Boursianis
Received: 20 November 2023
Revised: 31 December 2023
Accepted: 15 January 2024
Published: 24 January 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Telecom 2024, 5, 49–64. https://doi.org/10.3390/telecom5010004
and Narcís Cardona 2
1 Casa Syetems SL, 46014 Valencia, Spain; oscar.carrasco@casa-systems.com (O.C.);
yang.fu@casa-systems.com (Y.F.); jaime.rodrigo@casa-systems.com (J.R.)
2 ITEAM Research Institute, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain;
jomondel@iteam.upv.es (J.F.M.); ncardona@iteam.upv.es (N.C.)
* Correspondence: faiza.bouchmal@casa-systems.com
Abstract: Deploying 5G in new and diverse use cases, such as Industry 4.0 and factory automation,
requires 5G systems to harmonize with the communication technologies used in these industries. To
this end, 3GPP Release 16 and Release 17 have made significant progress in integrating 5G systems
with the IEEE 802.1 working group specifications on Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN). This paper
explains a method and architecture for supporting TSN over a wireless channel in a 5G network that
adds the TSN synchronization function in a Small Cell gNB implementing the TSN Translator function
(SC-TT). This TSN-capable small cell provides TSN over the wireless network to synchronize UEs with
the Grand Master (GM) using the physical layer signal of the 5G radio frame and the transmission of
the GM reference time to provide high-precision synchronization. This paper explores the pivotal
role of a Slot Indicator Signal in enhancing synchronization precision, ensuring that the UE-GM
synchronization occurs within an exceptionally narrow timeframe as small as 10 ns.
Keywords: 5G; TSN; IEEE 802.1; synchronization; small cell; TSN translator
1. Introduction
Advances in robotics and automation have provided highly configurable equipment
with advanced features for automated manufacturing. Such features allow multiple mo-
bile robotics to execute complex industrial processes. However, equipment capable of
performing dexterous functions may require large volumes of data to be exchanged with
low latency. Given such low latency requirements, wired connections have provided
high bandwidth synchronization between devices, such as between the local clocks of
different network components. When the local clocks of different network components
are synchronized, these components can form a virtual clock domain. The virtual clock
domain represents the common reference time that each local clock is synchronized to.
The precision of the virtual clock domain is directly related to the uncertainty between
the time measured on a local clock of a network component and the reference time of the
virtual clock domain. However, in various applications, such as those that include dynamic
and/or reconfigurable equipment that is mobile, wired communication may not be possible
and/or it may limit the mobility and/or degree of flexibility for configuring the equipment,
which can impact the use case scenarios [1,2].
Notably, 5G networks provide high bandwidths to handle high-volume data trans-
fer that may be used to synchronize instructions between different robotic network
components [3]. However, wireless communication between network components often
includes additional associated delays relative to wired communication protocols that
may further complicate and prevent precise synchronization between robotic network
components [4,5]. For example, wireless communications may be susceptible to delays
in the transmission/delivery and processing of received data. Such additional delays
may compound synchronization deviations that may cause deviations between the local
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/telecom
Telecom 2024, 5 50

clock of the network component and the reference time of a virtual clock domain, thus
impacting the synchronization. For example, two components operating in concert to
perform an industrial process may produce costly, damaging, and/or dangerous errors
when the two components work too far out of synchronization. In some applications,
delays may result in errors during manufacturing or damage to the components. Thus,
the speed and complexity of components in an IIOT facility may be limited based on
the synchronization between the clocks of each component in the virtual clock domain.
While wireless operation may be desirable, additional delays added through wireless
communications can render conventional techniques inadequate for synchronizing de-
vices using wireless communications.
It can be desirable or necessary to use critical process data in synchronized networks,
such as to coordinate scheduled events between different instances of robotic equipment
and/or to monitor the status of an ongoing process. Some industrial applications require
accurate time information for synchronous communications. Clock synchronicity among
devices is crucial, with a maximum allowed time offset within a synchronization domain
ranging from less than 1 µs to 10 µs [6] depending on the specific scenario and the number
of inter-communicating devices. However, as process complexity increases, so does the
complexity of real-time data that may be relied on to monitor critical process data for
industrial processes. For example, in addition to real-time data, other data types, such as
energy data metrics and maintenance reports, may also be used in process monitoring.
The IEEE 802.1 AS protocol, known for its precise time-synchronization capabilities,
holds the potential for application across various wireless technologies, like WiFi, Bluetooth,
or cellular technologies. However, this paper is dedicated to delving into its specific
implementation within the realm of 5G technology. By focusing on this particular context,
challenges, opportunities, and implications that arise when integrating IEEE 802.1 AS
into the 5G framework are discussed, including the specific aspects of a new concept of
Time-Sensitive-Enabled Small Cell (TESC) and related synchronization protocols.
The structure of this paper is as follows: Section 2 provides an overview of the
contemporary landscape concerning the integration of TSN within 5G networks. Section 3
offers an in-depth exploration of the TESC concept and its architectural framework. We also
discuss the essential elements of TESC and the mechanisms required to maintain virtual
clock domain accuracy within the TSN Slice. Section 4 focuses on the methodology for the
end-to-end synchronization protocol with the new proposed mechanism. This protocol
plays a pivotal role in achieving synchronization for the internal clocks of UE. Section 5
explores the innovative use of New Radio (NR) Radio Frames and the slot indicator signal
to achieve synchronization within TESC and includes a discussion of the results. Finally,
Section 6 draws the main conclusions of this paper.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Configuration Methods in 3GPP Standards
Enabling wireless TSN for real-time communication presents a challenge in achiev-
ing dynamic industrial automation across diverse applications like collaborative robotics,
precision manufacturing, and Industry 4.0 initiatives, where TSN-enforceable communi-
cations play a key role in providing reliable scheduling and synchronization for multiple
Industrial IoT applications with system controllers. A significant milestone in this pursuit
is represented by Release 16, which lays a robust foundation for the seamless integration of
5G and TSN [7]. Under the umbrella of this release, 3GPP delineates the essential features
of the 5G System designed to support TSN standards. Furthermore, it introduces novel
entities that translate TSN protocols into internal 5G procedures. This development carries
substantial practical implications, particularly in scenarios involving motion control and
control-to-control communication.
Telecom 2024, 5 51

In the specific context of these scenarios, a controller assumes the role of transmitting
a downlink timestamp—a critical component for synchronizing one or multiple actua-
tors tasked with the execution of precise and coordinated tasks. This synchronization,
underpinned by the fusion of TSN and 5G technologies, can revolutionize the landscape of
dynamic industrial automation, opening new horizons for realizing agile and responsive
industrial processes.
Furthermore, Release 17 expands the integration of TSN to include uplink synchroniza-
tion, where machine sensors transmit timestamps to a controller or monitoring device [8].
This use case holds significant importance, particularly in applications like smart grids,
where accurate interpretation of sensor measurements is crucial. Release 18 includes new
signaling messages that could allow the UE to synchronize over the air.
Thus, 3GPP has put forth three distinct configuration methods from Release 16 to
Release 18 [9]:
(a) 5G as a PTP instance (Release 16): The 5GS can be integrated with a PTP network
as another PTP node that disseminates either the 5GS clock or an external clock. In
this case, the 5GS can be configured as a PTP Boundary Clock where the 5GS is
used as the time source. The 5GS maintains the timescale used in the PTP domain
and synchronizes the connected PTP time receivers. Alternatively, the 5GS can be
configured as a PTP Transparent Clock, which measures the time taken for the PTP
event messages to travel within the 5GS, referred to as the residence time. Here, the
5GS is used to correct PTP messages.
(b) 5G as a Time-Aware System (Release 17): 5GS acts as a bridge and “time-aware
system” when integrated with IEEE TSN networks. In this scenario, the TSN domain
uses its clock domain, and the Generalized Precision Time Protocol (gPTP) is used
to distribute the time information from a Grand Master (GM)—the main source of
time—to all the time receivers.
(c) Over the Air Interface Synchronization (OAS) (Release 18): The 5G Next Generation–
Radio Access Network (NG–RAN) can directly transmit epoch/Coordinated Univer-
sal Time (UTC) time to the UE via the air interface. To circumvent any confusion
regarding the timing of transmission and reception, the network provides Reference
Time Information (RTI) about a specific air interface event, such as a System Frame
boundary, which the UE can easily identify. This RTI can be broadcast to the whole
cell via the System Information Block 9 (SIB9) or dedicated Radio Resource Control
(RRC) messages targeted for a single device.
Methods (a) and (b) require the incorporation of the IEEE specifications into the 3GPP;
the support for (g)PTP is introduced at the edges of the 5GS. This involves the introduction
of two new functional entities—the Device-Side TSN Translator (DS-TT) on the UE (User
Equipment) side and the Network-Side TSN Translator (NW-TT) on the 5G network side.
In the 5G Core, the configuration of the DS-TT and the NW-TT is carried out by a newly
introduced function, called the TSN Application Function (TSN AF). This functionality was
initially introduced in Release 16; however, in Release 17, the TSN AF was replaced by the
Time-Sensitive Communication Time-Synchronization Function (TSCTSF).
The TSCTSF supports the control and configuration of the DS-TT and NW-TT and
provides an additional Time-Sensitive Communication (TSC) toolbox for enhanced func-
tionality such as Quality of Service (QoS).
3GPP has proved to be of special interest for method (c), which focuses on the direct
monitoring and reporting of timing synchronization status over the air interface. A dedi-
cated key issue has been included in Technical Report (TR) 23.700-25 [10] to address this.
The study’s conclusion proposes an approach that involves the gNB sending a status report
ID in the SIB to notify UEs of new RAN timing synchronization status reports. UEs can
actively retrieve the information by transitioning to the RRC_Connected state or using the
report ID as an index to automatically determine the synchronization status. Additional
time-synchronization characteristics can be provided to UEs or AFs through Service Level
Agreements (SLAs) or dedicated signaling. Thus, the report ID allows UEs to be aware of
Telecom 2024, 5 52

the availability of new information and prompts them to take action to retrieve the relevant
timing synchronization status report from the network. However, the main limitation of
this proposal is that the accuracy might be limited to 5–10 µs [11]. Besides this, method (c)
does not support external time domains such as TSN.
The authors of [12] explore the integration of 5G and TSN in smart manufacturing,
focusing on the synchronization requirements for industrial automation. They discuss
the current state of 5G’s support for time synchronization and integration with TSN and
highlight Release 16 and Release 17 work refining the time-synchronization protocol in
5G. This integration is evaluated in [13], where the authors develop an analytic framework
to assess the accuracy of over-the-air time synchronization; the study concludes that this
accuracy may be affected by factors such as clock drift, air-interface timing errors, reference
time granularity, and synchronization frequency. Moreover, the authors of [14] add that
the key challenge in achieving accurate time synchronization in integrated 5G and TSN
networks is the disparity between a traditional TSN transparent clock and the 5G System
emulating a transparent clock. This can result in synchronization errors, even with small
frequency offsets between the ingress and egress of the 5G System. In order to address
this challenge, these authors proposed that future research can focus on minimizing the
impact of syntonization errors between 5G devices on time synchronization in integrated
5G-TSN networks.

2.2. Contribution to the State of the Art

While all the proposed solutions thoroughly investigate synchronization, focusing on
accommodating TSN-capable IoT devices, addressing a critical aspect of the IoT landscape
is essential. What about the existing IoT devices that are already deployed and lack TSN
support? This is a pertinent question as many real-world industrial environments consist
of a mix of legacy and modern IoT devices. Balancing synchronization strategies to cater to
TSN-capable and non-TSN IoT devices becomes imperative for achieving comprehensive
and practical synchronization solutions.
This paper presents a method and architectural framework designed to enable TSN
functionality over a wireless channel within a 5G network. The approach involves incorpo-
rating TSN synchronization capabilities into a Small Cell gNB, effectively implementing
what is known as the Small Cell TSN Translator function (SC-TT). This TSN-capable Small
Cell provides TSN functionality over the wireless network, facilitating the synchroniza-
tion of UEs with the Grand Master (GM). This synchronization is achieved by utilizing
the 5G radio frame’s physical layer signal as a flank for the clock adjustment while the
absolute time reference is given by the transmission of the GM reference time over the air,
as specified by Release 18. In such a scenario, the Small Cell can synchronize its clock with
the TSN domain by acting as a gPTP slave device; it receives gPTP synchronization mes-
sages from the gPTP GM clock in the TSN network and adjusts its local clock accordingly.
The synchronization messages contain timing information, such as the current time and
synchronization correction values, which the Small Cell uses to align its clock with the
TSN domain. Once the Small Cell is synchronized, it uses the physical layer signal of the
5G radio frame to provide high-precision synchronization to the UE. This integration is
exemplified in Figure 1, where the TESC includes the Small Cell TSN Translator (SC-TT)
responsible for translating TSN messages into 5G signaling. This integration simplifies
TSN synchronization for Small Cell manufacturers and facilitates the expansion of their
market into automated factories. Additionally, it minimally impacts 5G IoT UE, making
highly accurate TSN-capable IoT devices feasible, utilizing low-cost local oscillators, and
extracting time and synchronization information from the 5G Radio Frame through slot
indication and symbol boundary signals.
Telecom 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 5
Telecom 2024, 5 53

Time-SensitiveCommunication-enabled
Figure1.1.Time-Sensitive
Figure Communication-enabledSmall
SmallCell
Cell(TESC)
(TESC)versus
versus3GPP
3GPPintegration.
integration.

Drawing from the analysis of the current state of the art, the precision of Over-The-Air
Drawing from the analysis of the current state of the art, the precision of Over-The-
synchronization (OAS) is contingent upon the type of device. For UE equipped with PTP
Air synchronization (OAS) is contingent upon the type of device. For UE equipped with
support, the precision level is achieved at less than 1 µs. Conversely, low-cost and low-
PTP support, the precision level is achieved at less than 1 µs. Conversely, low-cost and
energy UEs lacking PTP support can ensure an accuracy level of less than 10 µs [10–13].
low-energy UEs lacking PTP support can ensure an accuracy level of less than 10 µs [10–
Employing TESC ensures an accuracy level within the range of 0.01 µs to 1 µs, even for
13]. Employing TESC ensures an accuracy level within the range of 0.01 µs to 1 µs, even
economical and energy-efficient UEs lacking PTP support. Table 1 provides a summary of
for economical and energy-efficient UEs lacking PTP support. Table 1 provides a summary
this comparison. Sections 4 and 5 explain how this accuracy is calculated.
of this comparison. Sections 4 and 5 explain how this accuracy is calculated.
Table 1. The accuracy level provided by the configuration methods of 3GPP and TESC.
Table 1. The accuracy level provided by the configuration methods of 3GPP and TESC.
UE with UE with All Type
Type of UE UE with UE with All Type
Type of UE No PTP PTP of UE
No PTP PTP of UE
Synchronization method (c) (a) and (b) TESC
Synchronization
Accuracy level (c) <10 µs (a) and (b)
<1 µs TESCµs–1 µs
<0.01
method
Accuracy level <10 µs <1 µs <0.01 µs–1 µs
3. Time-Sensitive-Enabled Small Cell
3.3.1. Concept and ArchitectureSmall Cell
Time-Sensitive-Enabled
As described
3.1. Concept above, providing a wireless TSN network poses some challenges. Imple-
and Architecture
mentations that use a dedicated TSN system, separate from the primary wireless network,
As described above, providing a wireless TSN network poses some challenges. Im-
may increase the complexity and cost of the UEs. To address such challenges, we develop a
plementations that use a dedicated TSN system, separate from the primary wireless net-
physical-layer procedure that disciplines the device clock using a timing signal extracted
work, may increase the complexity and cost of the UEs. To address such challenges, we
from the 5G NR radio frame sub-slot or Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
develop a physical-layer procedure that disciplines the device clock using a timing signal
(OFDM) symbol to achieve the desired synchronization accuracy. In some specific imple-
extracted from the 5G NR radio frame sub-slot or Orthogonal Frequency Division Multi-
mentations of the proposed idea, the SC-TT embedded in the Small Cell (SC) is a gPTP
plexing (OFDM) symbol to achieve the desired synchronization accuracy. In some specific
instance that guarantees the synchronization and the accuracy of the 5G NR radio frame to
implementations
maintain enforcement of theofproposed idea, the SC-TT
the synchronization embedded
across in the Small
the 5G industrial Cell (SC) is a
network.
gPTP Figure
instance that guarantees the synchronization and the accuracy of
2 illustrates a private industrial network that contains multiple the 5G small
NR radio
TSC-
frame to maintain enforcement of the synchronization across the 5G industrial
enabled Small Cells (TSC-SCs): The three SCs communicate with the UPF to access the network.
Figure
internet and2industry
illustrates a private
controller; industrial
each TSC-SC network thatwireless
may provide containsconnectivity
multiple small TSC-
to multiple
enabled Small Cells (TSC-SCs): The three SCs communicate with the UPF
equipment instances; the Network TSN Translator (NW-TT) interfaces the 5G and internetto access the
internet and industry controller; each TSC-SC may provide wireless connectivity
systems; and equipment instances (robots) wirelessly communicate with SCs. The arrows to mul-
tiple equipment
in red highlight instances; the Network
the sycnrhonization TSN
using Translator
gPTP, (NW-TT)
while the arrowsinterfaces the 5G and
in green highlight the
internet systems; and equipment instances
synchronization using 5G NR radio frame. (robots) wirelessly communicate with SCs. The
arrows in red highlight the sycnrhonization using gPTP, while the arrows in green high-
light the synchronization using 5G NR radio frame.
Telecom 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 6
Telecom 2024, 5 54

Figure 2. Time Sensitive-enabled Small Cell network: the main concept of the new proposed scheme.
Figure 2. Time Sensitive-enabled Small Cell network: the main concept of the new proposed scheme.
Network components have a local clock for local timekeeping. The local clocks may all
beNetwork
synchronized components have
to a reference a local
clock clockafor
to provide local timekeeping.
common understanding The of timelocal clocks
across the may
all network
be synchronized
components, toforming
a reference clock
a virtual clocktodomain.
provideFor a example,
commona understanding
grand master clock of time
may provide a time from an atomic clock, such as an atomic
across the network components, forming a virtual clock domain. For example, a grandclock affiliated with the GPS
or a national
master clock may timekeeping
provide system. The controller
a time from an atomic clock is synchronized
clock, with theclock
such as an atomic reference
affiliated
clock and provides the Controller with a local time, which may
with the GPS or a national timekeeping system. The controller clock is synchronized with be used in scheduling
events or interpreting incoming signals.
the reference clock and provides the Controller with a local time, which may be used in
As shown in Figure 2, SC clocks are synchronized with the reference clock, and UE
scheduling events or interpreting incoming signals.
clocks are synchronized with SC clocks. The synchronization of the UE clocks with an
SC clock, and in
As shown Figure 2, SC clocks
synchronization between arethesynchronized
SC clock andwith the reference
the reference clock, clock,
providesand UE
clocks are synchronized
synchronization between with
the SC
UEclocks.
clocks and Thethe synchronization
reference clock.ofInthe thisUEway,clocks
eachwith
clockan SC
clock, and
in the synchronization
virtual clock domainbetween
has a commonthe SCreference
clock and the Thus,
time. reference
when clock, provides syn-
the Controller
schedules instructions
chronization between the forUE
the clocks
robots toandcoordinate an assembly
the reference clock. process, all theeach
In this way, robots willin the
clock
be able
virtual to execute
clock domain their
hasrespective
a common portions of thetime.
reference assembly
Thus,process
whenatthe theController
prescribed schedules
time
without interfering
instructions with each
for the robots other.
to coordinate an assembly process, all the robots will be able to
The SC that provides access for UEs to the core network may communicate with other
execute their respective portions of the assembly process at the prescribed time without
network components through wired connections and communicate with the UEs through
interfering with each other.
wireless connections. For example, in Figure 2, the small cells and industry controller are
The
each SC that
wired to theprovides access for
UPF, as indicated byUEs to the
the solid corethe
lines; network
small cellsmay communicate
wirelessly with other
communicate
network components through wired connections and communicate
with equipment instances (robots), as indicated by the three-arc wireless symbol; the wired with the UEs through
wireless connections.
connection For example,
may communicate using anin Ethernet
Figure 2,protocol;
the small andcells and industry
the wireless controller
connections may are
eachcommunicate
wired to the through
UPF, as 5Gindicated
or beyondby 5G.
theThus,
solidnetwork
lines; the components
small cellsthat communicate
wirelessly communi-
catethrough wired connections
with equipment instances may be synchronized
(robots), as indicated through
by the a first-timing protocolsymbol;
three-arc wireless using the
wired connection may communicate using an Ethernet protocol; and the wirelessmay
gPTP [14], and network components that communicate through wireless connections connec-
be synchronized through a second-timing protocol based on using a 5G NR radio frame as
tions may communicate through 5G or beyond 5G. Thus, network components that com-
explained in Sections 4 and 5.
municate through wired connections may be synchronized through a first-timing protocol
using gPTP [14], and network components that communicate through wireless connec-
tions may be synchronized through a second-timing protocol based on using a 5G NR
radio frame as explained in Sections 4 and 5.

3.2. Virtual Clock Domain Accuracy and TSN Slice

A virtual clock domain enables the coordination of independent clocks across the
Telecom 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 7

Telecom 2024, 5 55
accuracy of a virtual clock domain is based on the uncertainty of each clock relative to the
reference time. Figure 3 illustrates a virtual clock domain including controllers, SCs, and
Robots.
3.2. Virtual Clock Domain Accuracy and TSN Slice
The controller
A virtual clock
clock is synchronized
domain with the reference
enables the coordination clock and clocks
of independent provides a control-
across the
ler with a nodes
network local time, whicha may
to provide be usedcommon
distributed in scheduling events
timescale withor interpreting
defined incoming
accuracy. The
signals.
accuracySCofclocks are clock
a virtual synchronized
domain iswith theonreference
based clock. Robot
the uncertainty of eachclocks are synchro-
clock relative to
nized with SC time.
the reference clocksFigure
and, by extension,a virtual
3 illustrates the reference clock. In
clock domain this way,controllers,
including each clockSCs,
in the
virtual clock domain has a common reference time.
and Robots.

Figure
Figure3.3.Virtual
VirtualClock
Clock Domain.
Domain.

InThe controller with

connection clock providing
is synchronized
TSN with the reference
functionality, theclock and provides
network should aprovide
controllermes-
with a local time, which may be used in scheduling events or interpreting
sage delivery with guaranteed delivery of the time-constrained messages or signals. incoming signals.
Qual-
SCofclocks
ity Service are(QoS)
synchronized
policies may withbe
theimplemented
reference clock. Robot clocks
to prioritize the are synchronized
performance with
of different
SC clocks and, by extension, the reference clock. In this way, each clock
types of traffic from different UEs to guarantee message delivery. In our proposal, the QoS in the virtual clock
domain has a common reference time.
may be implemented by deploying a dedicated Network Slice. Network Slices are iso-
In connection with providing TSN functionality, the network should provide message
lated, virtual end-to-end networks configured to fulfill specific parameters or require-
delivery with guaranteed delivery of the time-constrained messages or signals. Quality
ments. For (QoS)
of Service example, a network
policies may beslice may be configured
implemented to prioritize tothe
provide specificofQoS
performance require-
different
ments regarding the latency and reliability of the TSN application.
types of traffic from different UEs to guarantee message delivery. In our proposal, the QoS
mayFigure 4 illustrates
be implemented by a networkaincluding
deploying a dedicated
dedicated Network Slice.virtual
Network TSN slice.
Slices areFor this, re-
isolated,
sources from the AMF and the UPF may be dedicated to the virtual TSN
virtual end-to-end networks configured to fulfill specific parameters or requirements. For slice. Moreover,
network
example,resources
a networkthat sliceprovide access to the
may be configured AMF and
to provide the QoS
specific UPFrequirements
may allocate dedicated
regarding
resources
the latency toand
thereliability
separate of network
the TSNslices providing different services. Virtual network
application.
slices Figure
may be4 implemented by dedicating
illustrates a network including a portion of computing
a dedicated virtual TSN capacity
slice. Forto this,
providere- a
sources from the AMF and the UPF may be dedicated to the virtual
dedicated function or service to devices communicating with the network slice. Here, the TSN slice. Moreover,
network
TSN resources
slice may that provide
be deployed access
together to athe
with AMF and
standard the UPF
network may
slice allocate the
to support dedicated
standard
5Gresources to the separate
smartphones and UEs. network slices providing
For example, the TSNdifferent
slice may services. Virtual
include network
dedicated slices
resources
may be implemented by dedicating a portion of computing
from the AMF and the UPF to provide functionality to the robots. Additional AMF capacity to provide a dedi-and
cated function or service to devices communicating with the network
UPF resources may be allocated to a virtual eMBB slice. The eMBB slice provides 5G slice. Here, the TSNnet-
slice may be deployed together with a standard network slice to support the standard 5G
work communication to smartphones.
smartphones and UEs. For example, the TSN slice may include dedicated resources from
the AMF and the UPF to provide functionality to the robots. Additional AMF and UPF
resources may be allocated to a virtual eMBB slice. The eMBB slice provides 5G network
communication to smartphones.
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Figure 4. TSN Slice.

Figure4.4.TSN
Figure TSNSlice.
Slice.
4. End-to-End Synchronization Using TESC
4. End-to-End Synchronization Using TESC
To achieveSynchronization
4. End-to-End end-to-end synchronization,
Using TESCour method is divided into two distinct
To achieve end-to-end synchronization, our method is divided into two distinct parts.
parts.To Theachieve
first part initiates
end-to-end at the Grand Masterour
synchronization, (GM) clock, the
method main reference
is divided into twoclock,
distinct
The first part initiates at the Grand Master (GM) clock, the main reference clock, and
and concludes
parts. Theatfirst at the SC.
partThis This
initiates phase closely aligns with the proposal outlined in 3GPP
concludes the SC. phaseat the Grand
closely aligns Master
with the(GM)
proposalclock, the main
outlined reference
in 3GPP Release clock,
Release 17 and follows a similar procedure. However, the key distinction lies in terminat-
and
17 andconcludes
follows a at the SC.
similar This phase
procedure. closelythe
However, aligns with the proposal
key distinction outlined in
lies in terminating the3GPP
ing the gPTP flow at the SC rather than at the UE. The second part of the synchronization
gPTP
Releaseflow 17atand
thefollows
SC rather than at the
a similar UE. The However,
procedure. second partthe of key
the synchronization
distinction lies in process
terminat-
process focuses on the interaction between the SC and the UE. From the perspective of the
focuses on the interaction between the SC and the UE. From the perspective
ing the gPTP flow at the SC rather than at the UE. The second part of the synchronization of the UE, the
UE,
SC
the
assumes
SC assumes
the role
the role
of the
of the primary
primary timing
timing
source,
source,
providing
providing essential timing in-
process focuses on the interaction between the SC and the essential
UE. Fromtiming informationof the
the perspective
formation
utilizing utilizing
the assumes the
NR Radiothe NR
Frame. Radio Frame.
UE, Figure
the SC 5 illustrates
illustrates ananrole of the primary
end-to-end timing source,
synchronization processproviding
for the essential timing
the synchronization
synchronization of in-
Figure
formation 5
utilizing the NR end-to-end
Radio Frame. synchronization process for of
an
an industrial
industrial IoTIoT UEUE with
with aa GM
GM clock.
clock. The
The UPF
UPF maymay include
include aa NW-TT
NW-TT forfor encoding timing
signals Figure 5
following illustrates
a 5G an
networkend-to-end
protocol synchronization
by 3GPP Release process
16 and for theencoding
Release 17.
timing
synchronization
Moreover, of
signals following a 5G network protocol by 3GPP Release 16 and Release 17. Moreover, the
an industrial
the SC may IoT UE
include with a GM clock. The UPF may include a NW-TT for encodingthe timing
SC may include the the
SC-TTSC-TT to decode
to decode timing
timing signals
signals fromfrom
the the
UPFUPFandand synchronize
synchronize the UE
signals
UE to thefollowing
reference atime
5G ofnetwork
the GM. protocol by 3GPP Release 16 and Release 17. Moreover,
to the reference time of the GM.
the SC may include the SC-TT to decode timing signals from the UPF and synchronize the
UE to the reference time of the GM.

Figure 5. End-to-end synchronization procedure.

Figure 5. End-to-end synchronization procedure.

Figure 5. End-to-end synchronization procedure.

Telecom 2024, 5 57

4.1. Synchronization of the Internal Clock of the Small Cell: TSN-Based Synchronization
The synchronization process from the GM to the SC involves exchanging gPTP mes-
sages, such as Sync and Follow_Up messages, between the SC and the gPTP GM clock.
These messages carry timing information and are used to calculate the clock offset and
clock drift between the SC and the TSN domain. The SC adjusts its local clock based on the
received timing information to achieve synchronization with the TSN domain.
In Figure 5, the UPF receives a Sync message from the GM. Using this message, the
UPF implements a first-timing protocol to synchronize the UPF with the SC, whereas
NW-TT and SW-TT implement a synchronization protocol following a Precision Time
Protocol. For example, NW-TT and SC-TT may implement synchronization using the
IEEE 802.1AS standard [15]. The 5G network may be transparently integrated with the
TSN network. The integration between the 5G network and the TSN network may be
implemented as a bridge in accordance with IEEE 802.1 standards [16,17]. Thus, the UPF
uses a Sync message to update the local clock at the UPF, and NW-TT updates the UPF
timing according to IEEE 802.1AS while the GM may directly communicate with the UPF.
If the network includes multiple UPF facilities, the UPF may indirectly receive a Sync
message from the GM through an intermediary UPF.
As described above, in connection with Figure 5, the first timing protocol, implemented
using the NW-TT and SC-TT, may treat the SC as the endpoint of the TSN timing domain.
For example, the synchronized time at the SC in the first timing protocol may be represented
by the following equation:

τsc = τ0 + δ(link delay) +Tresidence , (1)

where τsc is the synchronized time of the SC; τ0 is the reference time, received from the
GM; δLink delay is the propagation time of the packet, including the sync message, through
the cable from the GM to the NW-TT; and Tresidence is the residence time between the UPF
and the SC expressed in the GM time base. The link delay may be calculated according
to the IEEE 802.1AS standard. The residence time is measured using ingress timestamps
(tsi ) and egress timestamps (tse ). For example, the tsi is recorded when a sync message is
received at the UPF, and tse is recorded when a sync message is received at the SC. The
residence time may be represented by the following equation:

Tresidence = tse − tsi × RateRatio, (2)

where the RateRatio is the ratio between the frequency of the GM clock and the SC’s local
clock. The RateRatio may be determined according to the IEEE 802.1AS standard. Therefore,
the GM, UPF, and SC are synchronized according to 3GPP 23.501 Release 16 for downlink
synchronization and 3GPP 23.501 Release 17 for uplink synchronization.

4.2. Synchronization of the Internal Clock of the UE: Physical Layer-Based Synchronization
The SC determines a timing adjustment based on the timing information, including the
packet reference time and residence time, as they are transmitted from a GM clock to the SC.
The residence time is further described above in connection with Figure 5. Also, the timing
information includes a Timing Advance (TA), which is the time for the Reference Signal to
travel from the SC to the UE’s receiver. TA may be determined using the Random-Access
process. Thus, from the timing information, a virtual clock domain time is determined at
which the UE will receive the radio frame transmitted from the SC. The Synchronization
Time represents the time—in the virtual clock domain—when the radio frame will arrive at
the UE. The Synchronization Time is further described in Section 5.
The SC adjusts a timing signal of the radio frame to adjust the timing of the UE clock.
This timing signal may be a physical layer signal as, for example, a slot indication signal
or a symbol boundary signal. The SC transmits the slot indication signal such that it
arrives at the UE at an even timing interval of the reference time. This enables the UE to
maintain precise synchronization with the reference clock between slot indication signals
Telecom 2024, 5 58

by using its accurate internal clock. The timing signal received by the UE is combined with
a timing feedback circuit to adjust the internal clock flank of the UE. The feedback circuit is
configured to adjust the timing of the internal clock flank such that the flank is coincident
with subsequent timing signals. The synchronization of the UE clock to the virtual clock
domain using a physical layer signal of the wireless network is detailed in the next section.
This paper presents an innovative approach that harnesses the slot indicator signal
transmitted at the start of each frame to achieve precise synchronization, in line with our
research findings. This slot indicator signal plays a crucial role as a cornerstone of the
timing system. By strategically addressing issues related to path-delay estimation and
time-of-arrival estimation errors, our method optimizes the slot indicator signal’s utility.
Furthermore, our research underscores the significance of enhancing the granularity of
reference time, a factor proven to reduce synchronization errors effectively. Additionally,
we emphasize the importance of optimizing synchronization frequency to ensure the slot
indicator signal’s periodic transmission is leveraged to the fullest extent. This comprehen-
sive approach not only aligns with our research outcomes but also reinforces the feasibility
of meeting synchronization requirements of less than 1 µs [6,13,18] or better in integrated
5G and TSN systems.

5. Using The 5G Physical Layer Signal for TSC Synchronization

Using the 5G physical layer slot indication signal for TSN synchronization is the
main proposal of this paper. It represents a novel approach to achieving accurate time
coordination in a wireless network independently of the end terminal capacities. This
method involves a SC base station, which includes a gPTP instance that guarantees the
synchronization and accuracy of the 5G NR radio frame. The SC then transmits a timing
signal to the UE using the 5G NR radio frame. This timing signal includes both the
synchronization and reference times. The UE receives this timing signal and uses it to
synchronize its local clock with the SC clock. The SC handles this synchronization process,
and the UE extracts the time and synchronization from the 5G NR radio frame.

5.1. Using the Physical Layer Slot Indication Signal with a Time-Locked Loop (TLL) for Enhanced
Synchronization Precision
The symbols within a slot may be configured as downlink, uplink, or flexible (i.e.,
uplink or downlink) symbols. A slot indicator signal may be transmitted to the UE to
specify the symbol allocation within each slot using the Downlink Control Information
(DCI) protocol. The slot indicator may include an indication of the periodicity of the
symbols configured in a downlink–uplink pattern, several consecutive full downlink slots
at the beginning of each downlink–uplink pattern, several consecutive downlink symbols
at the beginning of a partially-filled slot, several consecutive full uplink slots at the end of
each downlink–uplink pattern, and/or several consecutive uplink symbols at the end of a
partially-filled slot. Moreover, the slot indicator may be configured following other formats
to provide the UE with an indication of slot and/or symbol usage.
The SC may transmit the slot indication signal such that the arrival of the slot indication
signal corresponds with a flank signal of the SC clock. Figure 6 illustrates a schematic of
the timing between the SC clock flank signal and subframes of the radio frame. Thus, the
UE may calculate the synchronized time according to Equation (3):

τSynchronizedTime = τInternal Clock − τTimingAdvance ± ∆SlotIndication , (3)

where τSynchronizedTime is the synchronized time in the UE, τInternal Clock is the time kept by
the internal clock of the UE, τTimingAdvance is the timing advance value received from the
SC, and ∆SlotIndication is the difference between the arrival time of the slot indication signal
at the UE and the reference time. The synchronized time maintains synchronization with
the reference clock between the slot indication signals.
Telecom 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 11
Telecom 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 11
Telecom 2024, 5 59

Figure 6. Use of slot indication signals for UE clock synchronization.

Figure 6. Use of slot indication signals for UE clock synchronization.
synchronization.
In this context, it is noteworthy to introduce the Time-Locked Loop (TLL) system, a
In
In this
this context,
context, it
it is
is noteworthy
noteworthy to
to introduce
introduce the
the Time-Locked
Time-Locked Loop Loop (TLL) system,
system, aa
(TLL)offering
specialized circuit designed for phase alignment and synchronization purposes,
specialized
specialized circuit designed
circuit over
designed for
for phase
phase alignment
alignment and and synchronization
synchronization purposes, offering
distinct advantages traditional Phase-Locked Loops (PLLs). Unlikepurposes,
PLLs, theoffering
TLL
distinct advantages
distinctinadvantages over traditional
over traditional Phase-Locked Loops (PLLs). Unlike PLLs, the the TLL
operates the time domain, making itPhase-Locked Loops (PLLs).
ideal for applications Unlike timing
where precise PLLs, TLL
align-
operates
operates in
in the
the time
time domain,
domain, making it
making it ideal for
for applications
applications where where precise timing
timing align-
align-
ment is paramount. Thus, the TLL systemideal can execute synchronizationprecise with the reference
ment
ment is paramount. Thus, thethe TLL
TLL system
system can can execute
execute synchronization
synchronization with with the reference
reference
clock ofisthe
paramount. Thus,
virtual clock domain; it effectively adjusts the internal clock of thethe UE to en-
clock
clock of the virtual clock
of the virtual with domain;
clockthe domain; it effectively
it effectively adjusts
adjusts the internal
the internal clock of the
clocka of UE to ensure
thefeedback
UE to en-
sure synchronization received timing signals. Figure 7 illustrates TLL
synchronization
sure synchronizationwith the
withreceived
the timing
received signals.
timing Figure
signals. 7 illustrates
Figure 7 a TLL
illustrates feedback
a TLL circuit,
feedback
circuit, which contains the following elements:
which contains the following elements:
circuit, which contains the following elements:
• Controlled Oscillator: This component generates periodic timing signals.
• Controlled Oscillator: This component generates periodic timing signals.
• • Real-Time
Controlled Oscillator:
Clock This This
(Counter): componentcounts generates
time based periodic
on thetiming
periodicsignals.
timing signals
• Real-Time Clock (Counter): This counts time based on the periodic timing signals
• fromReal-Time
the Clock (Counter):
controlled oscillator This
and counts time
produces a based signal.
time-out on the periodic timing signals
from the controlled oscillator and produces a time-out signal.
• • Timefrom the controlled
TimeComparator:
Comparator:This
oscillator
Thiscompares and the
compares
produces
computed
the
a time-out
computed time-out signal.
time-out signal with
signal witha areference
reference
• time-in
Time signal.
Comparator: This compares the computed time-out signal with a reference
time-in signal.
• • Looptime-in
Loop
signal.
Filter: The
Filter: Theresult
resultofofthe
thecomparison
comparison from
from thethetime
time comparator
comparator is is
filtered
filtered and
and
• thenLoop Filter: The
provided as result oftothe
feedback the comparison
controlled from the time comparator is filtered and
oscillator.
then provided as feedback to the controlled oscillator.
then provided as feedback to the controlled oscillator.

Figure
Figure 7. 7.
TLLTLL circuit
circuit feedback
feedback forfor phase
phase alignment
alignment and
and synchronization.
synchronization.
Figure 7. TLL circuit feedback for phase alignment and synchronization.
The
The main
main advantages
advantages ofof using
using the
the proposed
proposed TLL
TLL circuitare:
circuit are:
The main advantages of using the proposed TLL circuit are:
•• High
High Precision:
Precision: The
The primary
primary advantage
advantage ofof this
this TLLTLL is is
itsits ability
ability toto achieve
achieve extremely
extremely
• high
High synchronization
Precision: The precision,
primary down
advantage to
of1 ns
this in
TLLspecific
is its scenarios
ability
high synchronization precision, down to 1 ns in specific scenarios [15]. This levelto [15].
achieveThis level
ofof
extremely
precision
high is critical
synchronization for meeting
precision, the
downstringent
to 1 timing
ns in requirements
precision is critical for meeting the stringent timing requirements of 5G networks. of
specific scenarios of 5G
[15]. networks.
This level
•• Time
Time Domain
precision
Domain Operation:
is critical
Operation: Unlike
for meeting
Unlike traditional
the stringent
traditional Phase-Locked
timing requirements
Phase-Locked Loops
Loops (PLLs)
of 5G
(PLLs) that work
networks.
that work inin
• the
Time
the phase
phase domain,
Domain
domain, the
Operation:TLL operates in the
Unlike traditional
the TLL operates time domain.
in the timePhase-Locked This
domain. ThisLoops makes
makes(PLLs)it well-suitedforfor
that work
it well-suited in
applications
the phase where
domain, precise
the TLL timing
operatesalignment
in the is
time more
domain.important
This
applications where precise timing alignment is more important than phase align- than
makes phase
it alignment.
well-suited for
• Mitigation
applications
ment. of where
Timingprecise
Variations: Thealignment
timing TLL can correct
is more for important
signal arrival-time
than phasevariations
align-
due
ment.to signal propagation delays and clock drift; it monitors and adjusts the clock to
mitigate these variations, ensuring reliable synchronization.
Telecom 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 12

• Mitigation of Timing Variations: The TLL can correct for signal arrival-time variations
Telecom 2024, 5 due to signal propagation delays and clock drift; it monitors and adjusts the clock to60
mitigate these variations, ensuring reliable synchronization.

5.2. Improving
5.2. Improving Synchronization
Synchronization Precision with Slot Indication in 30 kHz Subcarrier Bandwidth
To provide
To provide synchronization
synchronizationwith withthe thereference
referencetime,
time,the
theSCSCtransmits
transmits thethe
slotslot
indication
indica-
suchsuch
tion thatthat
it arrives at an
it arrives even
at an timing
even timing interval
intervalofofthe
thereference
referencetime.time.For
For example, when when
the subcarrier
the subcarrier spacing
spacingisis30 30kHz,
kHz,the theslotslotduration
durationis is500 500µsµsandand a new
a new slot
slot indicator
indicator is
is transmitted
transmitted every
every 500500µs.µs.In In
thetheillustrated
illustratedexample
exampleofofFigure Figure8,8,thethe time
time format
format is
is
hours:minutes:seconds:milliseconds microseconds nanoseconds.
hours:minutes:seconds:milliseconds microseconds nanoseconds. The slot indicators are The slot indicators are
transmitted such that
transmitted that they
they arrive
arriveat atthe
theUE UEwhen
whenthethereference
referencetimetimeisis
ananinteger
integer multiple of
multiple
500 µs. Slot indication signal [SL#0], for instance, arrives at the UE when
of 500 µs. Slot indication signal [SL#0], for instance, arrives at the UE when the reference the reference time
is 16:30:23:000
time 000 000;
is 16:30:23:000 slot indication
000 000; slot indication signal [SL#1]
signal arrives
[SL#1] at the
arrives at UE when
the UE whenthe the
reference
refer-
time time
ence is 16:30:23:000 500 000,
is 16:30:23:000 500 500
000,microseconds
500 microseconds later, later,
and so andon.so on.

Figure 8.
Figure Precise synchronization
8. Precise synchronization and
and Slot
Slot Indication
Indication for
for subcarrier
subcarrier bandwidth
bandwidth of
of 30
30 kHz
kHz in
in radio
radio
frame structure.
frame structure.

The enforcement
The enforcement of ofthe
thearrival
arrivaltime
timeofofthe
theindication
indicationsignals
signalsenables
enablesthethe
UEUE to maintain
to main-
precise synchronization with the reference clock between slot indication
tain precise synchronization with the reference clock between slot indication signals signals by using
by
the precise
using internal
the precise clock, clock,
internal used to maintain
used frequency
to maintain and phase
frequency synchronization.
and phase synchronization.Here,
the UE
Here, may
the UEusemayevery slot indication
use every signal
slot indication to check
signal and/or
to check adjust
and/or the the
adjust synchronization
synchroniza-
of the UE clock using one or more slot indication signals per radio
tion of the UE clock using one or more slot indication signals per radio frame. frame. TheThedegree
degreeof
drift of the UE clock relative to the reference time, the distance from the UE
of drift of the UE clock relative to the reference time, the distance from the UE to the SC,to the SC, the
velocity
the of the
velocity UE, UE,
of the andand
the particular
the particularprocess being
process executed
being by the
executed by UE
the may
UE may factor into
factor
determining how frequently to check and/or adjust the synchronization
into determining how frequently to check and/or adjust the synchronization of the UE of the UE clock
using one or more indication signals.
clock using one or more indication signals.
When a 60 kHz, 120 kHz, or 240 kHz subcarrier spacing is used, the respective
When a 60 kHz, 120 kHz, or 240 kHz subcarrier spacing is used, the respective sub-
subframes will have 4, 8, or 16 slots. Thus, the regularity of the slot indicator signal
frames will have 4, 8, or 16 slots. Thus, the regularity of the slot indicator signal depends
depends on the subcarrier spacing. For example, when the subcarrier spacing of 15 kHz
on the subcarrier spacing. For example, when the subcarrier spacing of 15 kHz is used,
is used, the slot indication signal is sent every 1 ms. In contrast, when we use 240 kHz,
the slot indication signal is sent every 1 ms. In contrast, when we use 240 kHz, the slot
the slot indication signal is sent every 62.5 µs, which can provide higher precision.
indication signal is sent every 62.5 µs, which can provide higher precision. The level of
The level of precision attainable with this synchronization method depends on the
precision attainable with this synchronization method depends on the subcarrier spacing
subcarrier spacing utilized, making it a versatile and adaptable solution for 5G network
synchronization needs.
 needs.

5.3. Performance Evaluation

Telecom 2024, 5
Numerical evaluations were conducted to assess the performance of Over-the-Air
61
time Synchronization (OAS) using the method proposed in this paper. For these results,
we have used 3GPP-defined values of UE timing errors, given by [18], ensuring that the
UE can afford up to +/−0.1 ppm relative error, which is 0.2 µs clock drift per second as-
5.3. Performance Evaluation
suming errors in both sides of the communication. Under this assumption, the network
wouldNumerical
only need evaluations were
to deliver the GM conducted
reference to assess
time the every
at most performance of Over-the-Air
5 s to remain within the
time Synchronization (OAS) using the method proposed in this paper.
1 µs accuracy requirement. Moreover, the reference time granularity is 10 ns [13],For these results, we
which
have used 3GPP-defined values of UE timing errors, given by [18], ensuring
means that, once the UE gets a message containing the reference time GM, it gets its max- that the UE
can
imumafford up to +/
accuracy −0.1
that ppmstart
would relative error, which
degrading is 0.2
at a pace ofµs0.2clock
ns perdrift per secondInassuming
millisecond. the anal-
errors in both sides of the communication. Under this assumption,
ysis, the UE could synchronize every slot, via the Slot Indicator Signal, theornetwork would
could synchro-
only need to deliver the GM reference time at most every 5 s to remain within the 1 µs
nize after several slots.
accuracy requirement. Moreover, the reference time granularity is 10 ns [13], which means
Figure 9 plots the UE’s synchronization accuracy depending on the Slot Indicator
that, once the UE gets a message containing the reference time GM, it gets its maximum
Signal period or, in other words, depending on how often the UE performs the synchro-
accuracy that would start degrading at a pace of 0.2 ns per millisecond. In the analysis, the
nization process using the TESC. If the synchronization is made every slot, the accuracy
UE could synchronize every slot, via the Slot Indicator Signal, or could synchronize after
would remain at 10 ns, but if the period of synchronization increases, after 50 ms, the drift
several slots.
would start affecting the accuracy. In the limit, if no resynchronization is made in any slot,
Figure 9 plots the UE’s synchronization accuracy depending on the Slot Indicator
the clock drift would reach 1 µs in 5 s, in which a new reference time would be provided
Signal period or, in other words, depending on how often the UE performs the synchro-
to the UE in the application layer.
nization process using the TESC. If the synchronization is made every slot, the accuracy
According to the results, when using TSN-enabled Small Cell we can maintain the
would remain at 10 ns, but if the period of synchronization increases, after 50 ms, the drift
most accurate clock, at 10 ns, which is required in scenarios such as coordinated maneu-
would start affecting the accuracy. In the limit, if no resynchronization is made in any slot,
vering
the clockofdrift
autonomous
would reachvehicles,
1 µs in industrial automation
5 s, in which in high-speed
a new reference time would production lines,
be provided to
healthcare telesurgery, and
the UE in the application layer. AR gaming.

Figure9.
Figure 9. UE’s
UE’s clock
clock accuracy
accuracy level
level depending
depending on
onthe
theresynchronization
resynchronizationperiod.
period.

According to the results,

Next, the impact of thewhen
numberusing of TSN-enabled Small Cell wetocan
UEs to be synchronized themaintain
GM on thethemost
con-
accurate clock, at 10 ns, which is required in scenarios such as coordinated
sumption of Resource Blocks (RBs) was evaluated. We considered 5G numerology with maneuvering
of autonomous
SCS 15 kHz andvehicles,
10 MHzindustrial
bandwidth automation in high-speed
configurations, production
which entailed lines, healthcare
a maximum number
telesurgery, andofAR
of RBs per slot 52,gaming.
yielding 260,000 RBs every 5 s [19]. Assuming that the GM reference
timeNext,
can bethe impact in
encoded of 76
theBytes
number
[15],ofthis
UEsis to be synchronized
equivalent to 4 RBsto the GM
using on the consump-
a Quadrature Phase-
tion
ShiftofKeying
Resource Blocks
(QPSK) (RBs) was scheme
modulation evaluated. withWe½ considered
code rate. 5G numerology with SCS 15
kHz and 10 MHz bandwidth configurations, which entailed a maximum number of RBs
per slot of 52, yielding 260,000 RBs every 5 s [19]. Assuming that the GM reference time
can be encoded in 76 Bytes [15], this is equivalent to 4 RBs using a Quadrature Phase-Shift
Keying (QPSK) modulation scheme with ½ code rate.
Figure 10 illustrates the rate of RB consumption as a function of the number of users
in a cell. With the TESC proposal presented in this paper, only 0.0015% of the RBs are
allocated to broadcast the GM reference time, transmitted once every 5 s to all UEs in
the cell, and this rate remains constant regardless of the number of UEs. Consequently,
 Figure 10 illustrates the rate of RB consumption as a function of the number of users
in a cell. With the TESC proposal presented in this paper, only 0.0015% of the RBs are
Telecom 2024, 5 62
allocated to broadcast the GM reference time, transmitted once every 5 s to all UEs in the
cell, and this rate remains constant regardless of the number of UEs. Consequently, this
option proves highly advantageous in scenarios where the number of UEs is high and
this
theyoption
requireproves highlylevel
an accuracy advantageous
of less thanin1 scenarios where in
µs. Conversely, thea conventional
number of UEs 5Gissystem
high
and they require an accuracy level of less than 1 µs. Conversely, in a conventional
with an accuracy level of 1 µs, the consumption of RBs increases as more UEs require 5G
system with an accuracy level of 1 µs, the consumption of RBs increases
synchronization. Furthermore, in a 5G system designed for 10 ns accuracy, the RB con- as more UEs
require
sumptionsynchronization. Furthermore,
rate experiences in a 5Gassystem
a rapid increase designed
the number for 10grows,
of UEs ns accuracy, the GM
since the RB
consumption rate experiences a rapid increase as
reference time has to be sent every 50 ms to every UE. the number of UEs grows, since the GM
reference time has to be sent every 50 ms to every UE.

Figure10.
Figure 10.Resource
ResourceBlock
Blockconsumption
consumption depending
depending onon
thethe number
number of UE
of UE for for different
different synchroniza-
synchronization
tion options.
options.

6.
6. Conclusions
Conclusions
This
Thispaper
paperhas hascomprehensively
comprehensively explored
exploredthethe
integration
integrationbetween 3GPP3GPP
between 5GS and
5GSTSNand
focusing on the advancements introduced in Releases 17 and 18. A significant
TSN focusing on the advancements introduced in Releases 17 and 18. A significant break- breakthrough
in this paper
through in thishas revolved
paper around around
has revolved a pioneering approach
a pioneering that places
approach synchronization
that places synchroni-
accuracy at its core while maximizing the utility of the slot indicator
zation accuracy at its core while maximizing the utility of the slot indicator signal. signal. The slot
The
indicator signalsignal
slot indicator has emerged as a critical
has emerged component
as a critical in achieving
component preciseprecise
in achieving synchronization.
synchroni-
A key innovation has been introduced, incorporating the strategic deployment of the
zation.
TSN Translator (SC-TT)has
A key innovation within
been the SC instead
introduced, of placing the
incorporating theloan of synchronization
strategic deployment of the on
the UE side. This novel approach revolutionizes the synchronization paradigm,
TSN Translator (SC-TT) within the SC instead of placing the loan of synchronization on improving
synchronization
the UE side. Thisaccuracy within the
novel approach range of 0.01the
revolutionizes to 1 µs. This transformative
µssynchronization use of
paradigm, improv-
the
ing synchronization accuracy within the range of 0.01 µs to 1 µs. This transformativeand
TSN translator at the SC level showcases the potential to expand the SC market use
accelerate
of the TSNthe deployment
translator at theofSC
thelevel
Industrial
showcasesInternet of Things.to expand the SC market and
the potential
In the the
accelerate conducted
deploymentnumerical
of theevaluations of the proposed
Industrial Internet of Things. method, adherence to 3GPP-
defined values of UE timing errors was ensured, allowing for a permissible
In the conducted numerical evaluations of the proposed method, adherence error range of up
to 3GPP-
to −
defined values of UE timing errors was ensured, allowing for a permissible error rangethe
+/ 0.1 ppm (0.2 µs clock drift per second). The analysis revealed that synchronizing of
UE in every slot maintained an accuracy of 10 ns, while longer resynchronization periods
up to +/−0.1 ppm (0.2 µs clock drift per second). The analysis revealed that synchronizing
led to the drift affecting accuracy after 50 ms. TESC usage showed the ability to sustain
the UE in every slot maintained an accuracy of 10 ns, while longer resynchronization pe-
the most accurate clock (10 ns) required for specific industrial applications. Additionally,
riods led to the drift affecting accuracy after 50 ms. TESC usage showed the ability to
the evaluation considered the impact of the number of UEs synchronized to the GM on
sustain the most accurate clock (10 ns) required for specific industrial applications. Addi-
RB consumption; with the proposed method, only 0.0015% of the RBs were allocated to
tionally, the evaluation considered the impact of the number of UEs synchronized to the
broadcast the GM reference time every 5 s, maintaining a constant consumption regardless
GM on RB consumption; with the proposed method, only 0.0015% of the RBs were
of the number of UEs. This proved advantageous in scenarios with a high number of
UEs requiring sub-1 µs accuracy, contrasting with conventional 5G systems where RB
consumption increases with the number of devices to be synchronized.
Telecom 2024, 5 63

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.B., O.C. and J.F.M.; methodology, F.B., O.C. and J.F.M.;
software, F.B., O.C. and J.F.M.; validation, F.B., O.C. and J.F.M.; formal analysis, F.B., O.C. and J.F.M.;
investigation, F.B., O.C., J.F.M., Y.F. and J.R.; resources, F.B., O.C., J.F.M. and N.C.; data curation, F.B.,
O.C. and J.F.M.; writing—original draft preparation, F.B., O.C., Y.F., J.R., J.F.M. and N.C.; writing—
review and editing, F.B., O.C. and J.F.M.; visualization, F.B., O.C. and J.F.M. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: Authors Faiza Bouchmal, Oscar Carrasco, Yang Fu and Jaime Rodrigo were
employed by the company Casa Syetems. The remaining authors declare that the research was
conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a
potential conflict of interest.

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