Appe ndicular

Skeleton
OBJECTIVES MATERIALS
1 Identify the bones of the appendicular skeleton • articulated skeletons or use Real Anatomy (Skeletal)
and be able to identify selected bones as right • disarticulated skeletons
or left
• small plastic straws (coffee stirrers) or pipe
2 Identify the principal bone markings of the cleaners for pointers
pectoral (shoulder) girdle and the upper limb
• tape measure
3 Describe the articulation of the pectoral girdle
with the humerus
4 Describe the articulation of the humerus with
the forearm bones
5 Identify the bone markings of the pelvic girdle
and the lower limbs
6 Describe the articulation of the bones of the
pelvic girdle with the femur
7 Describe the articulation of the femur with
the leg bones
8 Determine gender and height using femur
measurements
9 Determine height using the length of the radius
or the humerus

T he appendicular skeleton (appendere = to

hang upon) has larger bones than the axial skeleton
and bears more weight. The bones of this division
are separated into four main areas: the pectoral girdles
(pectus = breast; girdle = encircles), the upper limbs
(extremities), the pelvic girdle (pelvis = basin), and the
lower limbs. The bone markings include sites of muscle
attachment and articulations with other bones to fonn a joint.
Bone surface markings that pertain to the appendicular
skeleton are give n in Table 10.1.

139
140 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

TABLE 10 . 1 Seleded Bone Surface Markings of the Appendicular Skeleton

MARKING DESCRIPTION PURPOSE

1. Foramen Opening or hole Opening for blood vessels and nerves

2. Fossa Shallow depression Muscle attachment or articulation
3. Crest Prominent ridge Muscle attachment
4. Condyle Smooth, rounded articular process Articulation
5. Epicondyle Projection above a condyle Muscle attachment
6. Head Rounded articular projection supported on the Articulation
neck of a bone
7. Line Long, narrow ridge (less prominent than a crest) Muscle attachment
8. Trochanter Very large projection Muscle attachment
9. Tubercle Small, rounded projection Muscle attachment
10. Tuberosity Large, roughened projection Muscle attachment

A. The Pectoral Girdle
There are 2 pectoral girdles, and each attaches an upper
limb to the axial skeleton. Each pectoral (or shoulder) girdle
is composed of a scapula and a clavicle (clavicle = key)
(Figure 10.1).
Clavicle (collar bone)
• sternal end-blunt, medial end
• acromial end (acrom- = topmost)-broader, flat,
roughened, lateral end
Scapula (shoulder blade)
• spine--sharp ridge located on posterior side
• acromion-flattened process at lateral end of spine
• glenoid cavity (glene = joint socket) or fossa-
depression inferior to acromion
■tj:iQi¢hN• The Pedoral Girdle
• coracoid process (coracoid = crow's beak)-superior
and medial to glenoid cavity; projects anteriorly
• supraspinous fossa (supra- = above; spinous =
spine)-depression superior to spine
• infraspinous fossa (infra- = below)--depression
inferior to spine
• subscapular fossa (sub- = underHepression on
anterior surface of scapula
• lateral or axillary border-margin near axilla
• medial or vertebral border-margin near vertebral
column
To form the pectoral girdle, the acromial end of the clavi-
cle articulates with the acromion (acromial process) of the
scapula laterally. The pectoral girdle is attached to the axial
skeleton by the articulation of the sternal end of the clavicle
with the manubrium of the sternum. The scapula does not
articulate directly with the axial skeleton but is attached to
it with muscles.
Before Going to Lab
1 Label the parts of the clavicle and scapula in Figure
l0.2(a), (b), and (c).
1 Identify the bones and bone markings in Figure 10.2 on
disarticulated bones or use the search text box to locate
these structures in Real Anatomy (Skeletal).
2 Palpate these structures on your own body: clavicle,
acromion (process), spine of scapula, and muscles
located in the supraspinous and infraspinous fossae.
3 Distinguish between right and left scapula.
• Spine of scapula is superior and posterior.
• Glenoid cavity is laterally located. ■

Q
~
Pactmal g;m•,

Clavicle
Scapula
---=-
~ .:,,. .i..~. •
1
Clavicle--..,.... :·

'►-: Scapula --,:_

i;.
~-!J~~
!"'"':-<'

Jtr~-~(a) Anterior view

< t" ~ '
(b) Posterior view

FIGURE 10. 1 Pectoral girdle.

 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON 141

1
/~ . . . . 2
;J
(a) Clavicle, mfenor view

SUPERIOR

Supraspinous - - - -

i
Coracoid - - -
process fossa
Spine-------- Glenoid
Glenoid cavity ......-----:,;j
cavity
s,0sca,,,~ fos~
lnfraspinous ----,-~
fossa
Lateral - - - - -
(axillary) border
Medial (vertebral)
LATERAL / border

MEDIAL
SUPERIOR SUPERIOR

4
9
5 Superior
angle
10

7
6

MEDIAL

Inferior angle

(b) Scapula, anterior view (c) Scapula, posterior view

(a) Clavicle • coracoid (COR-a-coid) process (c) Scapula, posterior view
• acromial (a-CROHM-ee-al) end • glenoid (GLEN-oid) cavity or fossa • acromion or acromial process
• sternal end • lateral (axillary) border • glenoid cavity
• medial (vertebral) border • infraspinous (in-fra-SPINE-us) fossa
(b) Scapula, anterior view
• subscapular (sub-SCAP-u-lar) fossa • spine of scapula
• acromion (a-CROW-mee-yon) or
• supraspinous (su-pra-SPINE-ous) fossa
acromial process
acromion
distal end 6 _lateral
___ border
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
11 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
proximal
2 __ ___ end
_ _ _ _ _ _ __ subscapular
7 __ _ _ _ _fossa
_ _ _ _ _ __ 12 _spine
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
acromion
3 __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ medial border glenoid cavity
8 __ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
13 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
coracold 9 _ _supraspinous
_ _ _ _ _fossa
_ _ _ _ __
4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

5 _ _glenoid
_ _ _cavity
_ _ _ _ _ _ __ infraspinous fossa
10 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

FIGURE 10.2 The right pedoral girdle.

142 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
B. The Upper Limb
The upper limb consists of the humerus, ulna, radius,
carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges. Of the 30 bones in
each upper limb, 1 is in the arm, 2 in the forearm, and the
other 27 are in the hand (includes wrist).
1. Humerus (Arm Bone)
• head-rounded, proximal end
• anatomical neck--constriction immediately distal
to head
• greater tubercle (tuber= swelling)-lateral projec-
tion distal to anatomical neck
• lesser tubercle---smaller, anterior projection distal to
anatomical neck
• intertubercular sulcus-groove between the two
tubercles
• surgical neck--constriction distal to the tubercles;
fractured more frequently than anatomical neck
• deltoid tuberosity-raised area on lateral side
between the proximal and distal ends of humerus
• trochlea (trochlea = pulley)-spool-shaped medial
condyle on distal end
• capitulum (caput = head)-rounded, knob-like
condyle lateral to trochlea
• medial epicondyle (epi- = upon)-rough projection
proximal and lateral to trochlea
• lateral epicondyle---rough projection proximal and
lateral to capitulum; smaller than medial epicondyle
• radial fossa-anterior depression on distal end that
receives the radial head when forearm flexed
• coronoid fossa (corona = crown)-shallow anterior
depression on distal end; receives coronoid process
of ulna when forearm flexed
• olecranon fossa (olekranon = tip of the elbow)-
largest depression on posterior, distal end; receives
olecranon process of ulna when forearm flexed
2 . Ulna (Medial Bone of Forearm)
• olecranon-large, curved, lip-like projection on
posterior side of proximal end
• coronoid process-smaller, curved, lip-like
projection on anterior side of proximal end; distal to
olecranon
• trochlear notch--<leep, curved area between
olecranon and coronoid process where trochlea of
humerus articulates with ulna
• styloid process (stylos = pole; -oid = like)-slender,
pointed projection on distal end
• radial notch--<lepression on proximal end where
head of radius articuJates with ulna
3 . Radius (Lateral Bone of Forearm)
• head-flat, disc-shaped proximal end
• radial tuberosity-rough, anterior projection on
medial side just distal to the head
• styloid process-slender, pointed projection;
distal end
4. Shoulder and Elbow Joints
The shoulder joint that connects the upper limb to the
pectoral girdle is formed by the head of the humerus
(humeri = shoulder), articulating with the glenoid cavity
of the scapula. The elbow joint is formed by the articula-
tion of the coronoid process and olecranon process of the
ulna into the coronoid and olecranon fossae of the humerus
and by the trochlea of the humerus with the trochlear notch
of the ulna. At the elbow joint, the head of the radius articu-
lates with the capitulum of the humerus and with the radial
notch of the ulna at the proximal radioulnar joint.
Before Going to Lab
1 Label the parts of the humerus in Figure l0.3(a) and (b)
and the ulna and radius in Figure l0.4(a) and (b).
■@=£Gib1H·fj The Arm and Forearm
1 Identify the bones and bone markings in Figures 10.3
and 10.4 on disarticulated bones, articulated skeleton, or
use the search text box to locate these structures in Real
Anatomy (Skeletal).
2 Palpate the following bone parts on your own body:
medial and lateral epicondyle of the humerus, olecranon
of the ulna, and styloid processes of the radius and ulna.
3 Distinguish between the right and left humerus.
• The trochlea and the capitulum are on the anterior
surface of the distal end of the humerus.
• The olecranon fossa is on the posterior surface of the
distal end of the humerus.
• The head is medially located on the proximal end of
the humerus. ■
 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON 143

Anatomical neck ~
Lesser :---._ "--.._ L ~
tubercle -::::::,..,_: - ~ ,1 Greater

T(
Greater _ _
/ . !!!!!!!!:,,,,,~- Head tubercle
tubercle ...- i........._ _ Surgical - -,,;,..!'!I!!!! Anatomical
lntertubercular \ neck ~ neck
sulcus (groove)
- - Scapula - -
,__ _ _ _ _+-Humerus---=-----,----

7J Deltoid - -'--
tuberosity
-"- '' - - - - -"!

(a) Anterior view J u Body-------

L
(shatt)
• anatomical neck

~
• capitulum (ca-PIT-u-lum)
• coronoid (COR-a-noid) fossa
: : : I~ , Coronoid fossa Olecranon fossa
• deltoid tuberosity
(tu-ber-OS-ity)
ep1cond~ ~
Capitulum ____l_
::~==.-=_------- Medial epicondyle _____
i_
Lateral
~ Olecranon
epicondyle
• greater tubercle __, _ __ - Trochlea
Head l' Coronoid process
(TU-ber-cul)
• head \ Radius
• intertubercular (in-ter-tu-BER-
L----------Ulna---------- l\
cue-lar) sulcus
• lateral epicondyle Anterior view Posterior view
(epi-CON-dile)
• lesser tubercle
• medial epicondyle
• trochlea

greater tubercle

2 _ _intertubercular
______ sulcus
_ __ SUPERIOR SUPERIOR
lesser tubrcle
3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
1---- ----6----
lateral epicondyle 2----
4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
3 -----
----7----
s __________
capitulum _ Surgical neck

6 _ _ _head
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

7 _ _ _anatomical
_____ neck
_ _ __
deltoid
8 ___ ___ neck
_ _ _ __ '----- 8 - - - -

coronoid fossa
9 -----------
medial epicondyle
10 - - - - - - - - - - -
trochlea
11 - - - - -------

(b) Posterior view

• lateral epicondyle
• medial epicondyle
• olecranon (o-LEH-cra-non)
fossa
olecron fossa = Radial Iossa C

12 - - - - - - - - - - - ~ 4 - - - - - 14 ~
0 ]!
medial epicondyle z
11
13 - -- - - - - - -- :::;:
3
~ 5 - - - - -----~
LATERAL MEDIAL
lateral epicondyle
14 - - - - - - - - - - - (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

FIGURE 10.3 Right humerus.

144 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

,~ Olecranon
Trochlear notch
L Humerus- \
· , ,_ Coronoid process
• - - - - 1 _ Radial notch Olecranon
fossa
IP.if-- - Ulnar tuberosity Capitulum ----iL 1 -''iZ!!'-_eo_T,~~i~1~~ssa Olecranon
Head of radius - -~ Coronoid process He~d of
. l"' radius
Neck of radius - Ulnar tuberosity N k f
. ~ '---- Radial tuberosify ra~~us°
Radius - - - - .11
Radius

- -----Ulna-----

lnterosseous
membrane
Head of ulna f
1 Styloid
process
Styloid process - - - -~ ~- - of ulna ho-~- - - Styloid
of radius -5'.:wi.il'l.~ i--- - - -- Carpals -----1 process
of radius

Lateral Medial
1'(
\; Lateral
']

Anterior view Posterior view

(a) Anterior view
• coronoid process
• head of radius
• olecranon (process) SUPERIOR SUPERIOR
• radial notch
• radial tuberosity
4
• styloid (STY-loid) process
of radius
• styloid process of ulna
• trochlear notch (semilunar)
2 7
head of radius
radial tuberosity
2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

3 _ _styloid
_ _ _process
____ of _
radius
__
olecranon
4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
10
s ___________
trochlear notch _
6 _ _coronoid
____ process
_ _ _ _ __

radial
7 ___ __ notch
_ _ _ _ _ __

8 _ _styloid
_ _ _process
____ of _ __
ulna

(b) Posterior view LATERAL

• radius =
it
• ulna
~3 - - - -
9 ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
ulna ~
::E

10 - -radius
--------- (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

FIGURE 10.4 Right ulna and radius.

 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON 145

5. Carpus (Wrist) to the little finger. The thumb has 2 phalanges, proximal and
distal. Digits II through V each have proximal, middle, and
The carpus is composed of 8 short bones of the wrist, the
distal phalanges (phalanx = closely knit row).
carpal bones, which are lined up to form a proximal and a
distal row of bones. Two of the carpal bones articulate with
the radius, but there is no articulation of the carpal bones
with the ulna. Before Going to Lab
1 Label the bo.nes of the hand in Figure 10.5. For each
6. Metacarpus (Palm of Hand) phalanx, include the Roman numeral.
The metacarpus is composed of 5 metacarpal bones that
make up the palm of the hand. They are numbered as

■@:£ij•@•A• The Hand

Roman numerals I to V from the metacarpal of the thumb
(lateral side) to the little finger. The metacarpals articu-
late with the carpals proximally and with the phalanges
distally.
7. Phalanges (Fingers)
The phalanges (phalanx, sing.) make up the fingers or digits.
The fingers are also numbered I to V from the thumb (pollex)
1 Identify the bones of the hand in Figure 10.5 on an
articulated hand, articulated skeleton, or use the search
text box to locate these structures in Real Anatomy
(Skeletal).
2 Identify and palpate the bones in Figure I0.5 on
yourself. ■

Radius
Capitate
Scaphold
Trapezium~
\

;._
Ulna
Lunate
~ Triquetrum
- Pisiform
Ulna --v--- .
Radius

Carpals
Trapezoid ~ ~ Hamate

/ 1 I ; ' },1aoa.,.1, ~ -~
I
~
~">.
•1~ y
f-; J W
.l
w-
,_m,I ]
Middle Phalanges ,_f w
\{
I W
J r ,( I L Distal u u\( rr~ v;
Lateral
( ~ 7 Medial
·1 Lateral

Palm anterior Palm posterior

• carpals
• distal phalanx (FAY-lanx) V
• metacarpals (meta-CAR-puls)
• middle phalanx V
• proximal phalanx V

carpals
metacarpals
2 __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

3 _ _proximal
_ _ _ phalanx
_ _ _ _ __
1
:iLATERAL 4 _ _middle
___ phalanx
_ _ _ _ __
i
Anterior view 5 _ _distal
_ _phalanx
_ _ _ _ _ __

FIGURE 10.5 Right hand and wrist.

146 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
C. Bones and Selected Bone
Markings of the Pelvic Girdle
The pelvic girdle (pelvis = basin) is composed of 2 hip
(coxal) bones called the ossa coxae (os- = bone; cox- =
hip) that attach the lower limb to the axial skeleton. Each
os coxa is formed by the fusion of 3 separate bones: the
ilium (ilia = flank), ischium (ischion = hip joint), and
pubis (pub- = grown up or adult) bones. These 3 bones
are identifiable as separate bones in children.
1. Os Coxa
ilium-largest and most superior of the three components
ofoscoxa
• iliac crest-superior border of ilium
• anterior superior iliac spine-anterior end of iliac
crest
• anterior inferior iliac spine-inferior to the anterior
superior iliac spine
• posterior superior iliac spine-posterior end of
iliac crest
• posterior inferior iliac spine-inferior to the posterior
superior iliac spine
• greater sciatic notch-large, posterior notch
• iliac fossa--depression on anterior surface
ischium-inferior, posterior portion of os coxa
• ischial tuberosity-large, roughened projection on
inferior surface; hurts after sitting on hard surface for
prolonged period
• ischial spine-posterior projection between greater
and lesser sciatic notches
• lesser sciatic notch-smaller indentation between
ischial spine and ischial tuberosity
pubis--anterior inferior portion of os coxa
• pubic symphysis (symphysis = growing together)-
joint where the two pubic bones join anteriorly
bone markings formed by ilium, ischium, and pubis
• acetabulum (acetabulum = little saucer)--deep
indentation, or cup, for head of the femur; formed by
fusion of ilium, pubis, and ischium
• obturator foramen-largest foramen in the skeleton;
formed by fusion of pubis and ischium
2. Pelvis
• pelvic brim-divides the false pelvis from the
true pelvis; begins at the sacral promontory and
extends laterally and inferiorly to end at the pubic
symphysis
• false pelvis-portion of pelvis superior to pelvic
brim; wide area extending to top of iliac crest
• true pelvis-portion of pelvis inferior to pelvic
brim; surrounds the pelvic cavity
• pelvic inlet-superior opening of true pelvis;
bordered by pelvic brim
• pelvic outlet-inferior opening of true pelvis;
bordered by the coccyx, ischial spines, and ischial
tuberosities
There are definite anatomical differences between the
male and female pelves (pl.). The bones of the male are
typically heavier and rougher, with larger bone markings
than the female. The male pelvis is more vertical and nar-
rower, has a pelvic inlet that is heart-shaped, and has a 90°
or less pubic arch angle. The female pelvis generally has
more space in the true pelvis for childbirth and is tilted
backward. The pelvic inlet is round or oval, the angle of
the pubic arch is generally greater than 90°, and the angle
of the sciatic notch is wider.
The pelvic girdle articulates with the axial skeleton at
the sacroiliac joints (sacro- = sacrum; iliac = ilium).
The sacroiliac joints are located where the articulated ossa
coxae unite posteriorly with the sacrum.
Before Going to Lab
1 Label the bones and bone markings of an os coxa in
Figure 10.6.
2 Label the bones and bone markings of the pelvis in
Figure IO.7.
■fJ=f45i¢hfi• Os Coxa and Pelvis
1 Identify the bones and bone markings in Figures 10.6 and
10.7 on a disarticulated os coxa, an articulated pelvis, or
use the search text box to locate these structures in Real
Anatomy (Skeletal).
2 Distinguish between the right and left os coxa.
• The iliac crest is on the superior part of the os coxa.
• The ischium is the inferior and posterior part of the
os coxa.
• The pubic bone is on the anterior and medial part of
the os coxa.
• The acetabulum is on the lateral part of the os coxa.
3 Palpate the iliac crest, the anterior superior iliac spine,
and the pubic symphysis on your own body.
4 Locate these markings on an articulated pelvis or skeleton.
5 Identify the differences between male and female pelves
on models or articulated skeletons. ■
 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON 147

0---
-,-- - - - - - Iliac crest

Ilium
~
-rio,~-,
iliac spine

Posterior •, \ - - Anterior inferior

superior t_ ~ iliac spine
iliac spine ~

Posterior
inferior
- ~I
~/ '
~ \ Acetabulum
iliac spine )
Greater sciatic notch _ .

lschial spine - ~
Lesser sciatic notch - - - - - } - - - - Obturator foramen
• acetabulum (asa-TAB-u-lum)
lschial tuberosity - - - - - - - ~ -
• anterior inferior iliac spine
• anterior superior iliac spine
• greater sciatic (sigh-A-tic) notch
• iliac crest
• ilium (IL-lee-um)
• ischial (ISH-ee-ul) spine
• ischial tuberosity (tu-ber-0S-ity)
SUPERIOR • ischium (ISH-ee-um)
• lesser sciatic notch
• obturator (OB-tur-a-tur) foramen
10 • posterior inferior iliac spine
• posterior superior iliac spine
POSTERIOR
• pubis (PYU-bis)

(Bone)
illim

11
2 _posterior
____ _ _iliac
super __ _ __
spine

2------ posterior inferior iliac spine

3 -------------
greater sciatic notch
4 -------------
3------ 12
ischial
5 __ _ _tuberosity
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
4 ischial spine
6 - ------------
5 (Bone) __
-----.--.:... lesser sciatic notch
13 7 -------------
6- -- - - - obturator foramen
8 -------------
7 ischium
9 -------------
Iliac chest
10 - - - - - - - - - - - -
a----- anterior superior iliac spine
11 - - - - - - - - - - - -
12 _ _anterior
____ inferior
___ iliac
_spine
_ __
9 - -----
acetabulum
13 - - - - - - - - - - -
Lateral view
14 _ _pubis
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

FIGURE 10.6 Right os coxa.

 148 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Ilium----,----- ~~ lliaccrest

- - - -- - Iliac fossa

False
~ ~
r-=---- Anterior superior
~~
Sacrum - - - - - ' - - - -~ - -'-'-- ----

~ . . -... /.:L.- ' ,--;_.!..{_____ Pelvic brim

~ l lschial spine
Coccyx

.., 1•
,rue pev1s -
-----\;¥: \_ ~J_~•~ ·
I ,.•·
lschium _ _ _ _ _ _.,...
\
,1
7_
-~ll
J/
· _ ~....._ '\. ...~--,----
I
..,....,__,.______
,.•7• ~,.
"T_______
Acetabulum
Obturator foramen
Pubic symphysis
Pubis / ~.,.....,___ _ _...,.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ Pubic arch
·'-.__/;-// ~ "-._,., <i

ANTERIOR
Male pelvis

10

11
12
13
3
14

4
5

ANTERIOR ANTERIOR
(a) Superior view of female pelvis (b) Superior view of male pelvis

(a) Female pelvis • pelvic bri m (b) Male pelvis • sacroiliac (say-crow-lLL-ee-
• false pelvis • pubic symphysis (PYU-bic • coccyx (COCK-six) ac) joint
• iliac crest SYM-fah-sis) • false pelvis • sacrum (SAY-crum)
• ilium • pubis • ischial spine • true pelvis
• ischial spine • true pelvis • pubis

ilium 5 _pubic
_ _symphysis
_ _ _ _ __ 9 _ischial
___ _ _ _ __
spine coccyx
13 - - - - - - - - -
2 _ iliac
_ _crest
_ _ _ _ __ 6 _false
_ _pelvis
_ _ _ _ __ 10 _false
_ _pelvis
_ _ _ _ __ true
14 _ _ _pelvis
_ _ _ _ __

sacroiliac pubis
3 _pelvic
___ brim
_ _ _ __ 7 _true
_ _ribs
_ _ _ _ __ 15 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
11 - - - - - - - - -
4 _ischial
___ _ _ _ __
spine 8 _ pubis
_ _ _ _ _ _ __ sacrum
12 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

FIGURE 10.7 Pelvis.


D. Bones and Selected Bone
Markings of the Lower Limb
The lower limb consists of bones of the remur, patella,
tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and the phalanges. Of
the 30 bones in each lower limb, 4 are in the thigh and leg,
and the other 26 are in the foot (including ankle).
1. Femur (Thigh Bone)
The femur is the largest and strongest bone in the human
skeleton. This bone is bowed anteriorly in a slight curve.
• head-large, rounded, knob-like proximal end
• neck-narrower, constriction distal to head
• greater trochanter (trochanter = runner)-large
and roughened superior projection; lateral to neck
• lesser trochanter-smaller, posterior-medial
prominence distal to greater trochanter
• medial condyle--rounded, medial process on
posterior surface of distal end
• lateral condyle--similar to medial condyle on
lateral side
• intercondylar fossa---deep fossa between medial
and lateral condyles
• medial epicondyle--bump-like projection superior
to medial condyle
• lateral epicondyle--bump-like projection superior
to lateral condyle; a little smaller
• gluteal tuberosity-posterior surface of body of
femur; roughened projection distal to lesser
trochanter
• linea aspera-vertical ridge on posterior surface
2 . Patella (Kneecap)
This small, triangular bone has an anterior surface that is
smoother than the posterior surface. Shallow, irregular-
shaped articular facets are on the posterior surface and
articulate with the condyles of the femur.
3 . Tibia (Leg Bone)
The tibia is the weight-bearing bone of the 2 leg bones and
is medially located.
• medial condyle--flattened, expanded medial projec-
tion on proximal end
• lateral condyle--similar to medial condyle on
lateral surface
• tibial tuberosity-large, roughened projection on
anterior surface, distal to condyles
• anterior border (crest)-slender ridge on anterior
surface; shin
EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON 149
• medial malleolus---medial process on distal end,
forms medial bump of ankle
4. Fibula (Leg Bone)
The slender fibula is the lateral leg bone that is important
for muscle attachment but not for bearing weight. The
lateral malleolus is distal and articulates with the talus
laterally.
• head- proximal end
• lateral malleolus---distal end, forms lateral bump of
ankle
5. Hip and Knee Joints
The hip or coxa.l joint is formed by the acetabulum articu-
lating with the head of the femur to form a ball-and-socket
joint. There is a strong ligament that connects these two
structures deep inside the joint itself.
The knee joint is formed by the articulation of the
medial and lateral condyles of the femur with the medial
and lateral condyles of the tibia. The patella articulates with
the condyles of the femur. The fibula does not form part of
the knee joint; however, the head of the fibula articulates
with the tibia but not the femur.
Before Going to Lab
1 Label the bones and bone markings of the femur in
Figure 10.S(a) and (b) and the patella, tibia, and fibula
in Figure 10.9(a) and (b).
■fJ:@f §14J The Thigh and Leg
1 Identify the bones and bone markings in Figures 10.8
and 10.9 on disarticulated bones, an articulated skeleton,
or use the search text box to locate these structures in Real
Anatomy (Skeletal).
2 Distinguish between the right and left femur.
• The head is on the proximal end and faces medially.
• The medial and lateral condyles are on the anterior
surface of the distal end of the femur (the medial
condyle is larger).
3 Distinguish between the right and left tibia.
• The tibial tuberosity is anterior and superior to the
anterior crest.
• The medial malleolus is on the medial surface of the
distal end of the tibia.
4 Palpate these bone markings on your own body: greater
trochanter, medial and lateral epicondyles, patella, head
of the fibula, tibial tuberosity, anterior crest (shin) of the
tibia, medial malleolus of the tibia, and lateral malleolus
of the fibula. ■
150 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

~~
L:
-Head
~ Fovea capitis Os coxa~ : 1
Greater ~ N - I
Greater trochanter _.. _~,,__
_,_ \..____
, ::,.
2 Head
"" , f L
trochanter I
r Neck
\
,
•J
~
iA: C:::- J Neck
;)~
·:J L
1.-l ~
-:,L\...._ trochanter
Greater

l~ lntertrochanteric ~

\~ L:~:artroch:: :~ L ~~J~~ity
- - - - - - - Lesser trochanter

L ---
--:------Femur------

(shaft)
Lineaaspera

.
Med.1a1ep1condyl Lateral
:---.._ \
La~eral
epicondyle < . . . .__
e .
~
__- epicondyte
lntercondylar
Lateral - - -~
condyle '
•
- , ----
-r
Medial condyle !~ fossa . .
Lateral
;) ' Patella .! condyle
Fibula - -.- , Tibia ~: Fibula
1
Anterior view Posterior view

SUPERIOR

• greater trochanter (tro-CAN-ter)

• head of femur
• lat eral condyle (CON-dile)
• lat eral epicondyle (epi-CON-dile)
• lesser trochanter
• linea aspera (LIN-ee-uh ASP-er-uh)
• medial condyle
Gluteal tuberosity
• medial epicondyle
• neck
7
(a) Anterior view
head femur

2 __greater
_ _ _tronchanter
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

3 __neck
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

lesser
4 __ _ _tronchanter
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

medical
5 __ ___ epicondyle
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
medial
6 __ ___ condyle
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
8
(b) Posterior view
lntercondylar fossa "
linea ___________ "
aspera
7 __ __ iii ~
9 ~
z z
lateral epicondyle ~
8
---------------::i; :~i;
9 _ _ lateral
_ _ _condyle
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

FIGURE 10.8 Right femur.

 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON 151

\ Femur- !
\. lnt~n:ondylar .

Patella eminence ~
Lateral \. liif' Lateral
condyle __._ - Medial condyle - ~,1__ condyle
Head - -) 1
--,,,e----Tibial tuberosity I' ( Head

(li
Fibula Tibia------

lnterosseous - - - -
--Fibula
membrane
- - - Anterior border
(crest)

~
edial malleolus ----.1
Lateral - - - Talus .. Lateral
malleolus Calcaneus __..__
Ir::· , malleolus

' '1 '

J

Anterior view Posterior view

SUPERIOR

• fibula (FIB-u-la) 2
• head of fibula
• lateral condyle
• lateral malleolus (mal-LAY-e-lus)
• medial condyle
• medial malleolus
• tibia (Bone) 3
• tibial tuberosity
7
lateral condyle (Bone)
2 _____________
head of fibulla _
fibulla
3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

4 _ _lateral
___ malleolus
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

5 __ _ _ _condyle
medical _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

6 _ _tibial
_ _tuberosity
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

7 _ _ tibia
_ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ MEDIAL

8 _ _ medial
_ _ _malleolus
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

FIGURE 10.9 Right tibia, fibula, and patella.

152 EXERCISE 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

6. Tarsus (Ankle) (hallux) to the little toe. The great toe is made of2 phalan-
ges (proximal and distal), and digits II to V have 3 bones
The tarsus is composed of 7 tarsal bones of the foot, with
each- proxima1, middle, and distal phalanges.
2 of them being larger than the rest. The largest tarsal bone
is the calcaoeus (calcaneum = heel), also known as the
heel bone. The other large tarsal bone is the talus (talus =
ankle), which articulates with the medial malleolus of the Before Going to Lab
tibia and lateral malleolus of the fibula. 1 Label Figure 10. IO(a) and (b). For each phalanx, include
the Roman numeral.
7. Metatarsus
The metatarsus is composed of 5 metatarsal bones (meta- =
after or next) that are analogous to the metacarpals in the
hand. They are numbered the same way, I to V, from the
■@:IJ5 i¢h fij The Foot
great toe to the little toe. 1 Identify the bones of the foot in Figure 10.10 on an
articulated foot or use the search text box to locate these
structures in Real Anatomy (Skeletal).
8. Phalanges (Toes)
2 Palpate these parts on your own body: lateral malleolus,
The phalanges (toes or digits) are similar to the phalanges calcaneus, and talus. ■
in the hand. The toes are numbered I to V from the great toe

POSTERIOR
- ~---Calcaneus
LATERAL

Tarsals ~ ~ - - Talus

,.
2
Navicular
6
Lateral cuneiform
.-;.-,...- - Intermediate
cuneiform
Medial cuneiform

Metata=ls HMd _i~~

Proximal -
Phalanges M_iddle - -
[Distal--=
)

J }
(a) Superior view
• calcaneus (cal-CANE-ee-us)
• distal phalanx II (FAY-lanx)
• middle phalanx II
• metatarsals (meta-TAR-suls)
•
•
•
•
phalanges
proximal phalanx II
talus (TA-lus)
tarsals (TAR-suls)
ANTERIOR
J
(a) Superior view
calcaneus 5 _distal
_ _ phalynx
_ _ _ _ __

2 __ _ _ _ _ _ __
talus 6 __ _ _ _ _ _ __
tarsals
proximal
3 __ _ _ _phalyx
_ _ __ metatarsals
7 __ _ _ _ _ _ __

4 _ _ middle
_ _ _phalyx
_ _ __ phlanges
8 __ _ _ _ _ _ __

FIGURE 10.10 Bones of the right foot.

 EXERCISE 1 0 APPEND ICU LA R SKELETON 153

(b) Lateral view • metatarsals

~j?,,
• calcaneus • phalanges
• lateral malleolus of fibula • talus
• tibia • tarsals
9 _calcaneus
_ _ _ _ _ _ __ tarsals 9
13 - - - - - - - - -
lateral malleolus of fibula 14 _metatarsals
_ _ _ _ _ _ __
10 - - - - - - - - -
tibia
11 - - - - - - - - - 15 - - - - - - - - -
talus
12 - - - - - - - - -

13 14 15
(b) Lateral view

FIGURE 1 O. 1 O Bones of the right foot. continued.

■fJ =IJi•@iljj A~se~bly of a Complete

• Calculate the diameter of the femur using the follow-
ing equation.
D1sartlculated Skeleton . Circumference (cm)
Diameter (cm) = _
1 Obtain a disarticulated skeleton from your instructor. 3 14
2 With your lab partners, assemble the skeleton. Record your value in Table 10.2.
3 Have your instructor check it to see that you have • Males have a diameter greater than 4.5 cm (45 mm)
assembled it properly. ■ and females have a diameter less than 4.3 cm
(43 mm).' Record gender in Table 10.2.
2 Estimating height:
• Measure the longest possible length of the femur in
■ iJ=fMh'hfj=j Deter~ining ~ender
and Height Using
cm. Record your values in Table 10.2.
• Use the appropriate equation for each bone (male or
female) to estimate height in cm.2 Record your value
Femur Measurements
in Table 10.2.
1 Determining gender: The diameter of the head of a
Male: Height (cm)=
femur is a very accurate way of determining gender.
( 1.88 X length of femur in cm) + 81.306
• Use a femur from a disarticulated or articulated
Female: Height (cm)=
skeleton.
( 1.945 X length of femur in cm) + 72.844
• Use a tape measure to measure in cm the circumfer-
ence of the head of the femur. Record your value in • To convert height in cm to height in inches,
Table 10.2. divide height in cm by 2.54. Record your value in
Table 10.2. ■

TABLE 1 O. 2 Determining Gender and Height from a Femur

ESTIMATING GENDER ESTIMATING HEIGHT

Femur circumference (cm) Femur length (cm)

Femur diameter (cm) Height (cm)

Gender Height (in)

1
Institute for Algorithmic Medicine. The Medical Algorithms Project. Chapter 38: Forensic Medicine; Determination of Gender from Physical Remains;
Detennination of Gender of Measurement of the Femur. www.medal.org (accessed September 27, 2007).
2
Institule for Algorithmic Medicine. The Medical Algorithms Project. Chapter 38: Forensic Medicine; Estimation of Body Height from Physical Remains;
Pear..on's Formulas for Estimating Adult Body Height from Length of Long Bones. www.medal.org (accessed September 27, 2007).
 154 E X E RC I S E 1 0 A P P E N D I C U LA R S K EL ETO N

■!tj:fJd•kJfif• Estimating Your Height

• Use the appropriate formulas to calculate your height
in inches.3 Record your value in Table 10.3.
from Bone Length
Males: Height (in) =
1 Estimate your height from length of radius: (length of humerus in inches X 2.9) + 27 .8
• With the hand in anatomical position, palpate the Females: Height (in) =
lateral epicondyle of your humerus and then move (length of humerus in inches X 2.8) + 28.1
your hand just a little distally to the head of the
radius. Slowly pronate and supinate your forearm 3 Measure your height in inches and record the value in
to feel the rotation of the disc-shaped head of the Table 10.3.
radius. To find the styloid process of the radius, 4 Compare the calculated and measured values. ■
palpate the lateral side of your wrist.
• Measure the length of the radius in inches from the
head to the styloid process. Record the value in TABLE 10 . 3 Estimating
Table 10.3. Your Height from Bone Length
• Use the appropriate formulas to calculate your height RADIUS
in inches.3 Record the value in Table 10.3.
Males: Height (in) = Length of radius (in)
(length of radius in inches X 3.3) + 34 Calculated height (in)
Females: Height (in) =
(length of radius in inches X 3.3) + 32 Measured height (in)

2 Estimate your height from length of humerus:

HUMERUS
• Palpate the head of your humerus as you rotate your
arm in the shoulder socket. Then locate the medial Length of humerus (in)
epicondyle by palpating this "bump" just above the
elbow hinge. Calculated height (in)
• Measure the length of the humerus in inches from
the head of the humerus to the medial epicondyle. Measured height (in)

1
Scientific American Frontiers, "Science Safari Teaching Guide: The
First People," Scientific American Frontiers Arr:hives (Fall 1990 to Spring
2000). www.pbs.org/safarchive/4_class/45_pguides/pguide_702/4572_
firstpeople.html (accessed September 27, 2007).