Simulating FCC upset operations

Examples are provided of FCC upset event consequences predicted by using FCC
performance simulation models

Tek Sutikno
Fluor Enterprises

M
ore than half of the world’s petroleum refineries
include a fluidised (or fluid) catalytic cracking (FCC)
operation generating 30-50% of the gasoline
product pool of a refinery. The FCC is typically one of the
most productive and profitable processing units among the
refining processes. Primarily by utilising the proper catalyst
type, product yield distribution can be modified for selec-
tively maximising the yield of the gasoline blending compo-
nents, light ends high in olefins, high-grade petrochemical
feedstocks, or LCO (feedstock for diesel). Light ends from
an FCC unit include propylene and olefins that are alkylated
to produce high-octane gasoline.
Likely due to its role in refinery profitability, an FCC unit
often operates at much higher throughput capacities rel-
ative to the original design capacity and yields a product
distribution significantly different from that of the original
yield target. Field implementation of the associated revamp
projects is typically completed during the scheduled turn-
around period. A hazard and operability (HAZOP) review
is normally necessary in each of these revamp projects to
examine the design and engineering of the revamp mod-
ifications and to assess upset/deviation cases that could
cause harm to people, environment or assets.
Representatives from operators, unit engineers, engi-
Various FCC performance models are reported in the liter-
ature. However, these models involving numerous parame-
ters are mathematically complex and likely time-consuming
to utilise for a particular FCC system, in addition to the likely
absence of a specific deviating parameter in the accessible
models. However, recent versions of commercial simula-
tors, such as Hysys Version 12, include FCC performance
models with reasonable details of operating parameters.
Performance model
The Hysys Version 12 FCC performance model discussed
herein is a steady-state model with several options appli-
cable to common FCC designs. The default parameter input
values in the Hysys model template are used and defined as
the base case. By changing one of the input variables in the
model, the operating consequences can be checked from the
calculation results. The results are the steady-state operation
and do not predict any actual or probable time-dependent
deviation or response before reaching the steady state.
Transient responses from a deviating parameter in an
upset event will depend on the control schemes, which
Reactor effluent
To flue gas
pressure PDC
to main fractionator

neering contractors, and subject matter experts (SME) control valve

are generally required to participate in the HAZOP review TC
meetings and are expected to describe the potential con-
sequences of an upset event where a process parameter To flue gas system
deviates from the normal or regulated level.
Reactor
Due to the complexity of the FCC reactor and regenerator
involving several essential operating parameters, conse-
LC
quences or operating impacts from a particular upset event Regenerator

may not be obviously known to the operators, the unit engi-

neer, or the SME, especially if they have not observed, expe-
rienced, or analysed the same or similar event in the FCC unit.
The unit engineer or the SME may likely need time to eval- Stripping
steam
uate the upset consequences using an FCC performance or
simulation model. However, the performance or simulation
model for the FCC reactor and regenerator in a revamp or
new project is commonly developed by the licensor or/and FC
Regen. Cat.
the catalyst vendor and not accessible to the engineering slide valve Feed steam
contractor. In these cases, the unit engineer or SME will Spent Cat.
slide valve
need to work with the licensor to assess the upset conse- Main air blower/
compressor Lift steam/gas
quences. Based on the severity levels of the consequences,
the required protective measures are discussed and speci-
fied in the layers of protection analysis (LOPA). Figure 1 FCC control scheme

www.digitalrefining.com February 2024 1

 Summary of example upset case consequences

Base case Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5

Lower cat. Lower Higher Higher Lower
circulation combustion stripping feed feed
rate air flow steam flow steam flow temp.
Flow rate, BPD 37,739 37,739 37,739 37,739 37,739 37,739
lb/hr 508,373 508,373 508,373 508,373 508,373 508,373
Temperature to riser, ºF 347 347 347 347 347 327
Steam to riser, lb/hr 10,124 10,125 10,124 10,124 20,255 10,124
Stripping steam, lb/hr 13,879 13,879 13,879 16,656 13,879 13,879
Reactor
Plenum temp, °F 1,013 1,003 1,013 1,013 989 1,013
Top pressure, psig 49.3 49.3 49.3 49.3 49.3 49.3
Catalyst circulation rate, lb/hr 4,596,476 4,472,270 4,616,501 4,953,155 4,591,363 4,643,976
Catalyst-to-oil ratio 9.076 8.829 9.113 9.779 9.062 9.169
Coke yield, wt% 6.569 6.499 6.563 6.582 6.381 6.644
Delta coke, wt% 0.716 0.728 0.712 0.666 0.697 0.717
Regenerator
Dense bed temp. ºF 1,373.8 1,369.0 1,372.0 1,348.3 1,341.1 1,374.9
Outlet temp. °F 1,381.1 1,376.8 1,374.3 1,356.2 1,349.7 1,381.7
Outlet pressure, psig 53.7 53.7 53.7 53.7 53.7 53.7
Combustion air, lb/hr 461,890 461,890 438,796 461,890 461,890 461,890
Flue gas, O₂, vol% 1.00 1.23 0.11 1.07 1.58 0.77
CO, vol% (dry) 0.08 0.05 0.48 0.11 0.06 0.12
CO₂, vol% (dry) 16.77 16.62 17.24 16.79 16.30 16.93
SOx, vol% (dry) 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04
CO₂, lb/hr 111,484 110,563 108,845 111,797 108,460 112,447
SOx, lb/hr 428.6 413.8 426.4 437.2 385.0 434.6
Yields/conversions
Conversion, vol% 76.83 75.26 76.62 77.77 72.18 76.96
Conversion, wt% 75.71 74.15 75.49 76.65 71.08 75.84
Propylene, lb/hr 30,881 29,067 30,725 31,108 26,619 30,874
Cat. naphtha (gasoline), lb/hr 199,372 201,571 199,097 203,101 199,362 199,703
LCO, lb/hr 68,174 71,939 68,600 66,100 77,864 67,874

Table 1

may differ from one FCC unit to another. Applications of
the model for predicting the consequences of an upset
case need to be consistent with the control schemes of
the system being analysed. Figure 1 is an example of an
FCC control scheme where the combustion air flows to the
regenerator that is on flow control, and the combustion air
flow rate to the regenerator will need to be kept constant
in the performance model when using the model to assess
the impact of different deviating process parameters.
The Hysys Version 12 FCC performance model includes
physical dimensions of the reactor and regenerator, feed
composition and characteristics, operating parameters
including common reaction kinetic parameters, catalyst
selection, and details of the reaction. Property data of
hydrocarbon feeds, typically ranging from the gasoil frac-
tion of the crude oil to heavier feedstocks, including atmos-
pheric resid, vacuum gasoils, and/or vacuum resids, can be
input into the model. The calculated results from the Hysys
model include fairly comprehensive parameters similar to
those normally provided by the licensor.
With the proper input data, the results from the model can
be useful for analysing the upset conditions or off-design
operating performances. For further elaboration, examples
are provided of upset events from five different deviating
parameters: catalyst circulation rate, combustion air flow
rate, stripping steam flow rate, steam feed rate, and feed
temperature to the riser. These five were chosen as illustra-
tive examples, but other upset events can also be modelled.
The simulated consequences from the upset events
discussed herein are intended to show the resulting oper-
ational changes at the steady-state condition and have
not been checked against the actual field operating data.
Moreover, for extreme or severe upset cases such as loss
of flow, the model will not be applicable directly to these
cases, which typically result in activating the shutdown
system. However, the model can be used to generate ref-
erence data likely useful for developing a dynamic model,
which is typically needed to determine the process safety
time available for system shutdown.
Catalyst circulation rate
Catalyst circulation rate is an essential parameter or vari-
able determined by the heat balance between the reactor
and the regenerator. An FCC reactor involves both exo-
thermic and endothermic reactions, resulting in a net total
endothermic reaction.
The heat required for increasing the sensible heat of the
feed, vaporisation, and the net endothermic reaction is sup-
plied by the temperature drop of the circulating catalysts as
they pass through the reactor. The resulting catalyst-to-oil
ratio (C/O) affects the cracking reaction yield conversions
and reactor temperatures. With increasing C/O, active sites

2 February 2024 www.digitalrefining.com

increase to cause more cracking and higher conversion
of gasoil, and the yield of fuel gases and coke increases.
Common parameters such as coke yield and delta coke (wt%
difference between the spent catalyst and the regenerated
catalyst) can be related to C/O. For a given FCC reactor and
regenerator system with the same feed rate and characteris-
tics, the catalyst (regenerator) circulation rate increases with
changes in process conditions such as higher reactor riser
temperature, lower feed preheat, or others demanding addi-
tional heat input to the reactor.
While the Hysys model includes fairly complete input and
output parameters commonly used in FCC performance
modelling, only some are displayed in this discussion. As an
example of upset cases in the normal catalyst circulation rates
in Case 1, Table 1 shows the changes or consequences rela-
tive to the base case when the catalyst circulation rate in Case
1 reduces by 2.7% (arbitrary, about 120,000 lb/hr reduction).
This reduction decreases the C/O, the reactor temperature
(1,013-1,003ºF), and, expectedly, the total conversion.
Due to the decreased catalyst circulation, the resulting
delta coke in Case 1 increases slightly to satisfy the system
heat balance even at the reduced reaction temperature of
1,003ºF, and the resulting coke yield (equal to delta coke x
C/O) decreases slightly. For FCC units with control schemes
similar to Figure 1, the air flow rate from the main air blower
will remain essentially unchanged when a lower set point for
reactor temperature reduces the catalyst circulation rate.
Compared to the base case, Case 1 in Table 1 shows a
reduced yield conversion, mainly with lower propylene and
slightly higher yields for cat naphtha and LCO. This yield
distribution varies depending on the selectivity and activity
of the catalysts selected. The Hysys model contains several
options for catalyst types to select.
Modern catalysts can accumulate some quantities of coke
and still maintain significant activity. Recent revamp options
include recycling fractions of the spent catalysts (or car-
bonised catalyst) from the stripper back to the reactor riser.
The Hysys model also includes this recycling option, which
offers the flexibility of increasing the C/O in the reactor riser
to increase conversion and selectivity without significantly
impacting the system heat balance.
Combustion air flow
Case 2 in Table 1 shows the calculated results for operation
when the combustion air flow rate from the main air blower
to the regenerator is reduced by 5%, relative to that for the
base case. As shown, flue gas oxygen content drops from
1 vol% in the base case to 0.11 vol% in Case 2, and CO con-
tent in flue gas increases from 0.08 vol% in the base case
to 0.48 vol% in Case 2, which is six times higher due to less
excess oxygen. The regenerator will operate in partial burn if
combustion air further reduces to below 0% excess oxygen
in the flue gas. With reduced inlet air flow in Case 2, CO₂
vol% increases in Case 2 compared to that in the base case.
Reduction of O₂ vol% in flue gas to 0.11 vol% in Case 2
decreases flue gas temperature rise in the regenerator dilute
phase due to afterburning of CO, as depicted by a lower regen-
erator flue gas temperature of 1,374ºF in Case 2 vs 1,381ºF in
the base case. Additionally, combustion air to the regenerator
www.digitalrefining.com
in each case of Table 1 does not include any oxygen enrich-
ment, but this option is available in the Hysys FCC model.
Reactor feed streams (hydrocarbon and steam) and out-
let temperature do not change from the base case to Case
2, and heat transferred from the regenerator to the reactor
through the circulating catalyst remains about the same for
both the base case and Case 2. The combusted amount of
coke on spent catalysts mainly converted to CO₂ (in full burn
operation) to supply required heat remains essentially the
same for the base case and Case 2, as shown in the essen-
tially unchanged coke yield data (coke combusted in regen-
erator relative to the feed rate).
Stripping steam
Case 3 in Table 1 shows the calculated results from the Hysys
model for operating with a stripping steam rate 20% higher
than the base case. This high stripping steam rate could occur
because of operator action or the control valve sticking open.
The increased stripping steam rate reduces the amount of
heavy hydrocarbons or coke on the spent catalyst, leaving
the stripper and recycling back to the regenerator. As the
reactor feed rate and outlet temperature in Case 3 remain
the same as those in the base case, the reduced combus-
tibles on the spent catalyst to the regenerator increase the
required catalyst circulation rate by about 7.7% to generate
the unchanging heat demand of the reactor and decrease
delta coke by about 7%.
As shown in Table 1, the Hysys model results in increasing
the conversion from 76.83 vol% in the base case to 77.77
vol% in Case 3, mainly due to the increase in catalyst circula-
tion rate or C/O. Relative to the base case, mass flow yields
for propylene and naphtha are respectively 0.7% and 1.9%
higher, with a reduced yield of -3.0% for LCO.
Steam feed rate
The FCC reactor typically includes several steam feed streams,
including those for catalyst transfer line aeration, feed atomi-
sation, riser lift and emergency purge, stripping, and others
such as instrument purging. When the control valve for one
of these steam feed streams malfunctions and becomes wide
open, the total steam rate feeding the reactor will increase.
Case 4 in Table 1 shows the results when the steam feed rate
to the riser increases by 100%. The steam feed rate could
potentially increase by higher than 100% of the normal rate if
the emergency steam control valve becomes wide open.
Steam feeding the reactor is superheated, but the temper-
ature is much lower than the riser operating temperature.
The sensible heat required to raise the steam temperature
in the riser comes from the regenerated catalysts entering
the riser. When the steam flow rate to the riser increases,
the riser and reactor temperatures could drop before the
regenerated catalyst flow rate increases to a level adequate
for reaching and maintaining the reactor normal set tem-
perature. Case 4, with the same catalyst circulation rate as
that in the base case, shows the reactor (plenum) temper-
ature drops from 1,013ºF in the base case to 989ºF when
the steam feed to the riser increases by 100%. The Hysys
model shows the conversion yield reduces from 76.83 vol%
in the base case to 72.18 vol% in Case 4.
February 2024 3
 The reduced conversion yield in Case 4 has a 14% reduc-
tion in the propylene yield and virtually none in the naph-
tha yield, based on the selected catalyst type in the model.
Moreover, a higher total steam feed rate to the reactor will
increase the hydraulic load to the downstream system and
could result in a pressure surge in the reactor and the asso-
ciated systems.
Feed temperature to riser
Hydrocarbon feed to the FCC reactor typically passes
through a preheat system, receiving heat rejected from
exchangers in the downstream system. Excessive exchanger
fouling or malfunctioning of the exchanger bypass control
system could reduce the temperature of the reactor feed.
Case 5 in Table 1 shows the Hysys model results for oper-
ation with 20ºF less feed temperature to the reactor riser.
With the reactor temperature kept the same in the mod-
els for both Case 5 and the base case, more heat is needed
in Case 5 to compensate for the 20ºF drop in the feed inlet
temperature, and the catalyst circulation increases by about
1% in Case 5 relative to that in the base case.
The resulting higher C/O from the increase in the catalyst
circulation rate in Case 5 also leads to a slightly higher yield
conversion. With the combustion air flow rate set the same
in the models for Case 5 and the base case, the higher cat-
alysts circulation rate in Case 5 reduces the excess oxygen
content of the flue gas from the regenerator, and the vol% of
CO and CO2 in the flue gas also increases. Compared to the
base case, the Case 5 model calculates a slightly higher delta
coke and about 0.8% higher CO2 emission.
Conclusion
Based on the upset events due to process parameter
4 February 2024
changes previously discussed, the FCC model in Hysys
seems useful for predicting reasonable details of perfor-
mance consequences resulting from the selected upset
events. The model apparently includes reaction kinet-
ics parameters to calculate yield distributions, flue gas
compositions, and heat balances at varying operating
conditions.
Several catalyst type options with varying selectivity
performances for specific yield distribution targets are also
available in the model, along with the design and operat-
ing options, such as combustion air oxygen enrichment
and recycling a fraction of spent catalyst to the reactor
riser. Utilising the model to simulate these options has not
been included in this discussion but may be considered.
Moreover, fine-tuning the model input parameters and ver-
ifying the calculation results against actual operating data
could likely make the model useful for quantitative assess-
ment of consequences from upset events or for process
design analysis and optimisation.
Tek Sutikno is a Process Engineering Manager with Fluor and a
Professional Engineer registered in 11 US states with more than 35
years of experience in the process industries. He holds BSc, MSc, and
DEngr degrees in chemical engineering and a MBA degree, all from the
University of Kansas. Email: tek.sutikno@fluor.com
LINKS
More articles from the following categories:
Energy Efficiency and Energy Management
Fluid Catalytic Cracking
Process Modelling and Simulation
www.digitalrefining.com