AGRICULTURE IN ZAMBIA

Agriculture is the science and art of growing crops and rearing of livestock.
Agriculture as an applied science
Because it uses knowledge from other subjects such as biology, physics, chemistry, entomology and also
involves scientific experiments to prove facts.
Agriculture as a technology
because it uses new farming methods and skills to improve yield such as crop rotation, artificial
insemination, application of practices/skills like planting, weeding, pruning, fertilizer application,
spraying, castrating, milking, dehorning, irrigating, docking, harvesting.
The importance of agriculture in Zambia.
i. Job creation i.e. employment opportunities
ii. Source of income
iii. Improves standards of living
iv. Source of raw materials
v. Food security
vi. source of forex
vii. source of food
viii. Encourages trades among the neighboring countries

Activity one
a) Apart from provision of employment, why is agriculture important?
b) How does agriculture provide employment?
c) Explain how agriculture is;
i. a science.
ii. a technology.
d) Explain why the knowledge and skills of people trained in agriculture are needed.
e) Explain the importance of a farmer in a nation

Environmental influences of Agriculture

Agriculture is influenced by the following factors;
1. Climatic factors
 Temperature
 Rainfall

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  Wind.
2. Human factors.
 Health of workers
 Level of education and technology:
 Level of economic development
 available capital
 Marketing facilities and infrastructure.
 Cultural and religious beliefs:
 Availability of markets
 Market information and pricing.
 Government policies7. Transport and communication systems.
 Labour supply.
3. Biotic factors
 Pests and parasites affect the growth and production of crops and livestock.
 Decomposers like bacteria and fungi
 Pathogens are micro-organisms that cause diseases in crops, livestock and human beings.
 Predators like hyenas and wild cats prey on livestock and kill
 Pollinators like bees help in pollination
 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria like Rhizobium spp help to fix free nitrogen into the root nodules of
leguminous plants
4. Edaphic factors
 Soil fertility
 Soil pH

ACTIVITY 2
Discuss how the above factors influence agriculture activities.

Exercise 1
Analyze the influences of the following environmental factors:
a) Heavy rainfall on the soil
b) Strong wind on the crops

The water cycle in nature

Water in the atmosphere is in a constant state of motion. This is water which has evaporated from areas of

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open water such as oceans, lakes and rivers and from moist soil. Plants lose water through their leaves by
transpiration and animals breathe out water vapour. Figure below shows the water cycle in nature.

Cloud formation
Clouds are formed when the water vapour in the atmosphere cools sufficiently for it to condense (return
to the liquid state).

Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms occur chiefly during the rainy season. Thunderstorms are caused by the sudden cooling of
moist air. They are important for agriculture in three ways.
i. Sudden heavy rainfall
ii. The addition of nitrogen to the soil due to lightning in the atmosphere.
iii. Heavy rains causes’ splash erosion and excess run-off may lead to sheet or gully erosion.

Measuring rainfall
Rainfall records are essential if irrigation is carried out. They should tell exactly how much rain has fallen
and how the rainfall was distributed throughout the season. From rainfall records, a pattern can be seen
and this may help with planning the planting and selection of crops to grow.

Exercise 2

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Figure below shows a natural process.

a) What natural process is represented in the figure above

b) Identify the processes at A, B, C and D
c) State two ways in which thunderstorms are beneficial to agriculture.
d) Why is it important to the farmer to keep records of the amounts of rainfall?
e) With the aid of a large labeled diagram, explain how rain is formed

Agro- ecological zones of Zambia

Zambia is divided into three major agro-ecological zones or regions such as;
i. Region I
ii. Region II

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 iii. Region III
Zone I or low rainfall area.
 It is found in Western and Southern part of Zambia and covers most valleys in Zambia such as
Gwembe valleys, lwangwa valleys and lusemfwa valleys.
 It has a mean annual rainfall of 800 mm per year.
 Duration of rainfall is about 3 months 80-120
 Mean annual temperature 38◦c
 Early seed varieties are encouraged to be grown in this region
Zone II or medium rainfall area
 This covers the Central part of the country extending from the East through the West, Lusaka,
part of copperbelt
 Annual rainfall is 800 - 1000 mm average.
 Mean annual temperature is 32◦c
 Duration of rainfall is about 100-140 days
 Commercial farms are common in this zone.
Zone III or high rainfall area
 This covers the Northern part Zambia.
 This is a zone with the highest rainfall of 1000 - 1500 mm per annum.
 A wide spectrum of crops including maize, millet, sorghum, tobacco, cotton, rice, wheat, and
groundnuts are grown because of reliable and well distributed rainfall.
 Annual rainfall is 1000 - 1500 mm average.
 Mean annual temperature is 17◦c
 Duration of rainfall is about 120-150 days
Day length
In agriculture, the term day length simply means the period when plants are exposed to light for
photosynthesis to occur or it is the time of light intensity. Light intensity refers to how bright the sunlight
is when reaching the crop.
Importance of day length to crop growth
i. Increases the development of the crop in terms of size
ii. Increases the rate of photosynthesis
iii. Increases yields
Different crops respond differently to the length of day. Some crops grow well in short day periods while
others require long days. Crops in equatorial and tropical world are day-neutral because day and night

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lengths are equal i.e. 12 hours long. The table below shows
Long day crops Day neutral crops short day crops
Wheat, oats, barley Maize, beans, groundnuts, Soya beans, rice, tobacco
cassava, sorghum, sweet
potatoes, sunflower,
vegetables

Activity 3
State rainfall and temperature requirements of the following crops: maize, rice, beans, groundnuts, soya
beans, tea, banana, coffee, cotton, cassava, tobacco, finger millet, sweet potato, pawpaw

Exercise
a) What is meant by the term day length in agriculture
b) State the importance of day length to crop growth
c) Explain how farmers apply the knowledge of day length in agriculture
d) Classify sweet potatoes, maize and soya beans crops according to day length

Land Use
This is the system of using land for various purposes such as;
i. Agriculture (farming)
ii. Mining
iii. Forestry
iv. Urbanization
v. Settlements and social utilities
vi. Wild game
vii. Transport and communication
The following factors may limit the use of land.
a) Topography,
b) climatic conditions,
c) Soil pH and soil fertility.
Factors that affect agricultural development in a nation
These factors may also refer to the environmental factors discussed earlier on page one. Other factors
include the following;

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 i. Capital
ii. Labour
iii. Policy
iv. Market
v. Land tenure
Land tenure
Refers to the way in which the land is owned or it is the state of ownership of land. The various kinds of
tenure systems are described below.
1. Communal tenure
This is the possession of rights to the use of land by the whole community.
2. Cooperative tenure
A group of people organize themselves into a cooperative society to buy and own land
3. Landlordism or tenancy system
This system is where large parcels of land are owned by few individuals who lease the land to
farmers for payment of rent
4. Private land tenure
This is the ownership of land by an individual
5. State land tenure
This is the ownership of land by the state or government
6. Freehold land tenure system
An individual has the right over the land by inheritance from parents and has no legal land title.
7. Leasehold land tenure system
Leasehold tenure system is when an individual secures land from the government and stays on it
and uses it for an agreed-upon period of time
Assignment
 Discuss the effects of land tenure on agriculture
Exercise
1. What is land?
2. Describe land tenure in Zambia and state the advantages of the tenure system.
3. Explain why agriculture is classified as a technology.
4. Relate the influence of annual rainfall on agriculture.
5. Outline factors that affect the development of agriculture in your area

Systems Of Farming

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Extensive farming
This is a type of farming where a large area of land of land is used to produce less agricultural products. A
good example is where a huge land is used to keep few animals.
Advantages
i. It is done on the low cost land
ii. Does not need high maintenance
Disadvantages
i. Low output
ii. It is underutilized
iii. It cannot be practiced in high density populated areas
Intensive farming
This is a type of farming system where a small land is used to produce high produce. Here there intensive
application of heavy capital, high level of management.
Advantages
i. Increased production of goods
ii. Supervision of the farm is easier
Disadvantages
i. Destruction of the soi8l due to continuous cultivation
ii. Heavy use of chemicals pollutes the rivers
Large scale farming/commercial farming
Commercial farming involves large-scale agricultural production. Crops are grown in large fields or on
plantations and livestock are kept on large scale for sale.
Advantages
i. High produce
ii. Creates job opportunities
iii. Easier to mechanize operations
Disadvantages
i. Requires high capital
ii. Causes soil destruction
Subsistence farming/ Small scare farming
In this system of farming, farmers only produce enough just to meet the family's food requirements.
Because they subsist or live on the food they grow they are called subsistence farmers
Advantages

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 i. Simple tools are used in this farming system
ii. cheap
Disadvantages
i. Do not use modern scientific practices in their farming.
ii. Low yield
iii. poor quality produce
Arable farming
Arable farming is a system of agriculture where farmers may specialise in the growing of only one type of
crop on the same field. In arable farming, monoculture, intercropping, mixed cropping, can be practiced
depending on the farmers' choice.
Nomadic pastoralism
Pastoralism is keeping of livestock whereas Nomadism is movement with livestock from place to place
in search of pasture and water. People who move together with animals are called nomads
.
Farming Practices

Crop Rotations
This is the growing of different types of crops on the same piece of land in a planned sequence year after
year in order to maximise use of available land. The following points should be considered;
Note
 Crops of the same family should not follow one another in the rotation because they are attacked
by similar pests and diseases.
 Crops of different growth habits and root systems should succeed one another.
 Shallow rooters should alternate with deep rooters to ensure maximum use of soil nutrients.
 Gross feeders should come first in the rotation e.g. maize. A resting period (fallow) should be
included in the rotation to restore the soil structure.
 Legumes should alternate with non-legumes. A leaf crop should follow a legume.
Benefits of crop rotations
i. Rotations help control pests and diseases
ii. Soil fertility is properly utilised by growing crops of different rooting systems which feed at
different depths.
iii. Soil nitrogen is replenished by growing legumes which fix nitrogen in the root nodules.
iv. Soil structure is improved
v. Soil erosion is controlled

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 vi. Soil moisture is conserved from season to season.

Monoculture
This is the practice of growing one type of crop on a piece of land ( pure stands)
Advantages
i. use of machinery during weeding becomes
ii. Spraying against pests and diseases is easy.
iii. Application of fertilisers is easy since each type of crop has its own recommended
application rate.
Disadvantages
i. Only one type of crop is harvested.
ii. A farmer is likely to lose all the crops if the crops are susceptible to certain pests or
diseases.
iii. Pest or disease attack is faster in pure stands.
Mixed farming:
Growing of crops and rearing of livestock on the same farm. More farm produce are produced from this
farming method

Shifting cultivation:
This is a type of cultivation where farmers clear new fields to grow crops for a few seasons after the land
has lost fertility, they move to other fields, leaving the previous ones to regain fertility. It is also known as
fallow cropping.
Advantages
i. Farmers do not buy fertilisers since cropping is done on a fertile land
ii. Ashes act as fertilisers
iii. Simple tools are used

Disadvantages
i. Causes soil erosion
ii. Causes deforestation
Organic farming:
A method of farming where organic manure is used, this type of farming improves the structure and
texture of the soil and provides nutrients into the soil. It also improves the water holding capacity of the
soil

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Agro forestry
The practice in which trees and shrubs are grown together with crops or pasture
Modern Agriculture
An enterprise is a project or a business undertaking. In an enterprise, products compete for the same
inputs.
Enterprises that farmers engage in on a farm
Farmers engage in different farming projects at a time on the farm this is also called Diversification.
Such enterprises are crop and livestock enterprises
Examples of Crop enterprises
i. Maize enterprise
ii. Soya beans enterprise
iii. Groundnuts enterprise
iv. Sunflower enterprise
v. Cotton enterprise
vi. Vegetables enterprise
Examples of livestock enterprises
i. Beef enterprise
ii. Dairy enterprise
iii. Broiler enterprise
iv. Layer enterprise
v. Piggery
Processing enterprises
i. Meat processing
ii. Cheese processing enterprise
iii. Cooking oil processing enterprise
Advantages of having several enterprises on the farm
i. It helps to eliminate the problem of total loss on a farm. In case of failure of one enterprise, the
farmer benefits from the other.
ii. The farmer gets different farm products from the same farm.
iii. The farmer may get more income from different
iv. Different enterprises can benefit from one another when located on the same farm
v. If the price of the product falls drastically, the farmer can still get some revenue from the other
enterprise.
The effects of agriculture on the environment

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 i. Causes deforestation
ii. Leads to soil erosion
iii. Destruction of the structure of the soil through bad methods of cultivation
iv. Causes eutrophication
v. Leads to water pollution through the chemical that flows into rivers and lakes

Assignment
1. Explain why farmers should carryout experiment with new and own technologies.
2. Explain how farmer experiments can be improved.
3. State the importance of disseminating farmer experimental results.

SOIL SCIENCE
Soil is a thin layer of material covering the land. It is made when rocks break down to small particles.
Importance of soil
 Anchorage plants in the soil
 Source of nutrients to plants
 Source of water to plants
 Habitats for microorganisms
Types of rocks and minerals
Rocks are collections of minerals that constitute earth crust. Rocks contain minerals such as potassium,
phosphorus, iron, calcium, copper, zinc, magnesium, sodium.
1. Metamorphic rocks
2. Igneous rocks
3. Sedimentary rocks
1. Igneous rocks
These are hard rocks formed when molten larva called magma from a volcano in the earth's crust
pours out over the land. The molten larva cools and becomes very hard and solid. Granite and
basalt are good example s of igneous rocks.

2. Sedimentary rocks
These are formed by deposition of rock sediments broken from igneous rocks. The broken
particles are transported by water, wind or sea waves and are deposited in layers in a valley
Over long periods of time the sediment becomes compressed by earth movements and the

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 particles become stuck together or cemented to form rocks.

3. Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic means change. These rocks are formed when sedimentary or igneous rocks
change due to intensive heat and pressure.
The figure below shows the formation of rocks;

Figure 2.1 formations of rocks

Soil formation and weathering
The rock from which the soil is formed is called parent rock. Soil is formed by the breakdown of rock
into smaller particles. This process is known as weathering.
Types of weathering
i. Physical/mechanical weathering
ii. Chemical weathering
iii. Biological weathering

Physical/mechanical weathering
This is the type of weathering which involves the physical break down of the parent rock in order for the
soil to be formed. Such factors or agent of physical wreathing include;
i. Water
ii. Wind
iii. Temperature
iv. Ice
 High temperature causes expansion of the parent rocks while low temperatures cause
contraction of the rocks.
 Heavy rainfall causes erosion which makes weathered rock pieces to move and knock against
each other and break into smaller particles.

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  Heavy winds can cause pieces of rocks to move from one place to another while knocking
against one another and breaking into smaller particles.
Chemical weathering
Here, the chemicals are involved in the breakdown of rocks to form soil. As rainfalls, it dissolves carbon
dioxide in the rocks to form a weak carbonic acid. This acid reacts with calcium carbonate as mineral
found in the rock causing decomposition of rock.
Biological weathering
The weathering of the parent rocks is also brought about by living organisms like bacteria, fungi, man,
growing plants, birds and soil organisms like termites, and rodents

Effects of weathering
i. Leads to the formation of the soil
ii. Causes the release of various nutrients into the soil
iii. Weakens the parent rocks for soil formation

Soil profiles and classification

Soil profile is the vertical arrangement of soil layers from the top layer to the parent rock. These layers are
called Horizons. The diagrams below show the soil profiles

Figure 2.2 soil profiles

Topsoil (Horizon A)
 This is the topmost layer of the soil profile also called top soil.

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  It contains organic manure or humus which makes dark in colour
 Fertile part and all the cultivation is done on this layer
Subsoil (Horizon B)
 Found below horizon A also called subsoil
 It has less humus
 Contains elements from horizon A due to leaching
Gravel (Horizon C)
 Gravel layer lies below the subsoil layer.
 This layer contains unconsolidated matter which is less weathered
Parent rock (Horizon D)
 Contains a parent rock which is impermeable to water and air.
Importance of a soil profile
 Help to know which soil retain more soil moisture for plant growth
 Help the farmer to know the fertility of the soil
 Help the farm to tell which crops to grow
 Help to know the arrangement of the soil
Soil constituents
i. Mineral matter
ii. Water
iii. Air
iv. Organic matter or humus
v. Living organisms
The figure below shows the approximate composition of topsoil.

Figure 2.3 composition of topsoil

Mineral particles
These are the product of the weathering process. They make up the bulk of a soil and it is made up of

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different soil sizes.
Experiment 1:
Aim: To show that soil contains mineral particles
Apparatus/materials
 Glass jar
 Soil sample
 Water
Method
 Mix about 50g of soil sample with 200ml into a glass measuring cylinder
 Shake the mixture thoroughly
 Allow the mixture to settle
 Observe
Observation:
The soil particles separated into different layers depending on the size particles as shown
below

Figure 2.4 mineral composition of soil

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 Conclusion:
Soil contains mineral particles.
Importance of soil mineral particles
i. It is a source of nutrients in the soil
ii. Determines the texture of the soil
iii. Storage of nutrients

Experiment 2:
Aim: To find the amount of water found in soil sample.
Apparatus/materials
 Source of heat
 Soil sample
 Evaporating dish
 Scale
Method
i. Weigh 100g of soil sample
ii. Allow it to dry by heating
iii. Weigh the dried soil sample
iv. Find the difference
Observation
Weight of soil before drying = 100 g
Weight of soil after drying = 85g
Difference, i.e. weight of water = 15 or 15%
Conclusion
Soil contains water
Importance of water in the soil
 Cools soil temperature
 Dissolves nutrients in the soil
 Source of hydrogen for photosynthesis
Experiment 3:
Aim: To find the amount of organic matter found in soil sample.
Apparatus/materials
 Source of heat
 Soil sample

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  Evaporating dish
 Scale
Method
i. Take a known sample of dried soil
ii. Heat it for about 30minutes
iii. Cool the soil sample and weigh it again

Observation
 Mass of dried soil before heating 60g
 Mass of soil sample after heating 32g
 Difference 28g this is the mass of organic matter
Conclusion
 Soil contains organic matter.
Importance of organic matter in the soil
 Source of nutrients in the soil
 Improves soil fertility
 Improves soil structure and soil texture

Experiment 4:
Aim: To show that soil contains air
Apparatus/materials
 2 measuring cylinders
 Soil sample
 Water
Method
i. Take two measuring cylinders (250 ml)
ii. Place 100 cm ' of dry soil in one and 100 ml of water in the other.
iii. Add the soil to the water and shake the mixture thoroughly.
iv. Allow the mixture to settle
Observation

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  Bubbles were seen coming out from the mixture
 Volume of soil 100cm3
 Volume of water 100cm3
 Expected volume 200 cm3
expected−actual volume
Percentage *100
expected
Conclusion
 Soil contains air
Importance of air in the soil
 Used by living organism in the process of respiration

Experiment 5:
Aim: To show that soil contains living organism
Method
 Divide soil sample into A and B
 Heat soil sample B to kill living organism in the soil
 Tie the two soil sample in the muslin bags
 Place the soil samples in the conical flask containing lime water
Observation

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  Lime water in soil sample A will turn milk while lime water in B it will remain the same.
Conclusion
i. Living organisms such as fungi, bacteria, worms respire to produce carbon dioxide which
turns lime water milk
ii. Heating the soil kills living organism found in the soil
Importance of living organisms in the soil
 Help in the breakdown of organic matter
 Help in the soil formation
 Contributes to soil fertile
 Improves soil structure by burying themselves in the soil
Types of soil
Clay
Clay soil has the following characteristics;
 Sticks together and expand when wet
 Forms ribbon on rolling
 Has high water holding capacity and Clay soils contain high nutrient levels
 High capillarity
 It cracks when dry
 Few air spaces
 Because of having a smooth texture, are termed as heavy soils. This makes them difficult
to cultivate
Improvement of clay soil
 Clay soils can be improved by proper drainage to increase soil aeration.
 Application of fertilisers or manure and lime to reduce flocculation of particles helps to ease
cultivation.
 Application of lime on clay soils increases soil aggregation and neutralizes acidity
Sand
 Does not stick together
 Rough to touch
 Low capillarity
 Low water retention
 Large particles with large spaces
 Better drainage than clay soils

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  These soils are easily eroded by water or wind because soil particles do not stick to one another.
 Sandy soils are light soils because they are easy to work unlike clay soils.
Improvement of sand soil
 Sandy soils can be improved by application of manure and fertilisers which improves particle
aggregation to reduce porosity thus improving water and nutrient retention capacity.
Silt
 Silt soils are poorly aerated and drained because of the fine texture.
 They are high in nutrient content. They are difficult to work because they are heavy.
Improvement of silt
 Can be improved by proper drainage and application of manure and fertilisers.
Loam
A loam soil is an ideal mixture of sand, clay and silt. This type of soil is the best for agricultural purposes.
It has the following characteristics;
 Smooth particles
 Sticks together
 Moderately well drained
 Good water and nutrient holding capacity
 Well textured
 Good aeration
 Fertility can be maintained by applying organic and artificial fertilisers.
.
Soil structure
This is the arrangement of soil particles n the soil sample. The structure of a soil is determined by the way
the particles hold together.
Experiment 6: To find the structure of soil
 Take three samples of soil from the garden and roll each into a ball by mixing with a little water.
 Then carefully allow water to drip on to each ball of soil as shown on the figures below.

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  If the soil ball breaks up at once, the structure is loose, e.g. sand.
 If the ball breaks up slowly the structure is said to be friable e.g. loam.
 If the ball of soil resists breaking up entirely it has a solid structure e.g. clay.
Importance of good structure
i. Facilitate good drainage
ii. Helps water retention
iii. Prevents the build up of carbon dioxide in the soil

Soil texture
Soil texture is the fineness or roughness of the mineral particles of the soil. It relates to how much sand,
clay or silt contained in soil.
A soil containing much sand particles has a coarse texture while that soil containing a lot of clay or silt
particles has a fine texture. It influences the ability of the soil to hold moisture and nutrients and
circulation of air in the soil.

Soil and water

The ability of soil to hold water depends on the size particles of the soil. Example clay soil has high
holding capacity as compared to sandy soil. The maximum amount of water can soil can retain is called
field capacity. The figure below shows the movement of water in the soil.

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A soil is said to be saturated when all the spaces between the soil particles are filled with water this leads
to water logged. If more water is added to the saturated soil the land becomes flooded because the soil is
unable to absorb it. A waterlogged soil is infertile because air is excluded from the soil and the plants and
soil organisms do not get any oxygen

Wilting point
Wilting point occurs when a soil is unable to supply enough water to the plant. Sometimes there is water
present in the soil but it is held too firmly by the particles for the roots to obtain. The addition of water
will return the soil to field capacity. Plants sometimes wilt in hot sun or after transplanting, even in wet
soil. This is temporary wilting and is due to an excessive demand for water by the plant
The diagrams below show cell of wilted plant

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The capillarity of given soil samples.

Capillarity is the ability of water to rise up between the narrow pores in the soil, against the force of
gravity.
Experiment
 Take two glass tubes and fill them with two different soil types.
 Plug the tubes at the base with cotton wool to prevent the soil falling out.
 Then place the base of each tube in a bowl of water and observe the extent to which water rises
up each tube

 Note which type of soil shows the greatest capillarity.

Conclusion

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  The tiny pores of clay soils are able to hold more water by capillarity and lose less water
through drainage than sandy soils.

Drainage rates of given soil samples.

i. Take two different soil types and place about 50 ml of each into two filter funnels plugged at the
neck with cotton wool. Place the funnels in measuring cylinders.
ii. Then carefully add 50 ml of water to each funnel over a period of 5 minutes
iii. Note the amount of water which has drained through into each cylinder.

 This experiment compares the drainage and water retention properties of the soils.
 Sandy soils drain water more quickly and retain less water than clay soils because of their large
particles and larger air spaces.
Task
i. Explain different types of soil moisture and their significance to crop production

Soil fertility
 A fertile soil is one which provides all the conditions needed for the successful growth of a crop
Identify factors that determine the fertility of soil.
i. Air
ii. Soil ph
iii. Soil temperature
iv. Soil water
v. Parent rock
vi. Climate

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vii. Crop
viii. Humus
ix. Depth of the soil
x. Soil structure
xi. Level of management
xii. Micro organism
xiii. Availability of nutrients in the soil
Note: explain how the above factors determine the fertility of the soil.
The Nitrogen Cycle
This is the recycling of nitrogen gas in the atmosphere.

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 Ammonification
Decomposition of plant and animal remains into ammonia and ammonium compounds.
Nitrification
This is a conversion of ammonium compounds into nitrites, and then into nitrates. These reactions
are brought about by Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas.
However, if the soil becomes waterlogged and the air supply is diminished, anaerobic bacteria
convert the nitrates back to nitrogen gas by the process of denitrification.

Nitrogen fixation
The conversion of nitrogen from the air into nitrogen compounds which can be used by the plant.
Azotobacter and Clostridium are examples of bacteria which carry out this process.
The bacteria called Rhizobium found in the root nodules of leguminous plants also convert
nitrogen to nitrates.

The role of the nitrogen cycle in soil fertility

 Fixes nitrogen in the soil
 Improves soil fertility

Carbon cycle
 This is the recycling of carbon gas in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is available in the
atmosphere for plants to convert into sugars by the process of photosynthesis.

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  As plant remains are broken down in the soil, carbon dioxide is again released into the air.
 The combustion of fuel and forest fires release large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere.
 The addition of lime to the soil contributes to the carbon

The role of the carbon cycle in soil fertility

i. It releases nutrients in the soil by decomposition of organic matter which increases soil fertility
ii. Promotes soil structure

Loss of nutrients from the soil

Soil fertility can be lost through the following ways.
i. Soil erosion.
ii. Leaching and drainage caused by excess water.
iii. Volatilization due to high temperatures.
iv. Fixation due to imbalance of nutrient content in the soil.
v. Uptake by unwanted plants such as weeds.
vi. Removal of nutrients by cropping

Maintenance and Improvement of soil fertility

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Soil fertility can be maintained and improved by one of the following ways;
i. Control soil erosion.
ii. Application of organic and inorganic fertilisers.
iii. Practice crop rotation.
iv. Maintain the required soil pH.
v. Practice minimum tillage.
vi. Practice irrigation/ drainage

Soil erosion
Soil erosion is the removal of top soil by running water or wind.
Causes and agents of erosion
 Wind
 Water
 Fire burning
 Floods
 Slope of land
 Soil type
 Vegetation type
 Over grazing
Types of soil erosion
1. Sheet erosion
This occurs when wide areas of soil are eroded by a layer of water. For instance, after heavy rain
the soil removed from one area is deposited lower down on plains.
2. Gully erosion
They are caused by fast flowing water. They occur mostly on sloping land
3. Wind erosion
Light soils are blown by the wind from one place and deposited in another.
Control of soil erosion
Soil erosion can be controlled by one of the following methods
i. Cover crops
ii. Wind breaks
iii. Controlled grazing
iv. Grass strips or filter strips: narrow strips of grass left between ploughed lands help to reduce
runoff velocity and trap soil behind.

29
 v. Contour farming: practice of carrying out farm operations along the contours.
vi. Strip cropping: planting of alternate strips of different crops in the same field e.g groundnuts
and maize
vii. Mulching: helps to cover the soil and offers different benefits to the soil.
viii. Afforestation and re-afforestation
ix. Intercropping: ensures maximum ground cover to control soil erosion.
x. Crop rotation: helps to improve soil fertility, structure and aids in conserving soil.
xi. Wash stops: these are narrow barriers created by vegetation materials like sisal hedges, trash or
bush hedges to control runoff
Crop rotation
Crop rotation means growing crops in sequence to make the most beneficial use of the land. It is
important to include a legume crop in the crop rotation because it fixes nitrogen in the soil

Soil acidity and alkalinity

Soil pH (potential hydrogen) refers to the degree of acidity or alkalinity in soil. Acidity of a solution is
decided by the proportions of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-) present. Soil acidity has
high concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) while soil alkalinity has high concentration of hydroxyl ions
(OH-). Acidity is measure dusing the pH scale
Factors affect soil pH
Soil Acidic is caused by the following factors;
 Parent material/rocks
 Leaching
 Bad management
 Bacterial action
 Rainfall
 Nitrification
 Fertilizer application
 Presence of sulphides
 Cultivation
Soil alkalinity caused by the following factors;
 Application of irrigation water containing large amounts of Sodium bicarbonateswhich react with
soil compounds to form basic compounds which raises the soil pHthus causing soil alkalinity.
 Addition of Lime into the soil raises the soil pH values.
 Weathering of rocks also causes soils to become alkaline. Example, soils from Limestone rocks.

30
  Addition of basic fertilizers into the soil raises the soil pH
 Weathering of soil minerals is another way of increasing soil alkalinity
The pH scale
This runs from 1 to 14. A neutral solution, e.g. pure water, has a pH of 7. An acidic solution has a pH
below 7 and an alkaline solution has a pH above 7. Each number on the pH scale represents the
concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. Acidic solutions have more hydrogen ions than alkaline
solutions

The usual way of finding out the pH of a soil is to use universal indicator. This is a solution which when
mixed with an acid or alkali solution changes colour.

Practicals on soil pH
i. Take a sample of soil into a test tube.
ii. Pour 5 ml of water to the sample of soil.
iii. Shake the mixture and allow it to settle.
iv. Pour a few drops of universal soil indicator to the mixture and observe. (Theproportion of water
to soil should be 1:2.5 by weight).
v. Write down your observation.
vi. Compare the colour produced with those on the colour char
The importance of soil pH for crops

31
 i. pH affects availability of soil nutrients depends on pH.
ii. Where a crop is grown in soil at the wrong pH some nutrients may not be available and the plant
suffers poor nutrition which reduces the yield.
iii. Bacteria in the soil work best at an optimum pH of 5·5-7·8.
Radicals and minerals contained in a sample of fertilizer.
A RADICAL is a group of atoms which is present in several compounds but is incapable of independent
existence.
Examples of radicals
 Sulphates (SO4)
 Ammonium (NH4)
 Carbonate (CO3)
 Nitrate (NO3)
 Chloride (CL)
Uses of acids, bases and salts in agriculture

An acid substance is one that has a pH number of less than 7. Acids have a sharp taste and turn blue
litmus paper red.Acids in the soil are produced when
i. Carbon dioxide is released by organisms in the soil dissolves in water to produce carbon acid.
ii. Acids also produced when micro-organisms break down humus
Uses of acids

 Explain the effects of acids, bases and salts on crop and soil organisms.
 State effects of excessive use of fertilizers.
 Describe the neutralization of soil acids.
 Apply lime to a piece of land.

Uses of acids, bases and salts in agriculture

Acids
 Acids are used to decrease the soil pH thereby increasing the acidity of yhr soil
 Reduces the alkalinity of the soil
 Neutralizes the alkalinity of the soil to form salts
Bases
 Bases are used to increase the soil pH
 Used to neutralize the acids in the soil in the process of neutralization

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  Application of lime (base) brings the soil ph to neutral
Salts
 Salts are used are fertilisers to improve soil fertility e.g. ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate
Effects of acids, bases and salts on crop and soil organisms
i. Acids increases aluminum toxicity which makes the nutrients insoluble
ii. Acids make the soil acidic leads to poor plant growth
iii. Acids inhibits root growth
iv. High level of bases in the soil makes the nutrients insoluble by increasing molybdenum
v. Bases reduces the availability of nutrients in the soil
vi. Salts promotes plants growth e.g. ammonium nitrate
Effects of excessive use of fertilizers
 Frequent applications of fertilisers in large quantities change the soil pH
 Frequent heavy application of Nitrogen fertilisers in fields results in the accumulation of salts in
the rivers or lakes and this causes an overgrowth of microscopic marine plants. This is known as
eutrophication.
 The nitrates and phosphates provide abundant nutrients for the microscopic green algae which
increase in populations
 Frequent use of fertilisers on light soils (sandy) destroys crumb structure and the soil tends to
become dry and powdery and liable to be blown away by wind
Neutralization of soil acids
Neutralization is the reaction between acids and bases to produce salt and water. During neutralization
reaction, the soil ph is brought to neutral point. This means that acidity soils can be corrected by applying
bases and at the same time, alkalinity soils can be corrected by applying acidic fertilisers.

Acids + bases = water + salt

Lime application
If the soil is too acidic it can be made less acidic or neutral by the addition of lime. Lime is applied to the
soil mixing it with soil before sowing.
Types of Lime
i. Ground limestone (CaCO3),
ii. Slaked lime (Ca(OH)2),
iii. Quicklime (CaO)
Effects of lime in the soil

33
  It reacts with the tiny clay particles causing them to bond together into small lumps. This process
is call flocculation.
 Lime improves the soil structure by converting the clay particles into larger units
 drainage and aeration are improved

CROP PRODUCTION

Types of crop
Annuals:
Crops which complete the life cycle from seed to seed in one year. Annual crops have to be planted every
season. Examples Groundnuts, maize, millet, tobacco, cassava, cotton, sweet potatoes and sunflower
Biennials:
Biennials are crops that take 2 years or growing seasons to complete their life cycle. Examples are carrots
and turnips.
Perennials: These are crops which grow beyond two years and continue to grow for several years.
Examples are tea, citrus fruit trees, bananas, sugarcane, and coffee.

External morphology of plants

Monocotyledon plant
dicotyledonous plant

Roots
i. They hold the plant firmly in the soil.
ii. They extract water and dissolved
nutrients from the soil for use by the
plant
iii. They help to retain moisture in the soil
as a protection against dry conditions.
iv. Some roots act as storage organs for the
plant's food reserves

34
Types of root systems
1) Taproot system
Consisting of a single main root which grows straight down in the soil with smaller side roots
arising from it, Dicotyledonous plants e.g. beans, have taproot systems as shown below,

2) Fibrous root
This has more than one main root arising from the same point with side roots branching from
them. Fibrous roots are a characteristic of monocotyledonous plants e.g. finger millet, sugarcane,

35
Internal morphology of roots

Par
ts their functions

Epidermis
Covers and protects other root tissues
Root hairs
The root hairs form the surface for absorption of water and mineral salts.
Cortex
In some plants it serves as a storage tissue.
Endodermis
This is the innermost layer of the cortex. It contains starch grains. This layer stains blue black with iodine
solution.
Vascular bundles
It consists of xylem and phloem.
Xylem transports water and mineral salts from the roots to other parts of the plant.
Phloem transports manufactured food substances from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
The arrangement of the xylem and phloem tissues varies between the monocotyledons and
dicotyledons.
In monocotyledons, the phloem and xylem alternate around central pith while In dicotyledons, the
xylem is star-shaped and located at the centre while the phloem is located in the arms of the star
Stems
 They hold the upper parts of a plant
 They expose leaves to sunlight for efficient photosynthesis

36
  They conduct mineral salts and water
 They hold plant flowers out which facilitates pollination

External structure of the stem

Monocotyledon stem dicotyledons stem

Leaves
 This where photosynthesis takes place
 diffusion of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
 for transpiration process
External structure of the leaf

Parts and functions

i. Lamina contains chlorophyll to absorb light energy.
ii. Veins conducts nutrients and water
iii. The midrib conducts water and nutrients from the stalk to the lamina and food from the lamina to
stock.
iv. The stalk conducts food from leaves to stems and mineral salts and water from stems to leaves.

37
 i. Upper epidermis Protects the leaf but it is transparent to allow light to enter.
ii. Chloroplasts to absorb light energy.
iii. Airspaces which allow Carbon dioxide to move into leaf cells.
iv. Stomata on open and dose to control entry and exit of substances in the leaf.

The flower and Pollination

The functions of parts of a flower

Stamens
 Male part of the flower (filament and the anther)
 Filament holds the anthers in position
 Anther produces pollen grains
 Pollen grains contain the male reproductive cells (gametes) that fertilize the ovules in the ovary.

38
Carpels
 Female part of the flower (stigma, style, and ovary and ovules).
 Stigma receives pollen grains.
 Style this is a long tube where pollen grain pass to reach the ovules in the ovary.
 The ovules become seeds after they have been fertilized by the pollen grains.
 The ovary becomes the fruit containing the seeds.

Pollination
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
Types of pollination
i. Self pollination
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma of the flower on the same plant. E.g. Zea
mays, Arachis hypogeal are self pollinated.
ii. Cross pollinated
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma in the flower of different plant of the same
species. E.g. Carica papaya, Helianthus annus (sunflower)

Agents of pollination
i. Insects
ii. Wind
Flowers that are pollinated by insects are called insect pollinated flowers while those that are pollinated
by wind are called wind pollinated flowers.

Insect pollinated flower

39
Wind pollinated flower

Differences between wind pollinated flowers and insect pollinated flowers

Insect pollinated flower Wind pollinated flower

Are large and scented Are small and not scented
Bright coloured petals to attract insects Not coloured in appearance

40
Nectarines are present No nectarines present
They have small firm anthers Have large loose anthers
Stigma are short, lobbed and inside the They feathery styles and stigma hang outside
flowers. the flowers to trap pollen grains
Produce little pollen grains Produce large quantities of pollen grains
Stamens are within the flowers Stamens hang outside the flowers

Fertilization
Fertilization is the fusion of the male and female cells or gametes to form the zygote. The zygote divides
many times to form the embryo Once pollination has occurred the pollen grain absorbs nutrients from the
stigma and begins to swell up. The nucleus of the pollen divides into two: the pollen tube nucleus and the
reproductive nucleus. The latter gives rise to two male gametes or pollen grains. Each pollen grain
develops a pollen tube which grows through the style towards the ovary. When it reaches the ovary it
enters the small opening, called the micropyle to reach the ovule. At this stage the pollen tube bursts and
the pollen tube nucleus degenerates. The two male gametes pass into the embryo sac. One of them fuses
with the ovum to produce the zygote which divides to form the embryo. The other fuses with the
secondary nucleus to form the endosperm, which serves as a food reserve in some seeds, e.g. maize

Seed
A seed is a fertilised ovule. The ovule is the part of the flower which is formed into a seed after a
succesful fertilisation.
External parts of the maize and bean seeds

Maize seed(monocot) Bean seed (dicot)

Internal parts of the maize and bean seeds

41
Parts and their functions
i. Testa: protects the seeds against disease or pest attack breaks open during germination.
ii. Micropyle: is a small pore in the testa which allows moisture to reach the ernbyo during the
germination process.
iii. Ernbyo: living part of the seed contains radicle and plumule
iv. Radical: Is the root of the embryo which will grow and develop into a root system after
germination.
v. Plumule: is the embryo shoot which will grow into the plant shoot after germinati
vi. Cotyledons: acts as food reserves which are used during the early stages germination.
vii. Endosperm: acts as food reserves in monocot seeds
Note:
Seeds of dicotyledons have two cotyledons while th of monocotyledons have only one
cotyledon.
Seed germination
Germination is the process by which the seed develops into a seedling.
Conditions necessary for germination
The following are the conditions which must be available for germination to occur.
i. Water
ii. Oxygen
iii. Warmth/temperature
iv. Viable seed

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Types of germination
Hypogeal germination
where the cotyledons remain below ground throughout the stages of germination, e.g. maize.

Epigeal germination
in which the cotyledons are lifted above the ground during germination and act as the first leaves of the
newly emerged plant, e.g. groundnut.

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Seed dispersal
 Scattering of seeds from the parent plant to other areas.
Agents of seed dispersal
 Wind
 Water
 Animal
 Self explosion
Wind dispersal

Seeds which are dispersed by the wind have the following characteristics
i. Small and light so that they can be carried easily
ii. Have 'wings' or hairs which help them to be carried away, e.g. Combretum.
iii. Light in weight
Animal dispersal

Hybrid seeds
Hybrid is an organism produced from two different breeds of different qualities.
Advantages of using hybrid seeds
 increases crop yields
 promotes uniform
 Hybrids improves vigour and faster growth.
Disadvantages using hybrid seeds
 Hybrid seeds need to be bought every planting season because they cannot be replanted
 They are expensive to procure
 They are prone to bad weather conditions

Vegetative propagation

44
Vegetative reproduction is the formation of a new plant from the parent without the fusion of male and
female gametes.
Examples of organs of vegetative propagation

Suckers

 Suckers are new growths which occur at the base of the parent plant. E.g. Bananas and.
 The main stem of the banana plant or pseudo stem develops buds at its base

Bulbs
The onion is the commonest example of a bulb. Buds develop in the axils of the leaves that make up the
bulb. The new plants feed on the fleshy leaves of the bulb.

45
Corms
 A corm is an underground stem which serves as a storage organ.
 Food supplies in the old corm feed the new plant.
 Cocoyam is an example of a corm.

Root tubers

46
  Sweet potatoes and cassava are common, examples of root tubers but in the natural state they do
not carry out vegetative reproduction.
 Cassava can be propagated by cuttings

Stem tubers

 The Irish or European potato and the yam are examples of stem tubers.
 The swollen portion of the plant which acts as a storage organ
 These organs produce buds and can be propagated by cutting the tuber into sections.

Runners and rhizomes

 A runner is a stem which grows along the ground Some grasses reproduce as runners. while A
rhizome is a underground stem growing horizontally. The ginger plant and a number of grasses
spread by means of rhizomes

47
Methods of artificial propagation:

1. Budding
The practice of removing a bud from one plant on to the stem or stock of another. It is the normal
method of propagation of citrus fruits to enable good varieties of fruit to be budded on to strong,
resistant
root stock to produce a healthy, strong growing tree giving fruit of the desired variety.
Process of budding
 A bud is carefully removed by cutting it from the stem leaving a good surround of bark including
the xylem.
 Then a T-shaped cut is made in the bark of the root stock and the bud is carefully inserted
 The objective of budding is to get the cambium of the bud to touch the cambium of the stock so
that a union is obtained.
 Finally some binding twine is tied round the bud to keep it in position until the joining is
complete

48
Grafting
 Grafting involves the uniting of two cambium layers to get a fusion of growth giving a plant with
the good qualities of two different parents.
 The cuts are made on the slant. A protective wax or tape is used to cover the join to prevent it
becoming rotten.
 Tea plants are sometimes propagated by grafting.

Layering
 The practice of layering is to peg the branches of a tree or shrub down to the ground.
 Layering is carried out with coffee, cocoa and some vegetables.

49
Cuttings
 Common method of propagating sugar cane, Cassava, Sweet potato
 The stem is cut into sections (setts) about 45 cm long.
 These are placed horizontally in small trenches in the ground.

Advantages of vegetative propagation

i. Each part is capable of growing into a new plant.
ii. Plants raised vegetatively are identical to their parents
iii. Vegetative organs are hardier than seedlings
iv. They have a food reserve to help them to become established.

50
 v. Planting material is readily available to the farmer from the previous crop.
Disadvantages of vegetative propagation
i. Materials for planting are usually bulky, costly to transport and difficult to handle. e.g. cassava
cuttings, sugarcane sets and banana suckers.
ii. Vegetative materials may rot if piled together for a long-time before planting or may dry up
before planting if planting is unduly delayed.
iii. Vegetative propagation may require specialised skills to be done e.g. grafting, layering.
iv. Vegetative materials are difficult to mechanise their planting.
v. It can easily lead to overcrowding due to ability to establish quickly and grow fast.
vi. A small area can be planted whereas with seeds, one man can plant a large area in a given time.
vii. Due to lack of variation, if one plant is susceptible to a particular disease/pest, the whole crop
population will be affected similarly
Teacher to demonstrate vegetative propagation of different crops

Distribution of crops

Difficulties limiting the growing of certain crops in some parts of Zambia.

i. Rainfall reliability
ii. Temperature - Crops respond differently to different temperature .Some crops require high
environmental temperatures while others grow under cool conditions. cotton and maize grow well
in high ternperature while wheat does well in cool temperatures.
iii. Poor land tenure system
iv. Unfavourable soil conditions limit the growing of certain crops
Climatic requirements of various Crops

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
Crop Rainfall Temperature Wind
Beans  Beans require high rainfall  Beans require  Heavy winds can
 Dry spell towards the maturity warm damage the crop
conditions in
order to grow

51
 well
Maize  Well distributed rainfall over the  Warm
growing period climate is  Winds destroy
 Dry period towards maturity. necessary.. maize crops
 High rainfall encourages incidence
of pests and diseases.

Groundnuts  Well distributed rainfall during the  Warm

growing period climate is
 Dry weather to ripen the crop for necessary.
harvesting.
Bananas  require high well distributed  warm climate  Winds damage
rainfall banana stems and
bunches.
Cotton  Moderate well distributed rainfall  Cotton
during the growing period requires a
 dry spell towards maturity so that warm climate
the lint is not stained by the rain
when bolls open.
 High rainfall is undesirable
because it encourages the
incidence of pests and diseases.
.
Irish potato  Irish potatoes require moderate  cool climatic
rainfall conditions
Tea  Well distributed rainfall  Requires  Heavy winds can
warm cause damage to
climate. the crop
Cassava  Cassava is a drought resistant crop  warm climate  Heavy winds can
but high yields are obtained when destroy cassava

52
 there is good rainfall and. stems.
Pineapple  Well distributed rainfall  warm climate
Tobacco  Well distributed rainfall  warm  Heavy winds can
 High rainfall favours incidence of climate. cause damage to
diseases. tobacco plants
Sunflower  Well moderate distributed rainfall  warm climate  vulnerable to
. heavy winds
Sorghum  Drought resistant  warm climate  Heavy winds
 Moderate rainfall destroy the crop
by breaking the
stems

Characteristics of soil suitable for production of crops

For a soil to be suitable for crop production, it must have the following characteristi
i. Well drained soil
ii. Not Waterlogged because it contains little air most of the airspaces are occupied by water
iii. well aerated to ensure good supply of soil air
iv. It should have appropriate soil pH for proper crop growth
v. It should have a good water holding
vi. It must be free from soil pests and diseases
vii. It should be deep enough to provide proper anchorage to crop roots
viii. It should have sufficient minerals and nutrients
ix. It should be of good tilth to allow for proper seed germination

Explain the factors affecting crop growth.

Light
Light is required by green plants for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants
manufacture their own food (carbohydrates), the higher the light intensity, the higher the rate of
photosynthesis
Wate
Water is essential in crop production for the following roles it plays:
i. It dissolves mineral nutrients. Nutrients become available in a solution form.

53
 ii. Water cools the plants after transpiration
iii. Water helps in seed germination
iv. Water enables transpiration and translocation of nutrients within the plant
v. It is a transporting medium.
vi. It provides Hydrogen which is required during photosynthesis.
Temperature
Temperatures influence biological and biochemical processes with plant cells.

Air
 Air is required for respiration by plant roots, soil living organisms
 It is necessary for seed germination.
 It is required in the oxidation of organic matter which liberates plant nutrients.
Altitude
 Some crops grow well at high altitude because they require cool temperature while others like
maize, tobacco, bananas growth well at low altitude because they thrive well under warm climate.

Cereal crop
Maize (Zae mays) production

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Nutritional value of maize
i. Source of starch
ii. Staple food for the country
iii. Used as fodder crop
Maize Varieties
i. Early maturing varieties such as SC 411, SC 513,
ii. Medium maturing varieties ZMS 606, 616,SC 637, panar 53
iii. Late maturing varieties ZMS 720 and 702 ,seedco 719, seedco 727

Climatic conditions

55
  Fertile soil of pH 5.5-6.5
 well-drained soils
 reliable rainfall It performs well with 600 mm to 900 mm of rainfall during growing period
 warm temperature18-21 for germination and 20-28 for growth
 Maize plants cannot withstand water logging conditions.
Land preparations
Land preparation for maize is done into two stages. These are
i. Primary cultivation
ii. Secondary cultivation
Primary cultivation
This is the first operation done to open up the land. During primary cultivation, the land should be
cleared and cultivated deeply at the depth of 15cm -25cm. Deep cultivation is required to ensure
good root establishment and growth All the weed roots and tree stumps should be removed.

Secondary cultivation
This is done after primary cultivation. Large clods are broken into pieces in order to attain soil tilth.
The soil tilth should be fairly rough because the maize grains for planting are big, and this maintains
soil structure so that soil erosion is checked. The trash should be incorporated into the soil to increase
soil humus which is a source of soil nutrients. After that the ridges are now made for sowing of the
seeds.

Sowing/planting

 Maize can be planted just after first good rains in November

 Certified maize seeds should be planted to guard against diseases.
Seed rate
 Maize should be planted at the seed rate of 20 kg/ha, and at 5-8 cm deep.
 The planting holes should be dug ahead of planting, with a small quantity of fertiliser (NPK)
placed in each hole as basal dressing.
Spacing of maize
 Maize should be planted in rows of 90 x 30cm, 75 x 25cm
 With closer spacing, only one seed per hole should be planted and two or more seeds per hole can
be planted when the spacing is wider.
 The inter-row spacing should be wide enough to facilitate subsequent operations like weeding,
fertiliser application

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Fertiliser application
Basal dressing:
This is Application of fertilisers before or during planting. This fertiliser is applied at the rate of
200kg/ha. Examples of fertilisers applied are D. Compound, Compound R
Top dressing:
The second fertiliser application when the seeds germinate. A Nitrogen fertiliser like urea, ammonium
nitrate or sulphate of ammonia at the rate of200 kg/ha should be applied. The fertiliser should not come
into direct contact with plants to avoid damaging the plants
Methods of fertilizer application
i. Ring method
ii. Broadcasting method
iii. Band placement method
Note: Explain in details the methods of fertilizer application

Weeding
This is the practice of removing weeds from the field. Weeds are unwanted crop growing where it is not
desired.
Methods of weed control
i. Hand pulling of the weeds from the field
ii. Mechanical method i.e. uses farm tools to remove weeds. On a large scale production, ox-drawn
or tractor-drawn implements can be used to control weeds in maize. The rows of maize should be
spaced in such a way that there is enough space to allow machinery to pass between the rows
without damaging the crops
iii. Cultural method i.e. use of agronomical practices such as mulching, crop rotation, early planting
to control weeds.
iv. Biological method i.e. the use of organisms to control weeds e.g. pigs eating pig weeds
v. Chemical method i.e. use of chemical called herbicides to kill weeds. A selective herbicide e.g.
Atrazine can be used as a pre-emergency before maize plants emerge at the rate of 100ml in 20
litres of water. Non selective herbicide kills both weeds and crops. The herbicide can also be
sprayed on the weeds when maize plants are about knee hight (30 - 45cm).
Note:
Excess maize plants should be thinned out during weeding so as to eliminate competition for
nutrients, space and light among the plants. Thinning improves yields.

57
Pests of maize
1. Army worm
Defoliates the crop by chewing them, It can be controlled by applying Malathion
2. Cut worms
Attack the crop when it is emerging by eating the roots and stems of the crop. It can be controlled
by using cyrux
3. Stalk borer
They attack the stalk of the maize when the plant is just young. It can be controlled by using
Thiokill
Diseases of maize
1. Maize streak virus
It’s a viral disease which makes the crop looks yellow with white stripes. It can be controlled by
removing the affected planted
2. Cob rots
They are seed borne and bacterial disease which make the cob to rot at an early stage. Use of
certified seed is the only way to control this disease.
3. Grey leaf spot
It’s a fungal disease which makes the leaves of the crops to be yellow at an early stage. It can be
controlled by planting resistant seed varieties

Harvesting
 Maize is harvested by hand where the cobs are removed from the stalk when still green or dry
 Maize stalk can be cut and stacked for some time before the cobs are removed
 On large scale farming, Maize can be left on the stalks to dry so that they can be harvested by
combine harvesters.
Signs of maturity in maize
 Moisture content should be 12-14
 Yellow leaves
 Cob dropping
 The place where the kneel attaches to the cob should black layer
Storage of maize
Maize can be stored in
i. Granaries
ii. Bags

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 iii. Silos
iv. Cribs
Yields
 8-10 tonnes/ha

Legume crop

Groundnuts production (Arachis hypogeal,)

The groundnut belongs to the group of plants called Legume. They have root nodules on them which
contain rhizobium bacteria.
All members of this group (which includes peas and beans) produce seed-pods; in the case of groundnuts
the pods are produced underground - hence the name groundnut

Uses of ground nuts

i. As whole nuts for eating.
ii. Groundnuts are used in the manufacture of cooking oil, margarine
iii. Used as animal foodstuffs.
iv. Source of protein
v. Pounded into relish
vi. .Making into groundnut 'cake' for cattle food.
vii. groundnut meal for use in poultry

Seed varieties
i. Natal common - early-maturing variety suitable for western and southern provinces where the
rains often finish early.

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 ii. Chalimbana - late maturing variety recommended for Eastern Province.
iii. Makulu Red - late maturing variety. It is grown over most of the country.
iv. White - a white nut grown for export
v. Champion
vi. MGV 4
Climatic requirements for groundnuts
i. Temperature of 27 c◦ – 30c◦
ii. Rainfall of 750mm
iii. Soil ph of 4.5- 6.5
iv. Well drained soil
v. Light Fertile soil
vi. Friable deep soil
Land preparation
After clearing the site, the soil should be cultivated deeply. The land should be free from weeds. The land
should be ploughed to a depth of 20 cm and should be free of weeds at sowing. A light sandy or loam soil
is best because it is softer for the peg to enter for pod formation.
Sowing/planting
 Planting should be done between mid Novembers to end November at the onset of rains.
 Certified dressed seeds should be planted.
 Groundnut seeds should be dressed with Fernasan D or rhiram/ BHC to protect germinating seeds
against soil-borne diseases and pests.
 The close planting of seeds prevents rosette disease
Spacing of groundnuts
Groundnuts can be planted in rows at the following spacing
i. 60 x 10 cm for small seeds
ii. 90 x 12 cm for large seed
Seed rate
 A seed rate of 50 to 80 kg/ha is required
Weeding
Weeding should be done when groundnut plants are still young i.e. before flowering and formation of
fruiting pegs. After the plants have flowered they should not be weeded because it might damage the
roots and pegs.

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Fertilizer application
Groundnuts often grow well without any fertilizer being added because they can use nitrogen from the air.
They grow best if they follow a crop that has had plenty of fertilizer. However, Phosphatic fertilisers e.g.
SSP can be applied at a rate of 125 - 250 kg/ha. Or organic manure can be applied before planting.
Note
 Lack of calcium in soil leads to formation of pops in groundnuts. This can be controlled by
applying gypsum at the rate of 300kg/ha.
How groundnuts are formed.
When the plant is fully grown it will flower. The flowers are yellow and are self-pollinating and self-
fertilizing. After fertilization the stalk or receptacle bearing the ovary turns downward sand begins to
grow towards the ground. At this stage it is known as a peg. The peg then enters the soil and the ovary
begins to develop into a fruit underground. The fully formed fruit consists of a seed pod with two or three
groundnut seeds inside.
Pests and disease control
i. Rosette - virus disease which is spread by aphids. It causes poor growth of the plants. The
fungicide Endosulphan can be used to treat the disease.
ii. Leaf spot - this is a fungus disease which causes black spots on the leaves. It can be partly
controlled by spraying with a fungicide.
iii. Aflotoxin - this disease occurs when the leaves get moist at harvest time and during bad storage
facilities. It is a fungus mould and is controlled by early harvesting and good storage facilities
Harvesting
Signs of maturity
i. The leaves turn yellow
ii. The inside of the pods show dark markings.
iii. Moisture content should be 7
During harvesting, the plant is dug up and its tap root is cut. The plant is then turned over and left in the
sun to dry for about two days. This helps to dry the pods. Groundnuts are often stored in their shells and it
is essential that the nuts are well dried so that they do not get Aflotoxin disease.
Shelling
Groundnuts can be shelled by hand. This is a slow job but it produces the best results for seeds that are
going to be planted. Groundnut shelling machines are quicker but the seeds are often damaged.
Yields
An average yield is between 500 kg and1000 kg per hectare of shelled nuts.

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IRISH POTATO PRODUCTION (Solanum tuberosum)

Basic climatic requirements of Irish potato

i. Rainfall of 25 mm per week is needed
ii. Cooler conditions
iii. Soil ph of 5.5 – 6.5
iv. Light Fertile soil
v. Well drained soil
Land preparation
 Potatoes require well-cultivated land for planting to allow the tubers to develop fully.
 The selected land should be cleared and cultivated at the depth of 15-25cm deep.
 The ridges should be made for planting of the crop.
Planting
 Potatoes are grown vegetatively and the tubers themselves are used as the planting material
 Small 'setts' or 'seed' are planted in ridges
 The tubers to be planted, or seed potatoes, should be left in open trays for a few weeks to
encourage the eyes to sprout.
 Sometimes tubers are cut in half to increase the amount of planting material but this practice does
not greatly increase yields.
Seed rate
 About 2 tonnes of seed potatoes are required to plant out one hectare of land.
Spacing

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  Planted at the spacing of 75 x 30cm and 10cm deep.
Weeding
Earthing up putting up the soil around the base of the growing plants to encourage more tubers to be
formed.

 Weeding is only done in the first in 6 weeks of planting the crop.

Fertilizer application
 Farmyard manure should be applied as basal dressing Fertiliser at the rate 2000kg/ha. This gives
good responses. While Nitrogenous and Phosphatic fertilisers should be at 54-90 kg/ha as top
dressing in the crop.

Pests and diseases

i. Potato aphid (Aulocarthum solani,) transmits virus diseases.
ii. potato blight(Phytophthora infestans) fungus on destroys foliage,
iii. Bacterial wilt, caused by Pseudomonas sp destroys crop.
Control
 Spray with Dithane M45 or Ridomil.

Harvesting the crop

 When the potatoes are ready for harvesting they are dug up and stored. Sharp tools should not be
used for this to avoid damaging the crop
Yields
 5 to 10 tonnes per hectare.

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ONION PRODUCTION (Allium cepa))

Onion is a bulb which consists of layers of white fleshy leaves tightly packed together.
Climatic conditions of onions
 Hot or warm climate
 Fertile soil
 Well-drained soil
 sandy loams,
 Soil pH 6.0-7.0.
Land preparations
 Land should be nicely prepared; all the large clods should be broken in order to attain the fine
tilth. Then the beds should be made where the seedlings should be transplanted.
Planting
 When cultivated, onions are grown from seed.
 The seeds are normally sown in seed beds and transplanted at 6 weeks
Spacing
 40cm x10c m
Fertiliser’s application
 224 kg/ha of double superphosphate and 240 kg/ha of ammonium sulphate.

Harvesting
 They are ready for harvesting at 6-8 months and
 The bulbs are lifted when the leaves are withered
 Can yield 20-30 tonnes per hectare.

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SWEET POTATOES PRODUCTION (Ipomaea batatas)
Uses of sweet potatoes
 Source of energy
 Leaves used as relish
 Livestock feed
 Substitute for iris potatoes
Climate requirements of sweet potatoes
i. High temperature of 24c◦
ii. Rainfall of 750 – 1000mm
iii. Soil pH of 5.5
iv. Light fertile soil is needed

Land preparations for sweet potatoes

The land should be cleared by slashing and uprooting trees and tree-stumps. Burning of debris should be
avoided as it kills beneficial soil microorganisms and soil organic matter (humus). Sweet potatoes should
be grown on ridges. Deep cultivation is required to remove weeds and to give enough room for tuber
expansion. Ridges help to conserve soil and water
Planting
 Cuttings from mature plants are used for planting. The cuttings may be 30 to 45 cm long.
 About half or three quarters of the length of cutting should be buried in the soil
 Planting should be planted in early November to late January
 Spacing should be 80 x 25cm
Precaution
The vines should be left to wilt for some days before planting and it drives out sweet potato
weevils which would damage the crop. The cuttings should be dipped into an appropriate
pesticide e.g. Malathion to kill any sweet potato weevils that may be in planting material before
planting.
Fertiliser application
Organic manure e.g. farmyard manure is broadcast over the field and dug in during land preparation. No
artificial fertilisers are used.
Pests of sweet potatoes
i. Sweet potato weevil
Sweet potato weevils are controlled by first wilting the sweet potato vines meant for planting for
some days before planting them, during which time the weevils escape from the material.

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Diseases of sweet potatoes
i. virus A and B
ii. scurf
iii. soft rot
These diseases are spread by white flies and aphids and can be controlled by using resistant varieties
Harvesting
Sweet potatoes may start to be harvested when they are between four to six months after planting. A hoe
can be used later when totally lifting the tubers. Just enough tubers for domestic use should be harvested
at a time because sweet potatoes cannot be stored in fresh form for a long time before they rot

BANANA PRODUCTION (Musa spp.)

Climatic requirements for banana

 require high well distributed rainfall
 warm climate
 fertile soil
 well drained deep soil
 soil pH of

Land preparations for banana

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  Seedbeds for banana growing should be dug deeply paying particular attention to the removal of
all weeds like couch grass so that the crops are planted in a weed-free environment for quick
establishment.
Planting
 Bananas are propagated by planting suckers.
 Leaves should be trimmed off to reduce transpiration.
 The planting holes should be about 60 cm deep and 60 cm across.
 In a banana plantation spacing between the plants should be 3 m x 2·5 m
 Organic manure and humus should be mixed with top soil which is placed in the bottom of the
hole.
 About 200 g of single superphosphate fertiliser should be mixed with the planting soil.
 The bases of the suckers should be dipped in Dieldrine 2.5% solution to kill any weevils or their
larvae before planting
 The sucker is then planted firmly in the hole.
Weeding
 As with other crops, weeding is essential to produce a good crop of bananas. Grass or cut banana
leaves can be applied around the plants as a mulch. This helps to keep moisture around the plants.
Fertilizers
i. Nitrogenous fertilisers supply Nitrogen to the bananas to encourage vegetative growth
ii. Phosphatic fertilisers are applied to supply Phosphorus which is responsible root growth in
banana plants.
iii. Phosphorus supplied helps in the formation of the banana fruits
iv. Potash fertilisers applied supply Potassium which helps in the formation chlorophyll for
photosynthesis
Pests of banana
1. Banana weevils
They are controlled and prevented by getting suckers for planting from weevil-free suckers
Dipping the suckers in Dieldrine solution to kill adult weevils before planting,
Diseases of banana
1. Panama disease
This is a fungal disease which makes plants turn yellow and dry up and the whole plant dies.
2. Cigar-end rot
This is a fungal disease. Infected fruits have tips which look like the ash on end of cigars

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 3. Banana bacterial wilt
 plants change from green to yellow colour
 Premature ripening and rotting of banana fruits
 When the infected stem is split open, a yellow liquid is emitted out.
 Infected fruits become hard inside.
Harvesting
 Bananas develop in upward-curved bunches or 'hands' and turn yellow when ripe. The stem
should be cut while the hands are still green and left to ripen in a store. A supporting pole may be
needed during the development of the bunch to stop the weight of it breaking the stem.

Forms of land preparation

Preparation of land can either be:
i. Conventional tillage
ii. Minimum tillage
iii. Conservation tillage or zero tillage
1. Minimum tillage
Type of land preparation where there is a minimal soil disturbance
Advantages
i. Cheap way of land preparation
ii. It is a quick method of preparing land.
iii. It prevents soil erosion on the farm
Disadvantages
i. The debris may provide a hiding and breeding place for crop pests e.g. insect pests, mice,
nematodes
ii. Difficult to manage in terms of weeds
2. Conservation tillage/conservation farming
This is when land preparation is done without cultivating the land but herbicides are applied to
clear the land.
Advantages of conservation tillage
i. reduced soil erosion
ii. Soil structure remains undisturbed
iii. Tillage costs are eliminated.
iv. It may lead to high crop yields
v. soil fertility is maintained

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 vi. improves nutrient retention
Disadvantages of conservation tillage
i. The frequent use of herbicides may affect beneficial soil microorganisms
ii. Conservation tillage requires technical knowledge.
iii. Using herbicides may be expensive to local farmers.

3. Conventional tillage
This is when the soil is turned up and down then a harrow is used to produce a fine tilth. Tools
such as hoes, ox drawn and tractor drawn implements can be used in this type of land preparation
Advantages of conservation tillage
i. It permits easy planting
ii. Trash is incorporated into the soil to provide soil organic matter.
iii. It facilitates infiltration and soil.
Disadvantages of conventional tillage
i. It exposes the soil to soil erosion
ii. It encourages surface evaporation which may affect crop germination.
iii. It is expensive
Fertilizer application
Methods of applying fertilizers
1. Broadcasting method
Fertilisers are scattered on the soil surface as evenly as possible before planting.
2. Band placement method
The fertiliser is put in bands on one side or both sides of each row about 5 cm beneath the seed
and 4 cm away from the seed or plant.
3. Ring method
Fertilisers are placed around each crop plant as top dressing but not in direct contact with the
plants because they may cause damage to the plants
Effect of fertilizers on the environment
i. Frequent applications of fertilisers in large quantities change the soil pH
ii. Ammonium sulphate nitrate, Potassium sulphate, increase soil acidity
iii. Soluble fertilisers can be leached easily to pollute water bodies
iv. Nitrogen fertilisers’ results in the accumulation of salts in the rivers or lakes and this cause an
overgrowth of microscopic marine plants. This is known as eutrophication.

69
How to minimize negative effects of fertilizers on the environment
i. Apply right quantities of fertilisers
ii. Use of organic fertilisers
iii. Reduce on the heavy application of chemical fertilisers
iv. Application of lime on the affected soils
.
CROP PROTECTION

Weed Control
Weeds are unwanted crop growing where it is not desired.
The effects of weeds
i. Taking nutrients from the soil Weeds compete with the crop for nutrients in the soil.
ii. Taking moisture from the soil
iii. Harbouring diseases such as Bacterial, viral and fungal diseases
iv. Harbouring insects
v. Shading the crop
vi. The leaves of some weeds are poisonous to grazing animals, e.g. Lantana.
vii. Water weeds may spread rapidly and choke up irrigation canals.
Types of weeds
i. Annual weeds are those which complete their life cycle in a single year, usually within the space
of a rainy season.
ii. Perennial weeds live for many years, often reproducing vegetatively, but sometimes by means of
seeds.
Weeds can be divided into four main plant types.
i. Monocotyledons
ii. Dicotyledons
iii. Woody weeds
iv. Water weeds
Ways in which weeds are spread
i. Water
ii. Wind
iii. Animals
iv. By explosion

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 v. By vegetative
Methods of Weed control
i. Hand weeding
ii. Biological control. Weeds can be controlled by introducing insects into the field so that they will
feed on the leaves and stems of the weeds.

iii. Mechanical weed control method

This is the type weeding method which involve the use of farm tools such as hoes, harrows,
cultivators and ploughs
Advantages of using mechanical method
• Does not require a lot of human labour.
• Buried weeds into the soil increase soil humus.
• It opens up soil which improves soil aeration and rain infiltration.
Disadvantages
• It is difficult to control weeds between crop plants within the crop rows.
• Implements used in mechanical weed control can damage crop
• Destroy soil structure and lead to soil erosion.
iv. Chemical control method
The use of chemical weed killers or herbicides to control weeds
There are three ways in which herbicides can attack weeds
i. By contact. Leaves and shoots of the weeds are sprayed; the herbicide may enter the plant by
diffusion, mainly through the leaves.
ii. By translocation. Systemic herbicides get into the weed through the leaves, stem or roots and are
carried throughout the plant with its food supply.
iii. Through the soil - herbicides which are sprayed on the soil may have a lasting effect on weeds by
preventing their growth for some time.

Selective and non-selective herbicides

Selective herbicides they kill only certain weed species when applied among a weed population and leave
others unharmed. While Non-selective herbicides kill all plants that they come into contact with.

Systematic and contact herbicides

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Systematic herbicides move within the biological systems of the plant while Contact herbicides kill only
parts of weeds they come in contact with. They are normally applied on foliage of weeds. Their
effectiveness depends on how much the herbicide wets the weed, for example, Paraquat.

Pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides

Pre-emergence herbicides are applied as soon as the crop has been planted while Post-emergence
herbicides are applied after the crop has emerged.

Some common examples of herbicides

Herbicide Type Use

s
Atrazine pre-emergence Control of broad-leaved weeds in maize

2.4·D selective systemic Control of broad-leaved weeds pre-emergence in maize and

post-emergence sugar cane
2,4,5-T selective, contact control of woody weeds
Dalapon selective, systemic post-emergence control of grass weeds in most crops
MCPA selective, systemic control of broad-leaved weeds in maize and other grain
crops
Paraquat non-selective, control of most weeds before or after emergence of the crop
contact
Sodium non-selective controls a wide range of weeds in crops or on paths
chlorate

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Advantages of herbicides
i. Reduces early weed competition in crops.
ii. Reduces labour requirements for weeding.
iii. Using herbicides gives a farmer more time to plan for the farm.
iv. Enables a farmer to cultivate a large farm area with efficient and effective weed control.
v. It requires less labour to control weeds.
Disadvantages of herbicides/ Negative effects of herbicides on the environment

i. Herbicides are expensive to buy

ii. Requires skills which many farmers lack.
iii. Herbicides are not easily available in all areas, so this limits their use.
iv. Herbicides pollute the environment and injure or kill crop plants if used wrongly.
v. Herbicides are poisonous to humans and livestock
vi. kill beneficial soil microorganisms like Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, nitrifying bacteria and beneficial
insects like pollinating honey bees
vii. Pollute soil, water thereby killing the organisms
viii. Herbicides can be absorbed by harvestable crops which trace their way into the food chain and
become a health hazard.
How to minimize negative effects of herbicides on the environment
• Negative effects of herbicides to the environment can be minimised by using other weed
control methods instead of using herbicides. Other methods like cultural, mechanical or
biological methods can be used.

PESTS AND DISEASES OF CROPS

Insect Pests
A pest is small living organism that attacks crops and animals.
Examples of insect pest

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Characteristics of insects

i. Their bodies are divided into three parts: head, thorax and abdomen
ii. Their mouthparts are adapted for a particular type of feeding
iii. They have one pair of antennae (sensory organs) on the head
iv. They have three pairs of jointed legs attached to the thorax;
v. Most insects have wings attached to the thorax;
vi. They have a simple digestive tract
vii. They breathe through spiracles
viii. Their life history goes through several distinct changes, called metamorphosis.

External features of an insect

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Metamorphosis
Metamorphosis is the term given to the changes which an insect undergoes from the moment it is hatched
until it is a mature adult capable of reproduction.

Types of metamorphosis
i. incomplete or incomplete
ii. Complete metamorphosis

Complete metamorphosis

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Four distinct stages occur: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Each stage is quite unlike the others and the adult
emerging at the end is totally different in appearance from its previous three stages.
Incomplete metamorphosis
Incomplete metamorphosis The insect passes from the larval stage to a nymphal stage which resembles
the adult, e.g. locusts. Several nymphal instars may be necessary as the insect grows to the adult. In some
cases the adult hatches live young, e.g. aphids.

Mouth parts
Biting and chewing insects
 They attack parts of or whole plants using their biting and chewing mouth parts.
 Attacked crops can be defoliated which interferes with photosynthesis resulting in low yielding.
Insects like locusts, grasshoppers, and armyworms are examples biting and chewing insects

Piercing and sucking insects

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  They suck the cell sap of the attacked crops after piercing them. The piercing cause’s injury to the
attacked parts and this allows entry of disease-causing agents into the plants and pests inject toxic
saliva into the plant tissues. Piercing and sucking pests usually transmit disease-causing agents
into crop plants, e.g. aphids transmit groundnut rosette virus disease to groundnuts; white flies
transmit cassava mosaic to cassava plants etc.
Boring insects
 They make tunnels into stems and fruits or seeds of the crop. E.g. maize stalk borer
Signs of pest attack in crops.
i. Holes on the attacked part of the crop.
ii. Holes on stored bean seeds by weevils.
iii. Yellowing of the leaves e.g. heavy infestation of banana weevils on banana plants.
iv. Defoliation of crop
v. Mechanical damage on the crop can be a sign of pest attack
vi. Spots on the leaves of attacked crops.
vii. Breaking of stems e.g. stalks borers on maize plants.
viii. Wilting of crop plants can be a sign of pest attack e.g. cut worm.
ix. Loss of weight of stored crops.
x. Low crop yields can be a sign of pest attack
Pest control methods
i. Practising crop
ii. Timely or early planting of crops controls and prevents pest attacks on crops
iii. Weed control prevents and controls pests
iv. Planting pest-free materials prevents and controls crop pests
v. Proper drying before storage and clean storage facilities prevent and control pests, for example,
drying of bean seeds helps control bean weevils
vi. Removal of pest-infested
vii. Uprooting and burning of crop residues after harvesting helps control pests
viii. Spraying or dusting crops with chemicals
ix. Manuring controls and prevents crop pests because plants grow vigorously to withstand pest
attack
Plant diseases
Plants disease are grouped into the following
1. Fungal diseases
2. Bacterial diseases

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 3. Viral diseases

Fungal diseases
 They are caused by fungi.
 The spores of the fungi are spread from one place to another by wind, water and human being
Agricultural importance of fungi
 Fungi cause decay of stored products.
 Seeds can be attacked by fungi while stored or after planting.
 They are used in fermentation processes, e.g. yeast is used in brewing and wine-making.
 Milk is processed into cheese using fungi.
Common diseases caused by fungi
i. panama disease
ii. bean rust
iii. fusarium wilt
iv. rust
v. blight
vi. smut
vii. stem rust
viii. yellow rust
Control of fungal diseases
i. Use of resistant seed varieties
ii. Certified seed dressed with fungicide may prove resistant to some fungal attacks.
iii. Application of fungicides.
Viral disease
 They are caused by virus
 They are usually transmitted by insect vectors, chiefly aphids and leaf hoppers.
 They can also be transmitted by workers or animals
Agricultural importance of viruses lies in the fact that they cause many serious diseases of crops and
animals

Common example of viral disease

i. Bunch top
ii. Mosaic
iii. Tristeza

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 iv. Leaf curl
v. Rosette
vi. Streak
vii. Stunt

Control of viral disease

i. Use of insecticides such as Malathion.

ii. Certified seed resistant varieties.
iii. Clean cultivation practices.
Bacterial disease
They are caused by the bacteria. Examples are bacterial wilt and bacterial blight. The only effective
control against bacterial wilt is to use resistant varieties, which are plants which have been specially bred
to resist the bacterial infection.
Agricultural importance of bacteria
i. Bacteria in the soil breakdown organic matter
ii. Bacteria in legumes fix nitrogen in the soil
iii. Bacteria in manure and compost
iv. Bacteria in ruminant digestion help in the digestion of cellulose
v. Bacteria in milk
vi. Used in the formation of silage
General measures to control pests and diseases
• Early or timely planting of crops
• Weeding of crops helps to prevent and control pests and diseases on crops.
• Crop pruning
• Crop rotation helps to prevent and control crop pests and diseases by making
• Seed dressing prevents and controls pests and diseases of crops. Planting
• Soil sterilisation
• Planting resistant varieties of crops helps to prevent crop diseases, e.g. planting
• Controlling vectors of crop diseases
• Removing and destroying pest-infested or diseased plants
• Disinfecting farm
• Application of chemicals
• Heat treatment

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Precautions on spraying chemicals are:

i. Use protective clothing (masks, overalls, goggles and gloves - do not use bare hands to mix
chemicals)
ii. Washing after spraying.
iii. Not eating/smoking while spraying.
iv. Storing spray chemicals in their original containers.
v. Following instructions on intervals before harvest.
vi. Not spraying on windy days.
vii. Washing equipment after spraying.
Precautions to be taken to protect the environment are
i. Avoid contamination of water sources.
ii. Avoid contamination of domestic water supplies.
iii. Care in disposing of excess chemicals.
iv. Care of disposing of empty containers.
Safety rules when storing pesticides
i. Keep the pesticides away from the reach of people
ii. Do not keep the pesticides in the same place with food stuffs.
iii. Do not keep pesticides in food containers or bottles for drinks as they can be mistaken for food or
drinks.
iv. Keep pesticides in lockable stores.
v. Keep pesticide containers clearly labelled.
Storage of crops
Examples of storage facilities
Baskets, Racks, Bags/sacks, Stores, Granaries, Bins, Cribs, Silos, Poles and Low temperature storage
Granaries
• They consist of rat guard fitted on each pole to prevent entry of rats, mice and termite into the
granary.
• The floor can be plastered with mud or cow dung.
Advantages
i. Cheap to construct and can be constructed from local materials.
ii. Do not need specialised skills to erect.
Disadvantages

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 i. Many small scale farmers usually do not put on rat guards during construction and this
makes the stored produce easily subjected to pest damage.
ii. Poorly thatched granaries expose the stored produce to being damaged by rain.
iii. Granaries are usually broken into by thieves who steal the stored produce
Cribs
• They have raised floors to prevent dampness from the ground.
• Maize is usually stored in cribs.
Advantages
i. Cribs usually store large amounts of produce.
ii. They are very durable on the farm and can serve for so long.
iii. Cribs are a safe method of crop storage provided they are vermin-proof and leak-proof.
Disadvantages
• Cribs are expensive to construct.
• They require technical skills to construct.
Silos
• They are used for bulk storage of produce. Small silos are used by traders and commercial
Advantages
• The produce is properly and safely stored in
Disadvantage
• It is expensive to erect or buy a silo
Irrigation
Irrigation is the controlled application of water to a particular area of land, by means of rivers, channels or
pipes.
Need for irrigation.
i. The purpose of irrigation is to supply a crop with sufficient water to enable it to grow properly.
This means making sure that the soil receives the correct amount of water to support the crop
ii. It reduces dependant on rains
iii. It allows double cropping
iv. It allows the cultivation of crops in the dry season
Sources of water for irrigation
(a) Surface water
i. Rain water
ii. Ponds
iii. Streams

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 iv. Dams
v. Lakes
(b) Underground source of water (aquifer)
i. Springs
ii. Wells
iii. Boreholes

Factors to consider when setting up an irrigation scheme

i. Topography of the area
ii. Physical characteristics of the soil
iii. Amount of water available
iv. The crops to be grown
v. Capital available for the project
vi. Infiltration
vii. Evapo-transpiration
viii. Root depth

Methods of irrigation
i. Surface irrigation
ii. Drip irrigation
iii. Sprinkler irrigation
Surface irrigation

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This is type irrigation where the land to be used for irrigation is flooded with water all over the land. This
type of irrigation system is mostly used in rice production, banana, wheat etc. The surface irrigation is
further divided into sub surface and these are
a) Farrow irrigation
Type of surface irrigation where water is delivered to the crops using the furrows
Advantages
i. The water goes exactly where it is directed and furrows can be constructed close to the
growing crop.
ii. The amount of water applied can be controlled.
Disadvantages
i. It can cause soil erosion, especially if the slope of the furrow is too steep.
ii. Plants at the end of the row may get less water because of seepage
b) Basin irrigation
In basin irrigation water is diverted to crops using basin. After flooding the land it is allowed to
drain quickly back into the river.
Advantages
i. No work is required
ii. The river carries silt and deposits this improves soil fertility.

Disadvantages
i. This method will only work if the river reaches the required level.
ii. Makes crops to rot
iii. Soils must be heavy or good water-holders – if not they dry out before the crop is mature.
iv. Only quick-growing crops can be planted.
Drip irrigation
This is the type of irrigation where water is supplied to each crop through polythene pipes. The pipes have
nozzle at specific interval through which water drip out. This type of irrigation is common in tomato
production.
Advantages of drip irrigation
i. Required amount of water is applied to the crop
ii. Evaporation of water is reduced
iii. Accumulation of salts is reduced
iv. Effective method in tomato and green beans production
Disadvantages

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 i. The method is quit expensive because it needs more pipes

Sprinkler or overhead irrigation

This is the type of irrigation where water is pumped from the river, dumps or underground source and
delivered to the crop through the pipes laid across the land. Water is first pumped into the main pipes
which are 20cm in diameter. The figure shows a sprinkler.

• Where land is too steep, topography uneven or soils very permeable, sprinkler irrigation is more
suitable

Sprinkler irrigation with a shelter belt of trees

Advantages of overhead irrigation

i. All crops are supplied with the required amount of water
ii. Water to irrigate is calculated
iii. No wastage of water

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Disadvantages of overhead irrigation
i. It’s expensive
Task
Suggest suitable methods of irrigation that can be applied on the following piece of land
a) Mountainous land
b) Leveled or flat land
c) Too steep, topography uneven or soils.
Effects of irrigation on the environment
i. Causes soil erosion
ii. Causes soil compaction
iii. It brings about soil salinity and soil sodicity. Salinity is the accumulation of salts in the soil while
sodicity is the accumulation of sodium in the soil.
Measures to reduce of salinity in the soil
i. Application of water which is free from soluble salts
ii. Physical scrapping off the salts from the soil surfaces
iii. Application of gypsum
iv. Application of lime
Explain the significance of the water cycle and ground water resources

FORESTRY
• The practice of Growing trees on large scale
Explain the role played by trees in the environment
• Beautify the environment
• Releases oxygen for animals
• Removes carbon dioxide from the environment.
• Reduce soil erosion
• Absorbs sound to reduce noise pollution
• Food production
• Source of medicine
• Provides habitat for animals
Discuss the uses of trees
Roles of trees in soil erosion
• Roots of the trees holds the soil particles together so that soil is not carried by wind or water
• Leaves of trees act as soil cover so that soil is not carried

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 • Trees act as wind breakers

Roles of trees in soil fertility

• Leaves of tree fall and rot to become manure
• Organic matter decomposes to release the nutrients in the soil which leads to soil fertility
• Some trees fix nitrogen in the soil e.g. sesban sesban, tephrosia
• Some trees have deep rooted which absorb nutrients from the lower soil to upper regions
Roles of trees in water conservation
• Trees reduce rate of evaporation from the soil
• Leaves cover the soil to reduce evaporation
• Trees act as mulches to reduce evaporation
Different uses of wood
• Used for furniture and flooring
• Construction and shipbuilding
• Ditches and utensils
• Tools
• Sports equipment and toys
• For fuel
Agro- forestry
• Agro-forestry is the planting of trees and crops on the same piece of land.
• Leaves from the trees will provide nutrients to the crops when they decompose

Identify various tree species that will improve soil fertility

Tree species that will improve soil fertility include Nitrogen fixing trees. They contain rhizobium bacteria
that fix nitrogen in the soil.
i. Fedherbia albida
ii. Glincidia sepium

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 iii. Sesbania sesban
iv. Lisidia
v. Tefrosia vogelli
vi. Lablab.
Advantages of Agro- forestry
• Mixed crops and trees increases soil fertility.
• Prevents soil erosion
• Helps to preserve the environment.
• Agro forestry allows diversification of farm activity
• Makes better use of environmental resources.
•
Disadvantages of Agro- forestry
• There is competition of sunlight, nutrients and water between crops and trees
• Tall trees shade the crops which leads to poor yield
• Management of the land becomes difficult
Deforestation
• Deforestation is the extensive cutting down of trees for various purposes such as charcoal
burning, agriculture etc.
Causes of deforestation
Causes of deforestation
• Firewood and charcoal.
• Increased demands for logs and sawn.
• Increased population resulting in increased demand for food and shelter
• Seasonal fire outbreaks by lightning, hunters or grazers destroy.
• Industrialisation.
• Agriculture activities
• Construction of transport and communication infrastructure
Discuss the effects of deforestation.
• Deforestation leads to climatic change
• Reduced rainfall leading to less reliable rainfall.
• Deforestation results in soil erosion
• Results in reduced soil productivity which ends in low crop yields.
• Deforestation leads to shortage of biomass energy supply resulting into fuel wood crisis.
• Deforestation destroys the natural habitats for wildlife – ecosystem

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 • It leads to environmental degradation
• Deforestation causes reduced water supply from lakes, rivers, streams and swamps because of
continuous reduced rainfall.
• Deforestation results into failure of nutrient cycle
Describe the measures of preventing and controlling of deforestation
• Afforastation- planting of trees in the field
• Re-afforastation- replanting of trees where they been cut
• Avoidance of cutting trees
• Stiff punishment to the people involved
• Educating people on the importance of trees
• By establishment of woodlots
• Alternative sources of energy.
State the management of a woodlot.
• A woodlot is a small area of trees that is set aside to be used for production of building
materials or timber production.
Management of woodlot
The management of a woodlot should involve the following practice
• Prevention of fire
• Fertilizer application
• Weed control
• Thinning
• Gapping
• Pruning
Fallow and improved fallow
• Resting of land from cultivation for a period of time to allow it restore soil fertility lost from
growing crops.
• Improved fallow is land which has been allowed to rest from cultivation for a period of time to
allow it to regain lost soil fertility. In improved fallow, leguminous plants, shrubs and cover
crops. (Lays).
Benefits of improved fallow
• It shorten the time taken to restore soil fertility
• Replenish soil fertility rapidly
• Improve farm land productivity
•

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CONSERVATION FARMING
• Type of farming that involves practices that will conserve the soil for future use
• Growing crops while also ensuring that the environment and especially the soil is not degraded
Organic farming and Soil Fertility
• Organic farming is farming without using industrially made fertilisers.
• It relies on techniques e.g. crop rotation, green manure, compost and biological pest control.
Organic matter.
• Decomposed plant and animal materials in the soil, also called humus.
Explain the role of organic farming (organic matter) in soil fertility.
i. Increase the activities organisms in the soil
ii. Improves soil structure
iii. Improve soil texture
iv. It increases soil nutrients
v. Improves soil water holding capacity
vi. Increases soil fertility
vii. Helps to retain heat in the soil due to its dark colour
viii. Prevents mineral leaching.
ix. Reduces soil erosion
x. It has a buffering effect which maintains acid-base conditions of the soil
Disadvantages of organic matter
 Organic matter cannot be collected in bulk to be applied over an extensive area
 It cannot be applied to correct soil infertility immediately because it releases few nutrients slowly
over a time.
 It is bulky which makes it difficult to store
 Expensive to transport and tiresome to apply.
 Organic matter takes some time to decompose
 It produces heat which can damage crop root if applied when still fresh

Fertilizers
State the advantages and disadvantages of using artificial fertilizers to supply nutrients to crops.
Advantages of artificial fertilisers
i. Soluble in soil water and Release large amounts of nutrients.
ii. They are easy to store

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 iii. Cheap to transport and easy to handle and apply.
iv. Contains specific nutrients indicated.
v. Supply the nutrients that may be lacking in the soil.

Disadvantages of artificial fertilisers

i. Expensive to buy .
ii. It lasts for a short time in the soil.
iii. Easily lost from the soil because of leaching.
iv. Destroy soil useful microorganisms.
v. Change soil pH.
vi. Pollute the environment.
vii. Artificial fertilisers cannot improve on the soil structure.

Task:
a) Explain the importance of maintaining or increasing organic matter for crops.
b) Describe conventional farming methods.
c) Explain the importance of organic methods of farming.
d) Explain how organic matter is reduced in the soil.
e) State ways to increase organic matter in the soil

Crop rotation
• Growing of different crops on a piece of land season after season.

Important crop rotation in agriculture

• Reduces the incidence of crop pests and diseases on the farm
• It increases soil fertility
• Improves soil structure.
• There is better use of soil nutrients by the growing crops because different crop types feed at

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 different soil layers
• increases crop yields because soil fertility is improved
• Control soil erosion and control weeds in the fields
Discuss the importance of including legumes in crop rotation.
• Leguminous plants contain rhizobium bacteria on their root nodules which fix Nitrogen from
atmosphere into the soil. This increase soil fertility which in turn increases crop yields.
• Leguminous plants control soil erosion because they provide vegetative cover over the soil and
their roots bind soil particles together.
• Leaves of the leguminous plants provide humus which improves soil structure and adds nutrients
into the soil on decomposition.
The role of crop rotation in controlling pests and diseases
• It prevents the incidence of pests and diseases in crops because different types of crops follow
one another in a sequence which causes pests and disease causing agents to die before the same
type of crop is grown again in the same field.
• Crop rotation breaks the life cycles of pests and disease-causing agents
• Maize stalk borers, aphids, sweet potato weevils, groundnut rosette disease, cassava mosaic,
tomato blight, parasitic nematodes can be controlled by crop rotation
Intercropping
Growing of more than one crop on the same piece of land
Explain the importance of intercropping crops.
• Controls soil erosion by providing more crop cover on the soil.
• There is better utilisation of soil mineral salts because different types of growing crops
feed at different soil depths.
• Legumes growing in the intercropping fix nitrates in the soil
• Intercropping enables the farmer to harvest different types of crops from the same field.
Factors to consider when intercropping crops
i. Spatial arrangement
ii. Plant density
iii. Maturity date
iv. Plant arrangement
Intercropping of crops
a) Bananas/beans
b) cassava/groundnuts
c) bananas/coffee

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 d) maize/beans
e) cassava/beans
f) potatoes/maize/beans/cassava/maize

Task:
a) Describe conventional farming methods.
b) Explain the importance of organic methods of farming.
c) Explain the meaning of conservation tillage.
d) State the benefits of no tillage or conservation tillage

Green manure
State the meaning of Green manure.
• Crops grown particularly to be ploughed back to the soil while still green to improve soil fertility.
• Leguminous crops are mostly used.
Explain the importance of green manure.
• Source of nutrients for plants in the soil.
• Helps to improve soil structure.
• It improves soil aeration and water retention capacity.
• Increases absorption of heat required for seed germination
Compost
• Compost is manure prepared from grass and crop residues
Compost making
Compost can be made into 2 types
i. Pit
ii. Heaps
Compost making using a Pit
• Underground pit is made
• Suited in dry season
• Needs less water
Compost making using heap
• Is made above the ground
• Suited in rain season or flood prone areas
• Needs more water
Conditions necessary for microbial activity

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 i. Bacteria, fungi
ii. Aeration to supply oxygen
iii. Optimum temperature
iv. Moisture
Compost making

• Chopped maize stalks, dry grasses and leaves are put at the base to encourage air circulation
• Sprinkle manure or fertilizers on the foundation. This acts as initial food for the bacteria
• Put weeds and other material to be decomposed
• Sprinkle water suited for bacteria action
• Add manure or fertilizers to act as activator for organism
• Add lime or ash to neutralize the acidity of the compost
• Cover the heap with a layer of soil and repeat the layout
Note:
i. A roof should be made to prevent rain from entering the heap and also prevent
overheating.
ii. Turn the heap to allow air circulation.
iii. Insert the stick to check the decomposition or temperature of the heap.
State the importance of compost to a crop.
• Improves soil aeration
• Improves soil structure.
• It supplies plant nutrients e.g. Nitrogen, Phosphorus
• It improves soil water absorption
• It improves soil structure which helps to control soil erosion.

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Examples of animal manure
i. Cattle manure
ii. Pig manure
iii. Goat and sheep manure
iv. Rabbit manure
v. Poultry manure
Note:
• All animal manure contain nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
• Poultry manure is very concentrated in nitrogen and phosphorus than any other animal manure
• Pig manure has low in Nitrogen and Potassium.
• Manure from non ruminant animals is richer in Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium and other
elements than that of ruminants.
Explain the importance of using animal manure.
• Improves soil structure.
• It increases the humus content of the soil
• Improves water holding capacity of the soil.
• It supplies nitrogen, Phosphorus
• It traps soil heat which helps in seed germination

Agricultural techniques
Describe how sustainable agriculture can provide adequate nutrient availability in the soil
Conservation practices
Describe how clearing plants from the field damages the soil.
• Clearing the field leads to soil erosion by wind
• Reduces the crop residues which act as manure when they rot
• Decreases soil fertility
• Increases evaporation of soil moisture
• All the crop cover is removed which leads to poor water retention in the soil
Explain how cropping practices can encourage water retention in the soil.
• Crop residues in the field act as mulches which prevent the loss of water from the soil through
evaporation. This water will be retained in the soil (infiltration)
Explain why it is important to maintain a high cover on soil throughout the dry rain season.
• They act as mulches to prevent water loss through evaporation
• Increases fertility in the soil

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 • Increases water holding capacity in the soil
• Reduces soil erosion by wind
• Improves soil structure
• When thy decompose they release nutrients in the soil
Aeration of soil
• Breaking of the soil to allow the circulation of air, water and nutrients in the soil
Explain the importance of aeration.
• Reduce soil compaction
• Increases the circulation of air, water and nutrients in the soil
• Promotes growth of plants
• Reduces weeds in the field
Describe how to improve soil aeration in a field.

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
Importance of livestock
 Fighting malnutrition;
 Income generation
 Soil fertility
 Draft power and provision of hides and skins
 Source of employment
 Sign of wealth
Anatomy and physiology of livestock
Parts of Digestive system of a bird.

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Parts and functions;
The digestive system of birds is similar to other Monogastric except that it has the following
characteristics:
1. It has no soft palate or teeth
2. Has a crop
3. Has a gizzard
4. Has poorly developed salivary glands
5. No digestion takes place in the mouth.

Beak
- For picking and tearing feed/ food
The oesophagus
This is modified in the avian to include the crop

The crop
This is a dilation of the oesophagus. Its size varies with eating habits and between the species

Function
1. It’s a storage organ
2. It’s a moistening reservoir
3. It produces “pigeon milk” or “crop milk” in doves and pigeons. This “milk” is used
to feed the young.

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The Proventriculus
This is the equivalent to the glandular stomach of mammals or Abomasum in ruminants. It’s
small in some species but big in fish eating species

Function
1. It’s the site for gastric juice production (HCL and Pepsin)
2. No digestion takes place here ( the ingesta passes through in a matter of seconds) except
for carnivorous birds

The Gizzard/Ventriculus
This is a specialized grinding organ of birds.It’s highly muscular depending on the type of food
consumed. It maybe big and well developed in wild birds and small and less developed in
commercially raised birds (that eat pre-ground rations). In free range birds the gizzard contains
grit that assist in the grinding of food. There are no enzymes secreted in the gizzard. However
enzymes from the proventriculus work here.
DIGESTION IN THE PIG
The pig is both an omnivore and a monogastric animal. That is, it feeds on both animal and plant
materials and has one stomach. (See figure 1)

Mouth
The major function of the mouth is for grinding feed and mixing it with saliva. The saliva helps
in moistening, chewing and swallowing process. It has a pH of about 7.4. Amylase breaks down
the starch in the feed. Since the food does not stay for a long time in the mouth this break down
of starch is of very little nutritional value.
The stomach
The stomach of a pig has a capacity of about 7.5 liters. The food requires staying in the pigs’
stomach for approximately 24 hours before it is empty.

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Figure 1.Diagram showing the digestive tract of a pig: Source Introduction to Animal Science

Function
The stomach provides the following functions
1. It’s the site for Chemical and Enzymatic digestion
a. Chemical digestion
This is provided by hydrochloric acid (HCL) which is secreted by the gastric
glands.
Functions of HCL
i. It activates the enzyme pepsin
ii. It denatures proteins – for ease of digestion by enzymes
iii. It provides acid in the stomach – for gastric acid to wok
iv. It kills bacteria – hence the stomach is almost sterile
b. Enzymatic digestion
This provided by the following enzymes
i. Pepsin
ii. Gastricin
Both these enzymes digest protein
iii. Lipase – digests fat
iv. Rennin – coagulates milk ( this enzyme is not found in the pigs stomach)

2. Stores food

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 The stomach allows the animal to eat at a much faster rate than if digestion had to occur
as rapidly as the food is consumed.

The Small Intestines

The pigs’ intestines have a capacity of approximately 9.4 litres with a length of about 18m. The
small intestines continue with the digestion that was begun in the mouth and stomach and is also
a place where absorption takes place. It’s basically divided into three parts: the Duodenum; the
Jejunum and the Ileum.
A. The duodenum
Bile and pancreatic juices enter from this part of the small intestine. The small intestine is
the main site for digestion in the entire digestive system.
Functions of:
Pancreatic juices
1. It contains the following enzymes that aids in digestion
▪ Trypsin (breaks protein into amino acids and peptides)
▪ Lipase (converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol)
▪ Amylase (converts starch to maltose)
▪ Maltase (changes maltose into glucose)
▪ Chymotrypsin (converts proteins into peptides and amino acids and has a
coagulating action on milk)
2. Has sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate that neutralizes the acid nature of
chyme (digested food from the stomach)
3. Produces insulin. This plays a role in the metabolism of carbohydrates
Bile
This is secreted by the liver and stored by the gallbladder.
1. It aids in the digestion and absorption of fat
2. Aids in the digestion of fat soluble vitamins
3. Activates pancreatic lipase
B. Jejunum
This is covered with millions of microscopic villi and it’s the longest part of the small
intestine. It has the following functions:
1. Continues with digestion
2. Absorption of food (carbohydrates, amino acids, short fatty acids), water soluble
vitamins and most minerals
C. The ileum
a. It connects to the large intestine
b. It also continues with absorption

Large Intestine

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This is about 5m in length and has a capacity of approximately 9.5 litres. It basically consists of
two parts:
1. The caecum (approximately 24 cm long and 1.8 litres capacity)
2. The colon (approximately 4.8 m long and a capacity of about 7.5 litres)

Function
1. Absorption of water
2. It’s a reservoir of waste materials (faeces)

Digestion in ruminant animals

THE REPRODUCTION AND ESTRUS CYCLE

Swine producers have many reproductive problems, a reproduction of which calls for a full
understanding of the reproductive physiology and the application of scientific practices therein.

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In fact in swine breeding it may be said that reproduction is a prerequisite because if swine fail to
reproduce the farmer soon runs out of business. Twenty percent of all sows fail to breed, 5-30%
of fertilized eggs do not develop normally resulting in embryonic mortality or death. And 10-
30% of live pigs that farrow die within the first seven to ten days of life. It is therefore
imperative to study the subject of physiology of reproduction of swine.

Boar reproductive system

The function of the boar in reproduction is
1. Produce male reproductive cells, the sperm.
2. Introduce sperm into female reproductive tract at the proper time.

For the above functions to be fulfilled you must have a clear understanding of the anatomy of the
reproductive system of the boar. The boar reproductive organs comprise the primary, secondary
and accessory sex organs.

Figure 1: Boar’s reproductive system

Primary sex organs

Testes
Testes are a pair or organs found in a sac-like structure (the scrotum). A thick membrane called
the ‘tunica albuginea’ covers them. Inside the testes, they consist of tubules known as
seminiferous tubules. The testes of a mature boar perform two functions:
1. Production of sperms
2. Production of male sex hormones (testosterone). The functions of testosterone are:
 It induces libido (sex drive)
 It causes development of male body characteristics.

Scrotum
This is a two-lobed sac, the lobes being divided by a vertical septum. The scrotum has three main
functions:

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 1. To support the testes
2. To protect the testes
3. To regulate the temperature within the testes. Optimal temperature for spermatogenesis
(sperm production) is 33 to 36 degrees Celsius.

Secondary sex organs

Epididymis
This is divided into three parts: the head, the body and the tail. Its functions are:
1. Sperm storage
2. Provided nutrients to the sperms
3. It is where sperms undergo maturation
4. Passage way for sperms

Vas Deferens
This is the tube connecting the epididymis to the urethra. During ejaculation, the vas deferens
contracts forcing the sperms down the urethra.
Urethra
This is a common duct for urine and sperms down the penis.
Accessory Glands
These consist of the seminal vesicles, prostrate and Cowper’s glands. The function of these
glands is to produce seminal plasma, which may form 60 to 95% of the volume of ejaculate.
Functions of seminal plasma:
1. Cleanses the urethra of urine, bacteria, and contaminants just before ejaculation
2. Activates sperms
3. Provides nutrients for sperms
4. Adds volume to the ejaculate
5. May aid sperm survival in the vagina. The vagina is a hostile environment for sperms and
unless they can quickly gain entry to the uterus, they will die.

Penis
It has some erective tissue, which is minimal compared to that found in horses and humans. In
the boar, the erective tissue is only for hardening the penis during erection and not for
lengthening or increasing in size as the case in humans and horses. It facilitates ease of
penetration and depositing of semen at the right place.
Sow’s reproductive system
The sow’s functions in reproduction are:
1. Produce the female reproductive cells, the eggs or ova
2. To develop the new individual, the embryo, in the uterus
3. To expel the fully developed young at the time of birth.
4. To produce milk for the nourishment of the young

The role played by the sow in the generative process is even more complicated than that of the
boar. Therefore the need to for a full understanding of the physiology of the sow’s reproductive
organs and the functions thereof.

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Ovary
These are the primary organs of the sow’s reproductive system. They perform three important
functions:
1. Produce the female reproductive cells, the egg or ova
2. Secrete the female sex hormone, oestrogen
3. Form the corpora lutea.

Infundibulum
A funnel shaped portion of the oviduct, which enfolds the ovary and traps the egg at the time of
ovulation.

Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes)

Tubular structures which carry the ovum from the ovary to the uterus. If mating has taken place
this is where fertilization usually takes place. The fertilised eggs then move into the uterine
horns. The journey between the ovary and uterine horn takes about 3 to 4 days.

Uterus
The uterus is composed of a muscular sac consisting of two parts; the uterus body and the uterine
horns. The horns are about 1.2 to 1.5m long; the body is about 5cm long. Its function
1. Attachment and development of fertilised eggs until expelled from the body.
2. Produces milk, which nourishes the foetus between conception and formation of foetal
membranes.
3. Produces prostaglandin which causes the regression of the Corpus Luteum.

The Corpus Luteum, sometimes called the ‘Yellow body’, is the structure formed on the ovary in
an area where an ovum has been liberated. Its main function is to produce progesterone, which in
turn maintains pregnancy

In pigs the foetal membranes that surround the developing embryo are in contact with the entire
lining of the uterus; there are no buttons or cotyledons as in the cow and ewe.

Cervix
A thick walled muscular structure containing several thick folds or rings in its canal. Opposite
folds overlap and form a narrow, spiral passage through it. Its function is to prevent infections
entering the uterus. When an animal is pregnant, it closes. It’s about 15 cm long.

Vagina
This is a thin-walled, tough and elastic connective tissue organ. Its functions are:
1. Admittances of the penis of the boar at the time of service and receives the semen.
2. Serves as the final passageway for the foetus.

Vulva
External part of the reproductive tract. It consists of two lips and a passageway measuring about
7.6cm in length. During sexual excitement they become swollen, thus producing one of the signs
of heat.

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 Figure 2: cow reproductive system

Breeding cycles

The characteristics of breeds of farm animals

Beef animals ( e.g Hereford, brahman, boran, africander)

 More prolifically
 They are blocky in shape
 Grows fast leading to early maturity
 Deep well fleshed bodies
 Efficient convertors of food into meet and fat
 Maintain good weight even adverse conditions
 Good foragers
 More tolerant to high temperatures
 Have short strong legs to support their heavy bodies
 More resistant to diseases
Dairy animals (e.g jersey, Friesian, Ayrshire)

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  They have wedge shaped body
 Have a straight top line
 Have well set apart hindquarters
 Large and well developed udders with large teats that are well spaced
 Have prominent milk veins
 Have large stomach capacities
 They are docile with mild temperament

Criteria used for selecting breeding animals

 Performance of the individual animal
 Performance of the offspring
 Performance of the family members.
 Performance of ancestors
Factors to consider when selecting breeding animals.
 Level of performance e.g. basing on records of dam and sire.
 Quality of products
 Age of the animal
 Adaptability
 Good mothering ability
 Physical fattiness
 Health
 Body conformation
 Temperament or behaviour
 Response to good management
 Prolificacy

Importance of cross breeding and in-breeding in livestock production

a) Cross breeding
This is the mating between animals that are not related, but are of the same breed.
 Introduction of new genes in an existing breeding herd.
 Exploit hybrid vigour (heterosis)
 Establish a grade animal

b) inbreeding
This is the mating of closely related animal e.g mating son and mother.
 Increase genetic uniformity in the herd.
 To fix the required characteristics in the new breed.
 To increase phenotypic uniformity in the herd e.g black colour in the friesian
breed.

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 Disadvantages of in breeding
 Loss of hybrid vigour.
 Leads to decline in fertility.
 Brings about reduction in performance.
 Leads to high rate of prenatal mortality.

Process of artificial insemination.

Artificial insemination: is the process of introducing semen into the female reproductive tract.
 Semen is obtained from the bull using an artificial vagina and a teaser animal.

Advantages
 Reduce the spread of venereal diseases
 Semen are collected from high quality bulls
 Initial cost is lower than acquiring/maintaining a bull
 Many cows can be serviced just from one ejaculation.
 Controlled breeding can be done
 Avoids inbreeding
 Enables the farmer to collect semen from different types of bulls to improve the head
 Prevents injury to younger heifers if a large and heavy bull is used.

Disadvantages
 Requires skilled man power
 Sometimes heat can be missed if the cow is not on obvious heat period.
 Lack of storage facilities for the semen.
 Little is achieved if the sire is genetically inferior.

DAIRY PRODUCTION

Dairy cattle are use to produce milk. In Zambia two types of cattle are used to produce milk:
i. Local cattle
ii. Imported cattle

Local cattle produce very little milk, hence they are not important in commercial milk

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production. Cross-breed dairy cows are used by emergent commercial farmers.

The most important imported dairy breeds in Zambia as the following:

A) The Friesian/Holstein cattle
i. This breed produces a lot of milk
ii. The breed is common in Zambia
iii. The breed is mostly black and white and have white les, a white end of tail and a
white patch on the forehead
B) The Jersey Cattle:
i. This breed is suitable for tropical countries
ii. The breed is small, mostly pale brown in colour, but dark brown, grey and
black animals occur
iii. The breed has a short and wide face, with a white rig around the nose
C) The Sahiwal Cattle:
i. The breed is a tropical milk producing cattle
ii. The breed has large pendulous udders bearing very large teats
iii. The breed coat colour varies from pale red to almost black, with some white
flecks
D) The Crossbred Cattle:
i. Crossbred cattle are bred in Zambia
ii. The breed is hardy and disease resistant, has high milking potential and
milking temperament
iii. Their coat colour is varied
iv. The breed is suitable and recommended to the small-scale and emergent
commercial farmers

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2.0 TECHNIQUES OF MILK REMOVAL

Milk is produced and stored in the cow’s udder. Proper and efficient methods of the removal of
milk from the udder are available and used. However, before milk can be removed from the
cow’s udder the cow must be stimulated to let down her milk.
Structure of the udder

The udder is made up of a large number of milk-secreting cells arranged into groups around
cavities called the alveoli. The udder receives a rich supply of blood through the capillaries and it
develops in size during pregnancy. Nutrients diffuse from the blood capillaries into the
milksecreting cells and milk is produced there. The milk collects in the alveoli which lead to
larger chambers called udder cisterns. These in turn lead to the ducts which carry the milk to the
teat cisterns. Inside each teat is a teat canal. Cows have four teats on the udder which is divided
into four quarters, each of which is independent of the other. Goats and sheep have two teats and
a sow has six or seven pairs of teats. The first milk produced by the mother immediately after the
birth is a rich mixture called colostrum. Besides being rich in protein and milk fats, colostrum
also contains anti bodies derived from the mother. These help to give the newborn animal extra
protection against disease while it is very young. A hormone called oxytocin is responsible for
stimulating the udder to release milk when required, sometimes called let down of milk.

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2.1 MILK LET-DOWN PROCESS
The milk let down process or milk ejection is the willingness of cow to let down milk. The cow
is stimulated to let-down milk manually by activities carried out the person going to milk a cow.
Milk le-down is started by the following:-
i. The presence of a calf
ii. Sound of the milking buckets
iii. Bringing the cow to the milking parlour
iv. Feeding of dairy meal
v. Washing of the udder and teats before milking, and
vi. The calf nuzzling and suckling the cow

Willingness of the cow to let-down milk starts about one minute after the beginning of
preparations to milk the cow. The willingness reduces within 5-7 minutes. Therefore, delayed
milking will not allow sufficient time for complete removal of the milk from the udder.

It is also important to avoid any circumstances which cause pain and fear to cows causing them
not to let-down milk. The examples of the circumstance that cause pain and fear are as follows:-
i. Painful teats as a result of wounds
ii. Beating up the cows
iii. Barking dogs
iv. Stockmen shouting
v. Noise form a passing aeroplane

The most important of removing milk from the udder are:-

i. Hand milking
ii. Machine milking

HAND MILKING
Hand milking is gentle to the udder and cause little damage to the teat. It is also cheap because it
does not require buying an exp3ensive milking machine. Hand milking involves the following

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three stages:-
i. The thumb and index thumb should encircle and close around the upper most part of the
teat preventing the milk contained in the teat form escaping upward. This is illustrated in
Figure A.
ii. Next, milk is squeezed out of the teat by pressing the other fingers in descending order:
third, fourth and fifth finger. This is illustrated in Figure B and C.
iii. When all the fingers are relaxed the teat will be refilled with milk and the sequence
repeated until the udder is emptied of all the milk.
The hands of the milkier work alternatively. When one hand relaxes the other squeezes the milk.
The rear quarters should be milked first as they contain more milk than the ore-quarters.

Hand milking should be done with clean dry hands. A small amount of milking solve should be
rubbed on to the skin of the teats to soften the teats.
Hand milking requires the following equipment:-
i. Milking shed in which to milk the cows
ii. Bucket for milking
iii. Bucket containing a solution of disinfectant for cleaning and disinfecting the udder and
teats.
iv. A hobble, such as a leg chain, for cows that cannot stand quietly.
v. A clean udder cloth or disposable paper towels to dry wipe the udder and teats before
milking.

To produce clean milk, the milker must do the following:

 Adequately clean his hands
 Disinfect the teats of cows before milking
 Disinfect dairy equipments, such as milking buckets
 Filter the milk remove foreign matter, such as cow’s hair and dust.
 Cool the milk immediately before storage in milk churns and milk coolers until it
is ready for delivery

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2.4 MACHING MILKING
The milking machine applies vacuum at the end of the teat to suck out milk. The milk is
collected in a milk bucket attached to the milking machine. To produce clean milk on the farm
the following must be done:-
i. Frequently clean and disinfect the milking machine. If not cleaned regularly micro-
organisms will grow inside the milking machine and will contaminate the milk.
Subsequently, milk will get sour (bad) after a short time.
ii. Before machine milking thoroughly wash and massage the teats to stimulate the cow to
let-down her milk
iii. Squirt 2 – 3 strips of milk into the strip cups to test for mastitis.

2.5 HAND MILKING Vs MACHING MILKING

The use of the milking machine has the following advantages:
i. It creates a pleasant sensation for cows by massaging the teats.
ii. It avoids any possible hazards to udder health
iii. Machine milking is quicker pre cow because all the four teats are milked at once.
iv. One man can manage two or more milking machines.

Machine milking also has the following disadvantages:

i. The milking machine is expensive to install and run.
ii. Poor design, such as too high vacuum pressure causes mastitis.
iii. Machine milking a cow for a long time after milk has been removed from the udder
causes mastitis.
iv. Mastitis can be spread form one cow to another if the milking machine is not well
cleaned.
v. The milking machine must be maintained properly and regularly
vi. Machine milking requires skilled and semi-skilled operators.
vii. Machine milking is ideal for medium to large farms.

3.0 MILK YIELD AND LACTION

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3.1 Colostrum
Colostrums is the first milk. This milk is good for the new born calf because:
i. It provides protection to diseases
ii. It provides nutrients to the calf
Colostrum must be fed to the calf within 36 hours after calving. The method of
feeding colostrum is as follows:
i. Allow the calf to suckle the mother soon after birth.
ii. Thereafter, leave the calf with its mother in the calving pen to allow it to
suckle as often within the first 12-36 hours.
iii. Later, replace the calf in a clean warm calf pen that has bedding. The calf
will then be fed from a bucket.
iv. Provide water in another bucket for the calf.

3.2 Lactation And Milk Yield

After calving, milk production will rise to reach peak production after 6 weeks.
Peak production will last up to 12 weeks after calving. Thereafter, it will start to
decline. During the lactation period it is important that dairy cows have free
access to the following:
i. Fresh clean water
ii. Green grass, or
iii. Hay or
iv. Silage

Fresh grass, hay and silage provide nutrients to the dairy cows. Another source of
nutrients is the feeding of dairy meal. Dairy meal is fed under the following
conditions:
i. To provide nutrients that may not be present in green grass, hay or silage.
ii. Dairy meal is normally fed during milking (in the milking parlour) to help
quieten the cow and induce her to let-down her milk.
iii. Dairy meal is fed in small quantities because they are expensive.
iv. Each dairy cow should be fed 0.5kg per litre of milk produced.

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3.3 The Dry Period
The lactation period is the time a cow is allowed to produce milk. It is
recommended that the lactation period should be 305 days (44 weeks). If the cow
is pregnant, she is not allowed to produce milk after 305 days. She is then dried.
The procedure of drying off cows is as follows:

i. Stop feeding dairy meal to discourage the cow to let-down her milk.
ii. Milk the cow once a day for 2-3 days. Then once a day every other day for
2 days.
iii. Do not take the cow to the milking parlour which she associates with milk
production
iv. Mill production will reduce and finally stop.
v. The dairyman may or may not inject dry cow mastitis treatment depending
on the frequency of mastitis on the farm.

The importance of drying cows is as follows:

i. To give chance for the repair of tissues of the udder.
ii. To allow the cow to produce colostrum for its calf.
iii. To allow the cow to provide sufficient nutrients to the growing foetus
iv. To allow the calf to keep nutrients in her body to be used in the next
lactation.

3.4 Steaming-Up
Steaming up is the feeding of highly nutritive feeds in the milking parlour six
weeks before calving. Steaming-up is done for the following reasons:

i. To encourage high milk yield in the next lactation.

ii. To provide nutrients for the repair of the udder tissues.
iii. To provide nutrients for the growth of the foetus during the last stages of
pregnancy when it grows fast.

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 iv. It allows the cow to put on weight.

4.0 BREEDING OF DAIRY COWS

The future profitability of the dairy herd depends on the successful production of calves.
The female calves provide as replacement stock to the dairy herd.

4.1 The Heat Cycle

Heat is the willingness of the cow to accept and stand to be mated by a bull. The
heat cycle is the number of days between one heat and the next. The heat cycle is
usually 21 or 22 days, but it may be as little as 16 days or as much as 25 days.

4.2 Mesures Of Reproductive Efficiency

You need to know that:-
i. Days to first heat is the number of days between calving and the first heat
recorded. It should not be more than 40 days in cows that are milked but
may be up to 60 days in a cow nursing a calf.
ii. Days to first service is the number of days from calving to the first
insemination. It should normally be 60 to 80 days.
iii. The calving interval is the number of days from one calving to the next
calving for one cow.
iv. The calving index is the average of all calving intervals for one year for
the herd. It is a good measure of the success of heat detection and the
service/insemination of the herd. Aim for 365 days; if it is more than 380
days your management needs improving.

The fertile period is the time when a cow is able to “conceive” or “hold to
the bull”. Cows will normally conceive for up to 30 hours after first
standing heat. Cows should not be served during the early part of a heat.
Cows may be inseminated up to 30 hours after first standing heats i.e. after
they have ceased to stand for a bull.
v The conception rate to first service is the proportion of cows confirmed

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 pregnant after the first service.

4.3 Heat Detection And Signs Of Heat

Watch the herd of cattle for signs of heat when it is settled, calm, contented and
undisturbed. Otherwise some cows may not show signs of heat even if they are on
heat. The long periods of calm occur at night, so the night session is very
important and should not be missed. Cows may only be on heat for a few hours so
at least four (4) 30 minutes observations per day should be planned at the
following times:-
i. Before morning milking
ii. Around mid-day
iii. After evening feed, and
iv. As near midnight as possible

Walk amongst the cows slowly and quietly. Look for marks indicating mounting,
such as:

i. Dirty flanks or rubbed tail hear

ii. Two cows standing close together, especially if the rest of the herd is lying
down.

Stand or sit where you can see the whole herd. Record positive signs at once and
deserve minor signs closely next session. Make sure that you are able to identify
cows easily and accurately. A torch or lamp may be used to identify cows at night
after you have observed heat behaviour.

4.4 Signs Of Heat

The positive signs that a cow is ready for service or insemination are as follows:

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 i. Standing t be mounted by another cow and does not move away. The cow
being mounted has its cow turned to look at the active cow. The “building
look” is a very positive sign.
ii. The vulva becomes swollen
iii. There is a clear mucus discharge from the vulva in the form of a ropy
string.
iv. The cow becomes excitable and bellows a lot
v. She might have dirty marks on the flanks or a rubbed tail head if she stood
to be mounted
vi. The cow will have a rise in body temperature due to increased activity
(steam will be seen rising form its back in winter) and have a drop in milk
yield.

Enter any cows definitely on heat on the record chart. Identify whether this is first
or second heat and service for each cow. Allow the cows on heat to be served by
the correct bull or use artificial insemination (AI). Bulls may be used for repeat
service if AI was not successful.

5.0 CALVING, CALF REARING AND HEIFER REPLACEMENTS

The calving date of a cow due to calve is determined form the dairy records, cows due to
calve should be brought to a clean grassy paddock away from other cows and kept under
observation for signs of calving.

5.1 Preparation For Calving

The calving box or pen should be well cleaned and disinfected. Clean hay or
straw should be put on the floor as bedding when the calving box or pen is dry.

5.2 Signs Of Calving

The following are the signs of calving:-
i. The udder fills up with colostrums
ii. The pelvic ligaments relax

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 iii. The tail may be raised
iv. The vulva will be enlarged, the udder and teats become hard and waxy
v. There will be mucous discharges from the vulva
vi. The cow becomes restless and may wonder away from the rest of the
heard looking for a secluded place to calve.

The cow should be brought to the prepared calving box or pen. The cow should
then be observed closely to see whether she needs assistance in calving or not.

5.3 Difficulty Calving And Causes

Occasionally a cow has problem in calving and requires assistance from the
stockman or in serious cases the veterinarian. If assistance is required get the
following:

i. A halter
ii. A bucket of warm water plus disinfectant
iii. A bar of soap
iv. Two calving ropes

If the calf is presented normally the nose should be seen above the two front feet
protruding from the vulva. If this is the case calving should not be difficult. Assist
the cow in the following:

i. Tie the cow to a ring in the wall after haltering her

ii. Wash your hands and calving ropes in a solution of disinfectant
iii. Tie a calving rope to each leg, well above the hoof
iv. Pull the calf out, pull as the cow strains

To get a better grip on the calving rope it may be tied to a short length of stick. If
the calf is not presented normally seek the assistance of a veterinarian. Do not be
over hasty in assisting a cow to calve. A cow will often strain for several hours

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 before parturition.

The calf should be left with its mother for at least 36 hours after calving.
Immediately after calving the cow should lick the calf for the following reasons:

i. To remove the membranes that covers the calf

ii. To clear mucous form the mouth and nose of the calf
iii. This also helps to stimulate the calf to breath

Within a few minutes the calf should band begin to suckle its mother.

Occasionally, a cow shows no interest in her calf and may even refuse to allow it
to suckle. If this happens do the following:

i. Dry the calf with an old sack

ii. Clear the mucous from the mouth and nose
iii. This will help stimulate the calf to start breathing

If the cow is very aggressive tie her, milk out a few litres of colostrums into a
bucket and feed it to the calf.

5.4 Methods Of Feeding

Before the mothering instincts develop the calf must be transferred to a clean dry
calf pen that has been disinfected and has clean bedding of hay or straw. The cow
will also join the milking herd. Thus, the calf will be reared in the calf pen.

5.4.1 Feeding Colostrum and Milk

In the calf pen, the calf should be introduced to bucket feeding. This is
done as follows:
i. Put colostrums in a milk bucket
ii. Allow the calf to suck your fingers

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 iii. Lower your fingers into the colostrums bucket as the calf sucks
your fingers
iv. The calf will learn to drink the colostrum as it sucks your fingers
v. Slowly withdraw your fingers and the calf will have known to
drink colostrums from a bucket.

After the cow has joined the milking herd her colostrums should be fed to
her calf, and the surplus to other claves. After 4 days the calf should be fed
on milk. The general rules of feeding colostrums and milk as follows:

i. Feed the calf with colostrums the first 4 days

ii. Calves should be fed warm colostrums or milk, otherwise they will
develop diarrhea. Colostrums and milk must be fed soon after
milking before getting cold.
iii. Calves should be fed a restricted quantity of milk, otherwise again
they will develop diarrhea. The calves should be fed 2 litres in the
morning and 2 litres in the evening.
iv. The calves should be fed at the same time everyday.
v. Calves must be fed individually
vi. Drinking water must be available at all times in a bucket
vii. The buckets uses for calf feeding must be kept clean and sterile

If a cow dies the calf must be provided with colostrums from another cow
that has just calved. Some farmers keep colostrums under refrigeration for
such an eventuality.

5.4.2 Feedstuffs For Calves

After about a week the calf will begin to pick and chew at its
bedding and will eat hay or calf starter meal if it is provided. The
value of feeding good quality hay to the calves at this time is as
follows:

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 i. It is a much cheaper source of nutrients than milk or either
calf meal or dairy meal.
ii. The calf will experience no difficulties when it is weaned.
iii. It will stimulate proper functioning of the stomach and the
calf is more likely to stay in good health.
iv. Hay should be provided in hay racks or put in a clean
corner of the pen

Calf starter meal or Dairy meal should be available at all times and fed in
a bucket to the calf after about a week. The bucket should not be
overfilled; otherwise, there will be much wastage if the calf knocks the
bucket over.

5.5 ROUTINE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

The routine practices that should be carried out on the farm are as follows:

5.5.1 Weaning Calves

When the calves are about two months of age they should be
taking sufficient quantities of calf starter meal or Dairy meal and
pasture grass to support their body requirements. It is therefore, not
necessary to feed them milk to wean calves cut down on the
quantity of milk fed over 3 or 4 days in the following way:

i. Day 1 feed 4 litres of milk

ii. Day 2 fed 3 litres of milk
iii. Day 3 feed 2 litres of milk
iv. Daly 4 feed 1 litre of milk
v. Day 5 feed no milk

Whenever you make a change in the animal\s diet it must be done gradually to

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reduce shock and stomach trouble.

5.5.2 Castration of Bull Calves

Castration is an operation whereby the testicles are removed so that
the bull calf does not breed. The castration of bull calves not
wanted for breeding purposes is a recommended practices. The
castration of bull calves should not be carried out when they are 3
weeks of age with the burdizzo. Using the burdizzo involves the
following steps:

i. The bull calf must be well tied

ii. Move one testicle into the bottom of the scrotum and at the
same time push the tube as far as possible to the outside
wall of the scrotum
iii. Position the jaws of the Burdizzo over the tube and clamp it
shut and hold it for some time and release it
iv. Repeat the procedure on the other testicles.

An elastrator and rubber-ring is also used for castration of bull calves. The
elastrator stretches a strong rubber-ring which is then placed around the scrotum
above the testicles. The rubber-ring causes the testicles and scrotum to drop off.

5.5.3 Dehorning (Disbudding) Calves

When the calves are 3 weeks of age t hey should be dehorned using an
electric iron or hot iron. Dehorning is easily performed in young animals
by removing the horn bud, hence it is called disbudding. Animals that have
horns have the following disadvantages:

i. They tend to fight more than those without horns.

ii. When the y fight horns cause damage to skins.
iii. Fighting of horned cattle often results in open wounds.

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 iv. Horned cattle require more feeding and drinking space than
dehorned cattle.
v. Horned cattle are also more dangerous to work with and handle in
crush pens.

To dehorn bull calves, the heated iron should burn through the skin surrounding
the horn “bud” in a complete ring. In this way blood supply to the horn bud will
be cut off. The burn wound should brown and dry. Disinfection and protection
against infection is given by the application of healing oil or tincture of iodine.

5.5.4 Identification of Calves

The identification of animals is necessary:

i. For keeping records

ii. Selection programmes
iii. Health programmes
iv. As belonging a particular herd

The common method of calf identification is to put an ear tag while the calf is still
with its mother. It is recommended to use plastic tags because a calf can be
identified from a distance. The plastic is inserted into the ear by using an ear tag
knife. The tags may be numbered at the factory or marked wti correct numbers on
the farm. To fix the tag on calves the following procedure should be carried out:

i. Thoroughly clean and disinfect the tagging knife

ii. Push the knife through the ear, avoiding the ear ridges which contain
blood vessels
iii. Apply healing oil to the ear to give protection against infection.

The calves should also be permanently identified by hot branding as belonging to

a specific herd. This is achieved by using branding irons at weaning which burn

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into the skin causing a wound which will leave a scar on which hair will not grow.
The calves are branded letters or numbers or both to identify them as belonging to
a specific herd. They are usually large enough to be read from a distance. Cattle
are usually branded on the leg.

5.5.5 Removal of False Teats

False teats should be removed as early as possible. The operation cause
very little bleeding and leaves a very small scar. The operation is carried
out on heifer calves as follows:

i. Properly secure the heifer calf

ii. Clean and disinfect the teats to be removed
iii. Cut the false teats using a pare of curved scissors
iv. Dress the wound with a tincture of iodine or healing oil

5.5.6 Health
The calves should be de-wormed when they are removed from the calf
pens on pasture. They should not be allowed to graze with the cows. It is
recommended that they should change the grazing paddocks.

5.5.7 Heifer Selection

The future productivity of the dairy herd depends on the continuous
production of heifer calves as replacement stock. The replacement stock
also contributes to genetic improvement in performance. A well-planned
herd breeding programme will result in:

i. Herd improvement in milk production

ii. Improvement in resistance against disease
iii. Selection replacement heifers in the herd from cows with the best
body conformation and the best milk yields

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 It is recommended that all heifer calves should be kept and replacement
heifers be selected upon their performances during the first lactation.

6.0 AIDS TO CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION

6.1 Clean Milk
Clean milk refers to milk produced and handled under good hygiene that ensures
that:

i. There are no micro-organisms in the milk, and

ii. Milk can be kept for a longer time without getting sour or bad.

6.2 Sources of Milk Contamination

The milk in the udder is clean without micro-organisms if the cow is healthy.
Hence, micro-organisms get into the milk during milking, cooling and storage of
milk. The micro-organisms grow rapidly in the milk, particularly at high
temperature and spoil milk. The spoilage of milk can be avoided by producing
clean milk.

1. The Cow
To produce clean milk the following rules must be followed:
a) Only healthy cows should be kept for milk production.
b) Clip the long hairs around the hindquarters the tail and the udder.
c) Draw 2-3 squirts of fore-milk into a strip cup fore-milk a lot of micro-
organisms
d) Cows that have abnormal milk may be affected by mastitis. These should
milked last.
e) Before milking the cow, wash its udder and teats with a solution of
disinfectant and bactericide, such as anabac.
f) Put milking salve on the teats of the cow to soften the teats, prevent
chafing, cracking and teat sores.

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2. The Cowshed and Environment
The main contaminants of milk in the cowshed (milking shed) and its
immediate environment are flies, dirt and dust. Also hay or raw if fed
immediately before or during milking. These can be prevented from
contaminating the milk by:

a) Removing manure and draining muddy surroundings in which flies breed.

b) Have sloping floors to drain well and maintaining the sewage disposal
system. The walls and ceiling should also be dusted and cob-webs
removed.
c) Changing of bedding and feeding should be avoided near milking time.

3. The Equipment
The milking machines, milk pails and milk churns are sources of milk
contamination if they are not thoroughly cleaned and sterilized. The dairy
equipment should be:

a) Stored in a well ventilated room

b) Not stored with tools and smelly chemicals
c) Provided with equipment to thoroughly clean them

The equipment should be cleaned and sterilized as follows:-

a) They should be rinsed with cold water soon after milking. A
brush may be used to remove dirt and milk residues
b) They should then be washed in hot water containing a detergent
or soap, such as, bactergent.
c) The remains of washing water should then be removed with
clean water (flushing)
d) Sterilizers or disinfectants should be used on the cleaned
equipment. They include the use of light and heat, and
hypochlorite.

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7.0 MASTITIS AND ITS CONTROL
7.1 Definition
Mastitis is an injury of one or more quarters of the udder ad a result of infection
by micro-organisms. There are main groups of mastitis. These types are:

i. Clinical mastitis which shows obvious

 Swelling of the affected quarter (s)
 Causes pain in the udder
 Causes change of the milk such as becoming watery, contain blood
or contain clots of milk
ii. Hidden mastitis whose visible effects are not visible require special tests to
detect it.

7.2 Causes
When mastitis infection occurs micro-organisms should be present:-
a) On the outside of the teat
b) Have entered inside the teat
c) Have entered the udder

Many factors make it easier and allow the micro-organisms to enter the udder. These
include the following:
a) Wounds on the teats and udder
b) Too much milk in the udder
c) Failure to milk the cow properly

7.3 Effects of Mastitis

Mastitis causes the following effects:
a) Reduced milk yield and milk from cows suffering from mastitis should be
thrown away.

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 b) Mastitis reduces the nutrients in the milk, such milk gets spoilt easily and
cannot be used for the production of sour milk, cannot be boiled, etc.
c) Milk from a cow suffering from mastitis causes diarrhea.
d) Mastitis make the milker milk the sick cows last, spend money to treat
sick cows and remove and sell the sick cows.

7.4 Aids to Mastitis Detection

The common and easiest way of detecting mastitis is through regular use of the
strip cup before milking. The cup has a black plate onto which two or three squirts
of fore-milk is expelled. If the cow has mastitis examination of the plate will
reveal the presence of clot of milk or change in the colour of milk.

7.5 Mastitis Treatment

Cows suffering from mastitis should be milked last. The following procedure
should be followed when treating the sick cow:
a) Milk out the infected quarter(s)
b) Thoroughly clean and disinfect your hands and the teat
c) Use an antibiotic or a combination of antibiotics such as penicillin,
streptomycin and /or aureomycin to treat sick cows by inserting them into
the affected quarter(s) through the teat(s)
d) Expel the antibiotic into the teat
e) Work the antibiotic up into and throughout the quarter by massaging.

The sick cows should be treated at milking time until they recover. Milk from
infected quarters should not be used for feeding human being or livestock within
72 hours after the last treatment because of the antibiotics in the milk.

7.6 Mastitis Control

The control of mastitis aims at reducing the factors that make it easier for the
cows to catch the disease to a minimum. These factors are as follows:

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 a) Practice good hygiene in the cowshed so that the udder and teats remain
clean and dry.
b) Treat sores and wounds on the udder and teats.
c) Use the correct way of milking.
d) Wash dirty udders and teats with an udder cloth and allow the udder
cloth to be in the solution of disinfectant for a long time.
e) Identify the cows suffering from mastitis and milk them last
f) Treat cows suffering from mastitis immediately.
g) If mastitis is a problem in the herd, use teat dip after milking the cows to
reduce teat infection and transmission of micro-organisms.
h) Allow the milker to milk cows properly
i) Remove and sell cows that usually suffer from mastitis.

9.0 OTHER COMMON DISEASES OF DAIRY CATTLE

DISEASE SYMPTOMS CONTROL METHODS

9.1 BRUCELLOSIS Premature birth of a dead calf. Have the cows blood tested by a
Decreased milk production, veterinarian, practice good
sterility and weak calves if sanitation; isolate infected stock;
abortion does not occur. Also vaccinate calves at 5-8 months of
retained after birth in cows age; cull infected bulls; use
artificial insemination
9.2 TUBERCULOSIS A slow developing disease. Delayed and incomplete milking
Tubercular lesions are found in for 2 or 3 days after calving.
the lungs and lympglands; also Injections of calcium salts before
heart, udder and liver. There and after calving
are few external symptoms
except loss of weight and
condition.
9.3 MILK FEVER General dullness, nervousness, Delayed and incomplete milking
staggering, and shaking when for 2 or 3 days after calving.

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 walking, and finally unable to Injections of calcium salts before
move. The body temperature is and after calving.
below normal. Occurs 2-3 days
after calving and frequently in
cows producing a lot of milk.

10.0 THE DAIRY UNIT

The farm land must be large enough to allow for the construction of a dairy unit. Land is
also required for paddocks to grow grass. The dairy unit must have the following:-
i. Should have an open site and the solid wall should face the east.
ii. A solid roof for ease of cleaning
iii. Smooth brick wall (plastered) for easy of painting and white washing
iv. A good concrete floor for ease of cleaning with brooms and scrubbing
brushes. The floor should slope for good drainage
v. The pig pens, poultry pens and manure heaps should not be less than 50
metres away
vi. With less than 40 dairy cows hand milking and tying-up cows is
recommended. Machine milking is recommended for larger dairy units.
vii. To save time and money a trolley or wheelbarrow can be used to take milk
from the milking parlour for storage after milking each cow.
viii. A source of water must be near the dairy unit and available throughout the
day. A borehole will ensure that clean water is available throughout the
year. Hypochlorite should be added to ensure that the water is free of
micro-organisms.

Clean water is required to clean the dairy unit after milking, for drinking in the water
troughs by the cows and cleaning and washing of dairy equipment.
A hot water geyser must be fitted in the dairy unit to provide hot water for washing dairy
equipment.

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10.1 Bull Selection and Management
10.1.1 Rearing
Bull calves should be allowed to graze good pastures or be provided with
hay or silage at all times. In addition, they should be fed dairy meal; 1
kg/100kg live-weight. The bull should be fed 4kg per day.
A bull is a potentially dangerous animal. To minimize danger during
handling the following must be done:

i. Train to handle the bull with a halter at a young age

ii. The bull must be handled gently and firmly. Do not mistreat the
bull
iii. Put a ring I the nose of the bull to enable bull leading to be done.
This must be at a young age, preferably when he is 1 year old. The
bull leader must then be attached to the ring.

A young bull may be used to serve cows when he is 18 moths of age.

However, the following is very important:

i. The young bull should not be allowed to serve a lot of cows. He

should be allowed to serve a maximum of 2-04 cows per week.
Over working young bulls results in sterility and unwillingness to
serve cows.
ii. The mature bulls should serve a maximum of two (2) cows per
day.
iii. Bulls should not be overfed. Overfeeding leads bulls becoming
over fat, and later to lameness and unwillingness to serve cows.
Feeding of good quality hay at times is usually adequate.

10.1.2 Selection
The productivity of the dairy herd depends on the successful service of the bull. If
the bull cannot serve cows there will no replacement heifers in the dairy herd. The

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 bull must also have good performance. A bull must be selected form another herd
to avoid the selected bull from mating his own sisters, cousins and mother. Look
for the following factors when selecting bulls:

i. The lactation yield and length of the bull’s dam

ii. The conformation of the bull’s dam and sire (father)
iii. The bull calf’s conformation and growth and that of its father (sire)
iv. Its father’s service performance
v. The performance of his brothers and sisters

10.1.3 Housing
A house with a concrete floor and an exercise area is recommended for bulls. The
exercise area should have the following features:

i. Be made out of metal or wooden poles, and never use barded wire
ii. Leave spaces in corners through which one can squeeze and escape if
the bull charges at someone
iii. A neck crush over the feed trough is food for bull restraining when you
want to handle and treat him.

A cow that is on heat should be brought in for service and out with minimum danger.

11.0 DAIRY RECORD

Complete and accurate records are the backbone of a profitable dairy enterprise. Such
records should include data on production, reproduction (or breeding) and health of the
dairy herd and also detailed accounting information of income and expenditure for the
enterprise.
1`
11.1 Production Records of Dairy Cows
Production records of dairy cows are based on individual performance and are
useful for:

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 i. Working out each cow performance for breeding
ii. Working out the profitability of individual cows budgeting.

Production records may be in the form of:

i. Lactation records for individual cows. However, the Milk Recording
Scheme – Dairy weights sheets are commonly used to record the weight of
milk produced by each cow including some data on breeding.
ii. The Milk Herd Register which contains all the data on breeding and
production for individual cows during their lifetimes. The register is
important to keep for all dairy herds registered with the Herd book Society
of Zambia.
iii. Herd Milk Production. This records all the data on milk disposal, e.g.
sales, fed to calves, etc.

Reproduction Records of Dairy Cows

Dairy breeding programmes require that specific information be collected on the
performance of each dairy cow in the herd. Form this information you can know
the breeding status of each cow, the calving pattern in the herd for planning and to
provide information on matings for registration purposes.

Various systems of recording do exist. Whatever system of recording is used, data

to be recorded should include:

i. Calving dates
ii. Service dates and bulls used
iii. Record of heats
iv. Results of pregnancy diagnosis
v. Calving intervals
vi. No. of calvings/lactations

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 The use of cow planners is becoming common, especially in large dairies.

Record of Calves and Young Stock

It is a good idea to have two files, one for bull calves and the other for heifers.
The data of birth, ear tag numbers, name of dam (mother) and sire (father) should
be recorded together with operations like dehorning, castrations, etc. this
information is important when selecting animals for breeding or when selling.
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN LIVESTOCK

1. Methods of Identification

All animals in the herd must be identified. The identification of animals is necessary for
record keeping, selection and health programmes.
Various methods of stock identification are available and the methods available are
mainly of two types, i.e. permanent and temporary. The permanent type of stock
identification cannot be changed easily
Permanent stock identification is mainly used to identify cattle as belonging to a specific
herd and include branding and tattooing.

A. Hot Branding

Achieved by heating the branding iron in a fire (or electric) to a dull red colour that will
burn sufficiently deep for a few seconds into the skin without slipping to leave a deep
scar tissue on which hair will not grow does hot branding. The location of the brand
should be the stifle on the leg to avoid damage to the main part of the hide. The other
suitable sites are the checks and the hump.

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 The calves should be branded at weaning, i.e. in the cold season (May to August) to
reduce the incidence of fly strike. Brand the calves at 6 - 9 months of age and the
brands should be large enough to be read from a distance. Simple brands must be
chosen and registered with the Department of Veterinary and Livestock Development,
i.e. choose letters that will not cut off blood supply, such as O, Q, etc.

B. Freeze Branding:
Freeze branding can be done at any age. Freeze branding destroys the colour
producing cells of the hair follicle, melanocytes, and causes the hair growth to be
white. Therefore, avoid branding on white patches. If the area is frozen for too long a

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 period, the hair follicle will be destroyed and there will be no re-growth of hair.
The branding irons are cooled in either a combination of dry ice (solid CO2) and
alcohol or liquid nitrogen. Liquid nitrogen (-1960C) is widely used. The disadvantage
of freeze branding is that it is expensive to use.

C. Tattoos:
A tattoo is a permanent marking which is extremely difficult to alter and to read as
letters/numbers are small. Tattoos are applied by piercing the skin with instruments
equipped with needles to form letters and numbers, and rubbing indelible ink into the
freshly pierced area.
The disadvantage of using tattoos is that cattle have to be confined in a crush pen in
order to read tattoo numbers. Tattoos are also difficult to decipher on dark skinned
animals on which coloured inks can be used.

Tattoos are made using spiked letters placed in a plier-like instrument. However, a

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 black tattoo is not visible on a black skin.

D. Ear-tags:
The use of ear-tags (attachment identification) is a quick and easy method of
identification that is relatively inexpensive.
The disadvantages of ear-tags is that when aluminum tags (Ketchum) are used they
cannot be read unless the animal is confined in a crush pen as they are small but they
have a better chance of staying on the ear without being lost as compared to the
plastic ear-tags.
The advantage of plastic ear-tags is that the ownership and year code letters can be
embossed on the tags in addition to the identification number of the animal.

The plastic lone star plastic ear-tags also come in various colours. Therefore, the
colour of the tags can be used to denote the year. The tags are also available in
different sizes and can be purchased already numbered or plain. The plastic tags
should be inserted near the lower margin of the ear so that the numbered portion
hangs below the ear for the tags to be readable from some distance.

The calves must be ear-tagged when they are with their dams and the individual calf
numbers on the ear-tags should run consecutively from one, show the year of birth
and farm identity. To show the year of birth a letter before or after the calf number can
be embossed on the ear-tag. Alternatively, with flexible lone star tags that come in
different colours and colour may be used to denote the year.

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2. Disbudding / Dehorning:
Polled animals are naturally hornless. Horns have useful purpose for domestic animal.
Horns may be used for defence against predators, for controlling work oxen or for
attaching a yoke.
The disadvantage of horned cattle is that they tend to fight a lot causing more damage to
hides and skins and injuries to stockmen, and may result in open wounds because horned
cattle tend to fight a lot. Horned cattle also require three times more trough space as
much as hornless cattle and allow easy handling in the crushes.

Disbudding is the process of preventing horn growth in calves by the removal or killing
of the horn ‘bud’. This can be done at 2 - 3 weeks of age when the horn buds can be
located (in the Angoni the horn buds are located at birth).

The first choice in Zambia is the use of the hot dehorning iron. The hot iron burns around
the horn bud cutting off nerve and blood supply. The hot iron is used to remove the cells
of the skin containing the bud.

Excessive burning and pressing may cause brain damage whereas insufficient burning
causes malformed horns that tend to grow towards the head (these have to be trimmed
regularly). A local anaesthetic may be used to reduce pain during the process.

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 The occipital groove for the administration of a local anaesthetic followed by the
disbudding of calves after restraining.

3. Castration:

Castration is the un-sexing of the male animal. Castration makes the animals quieter and
easier to handle (docile). Castration is carried out to prevent random, indiscriminate and
unplanned breeding and to be able to keep weaner and yearling’s together (management)
and to induce docility, especially in draught animals.

The castration of bull calves allows for a more efficient meat production and allows the
use of only the best for breeding purposes. Castrates grow slower than entire males by
about 1 - 5%, but the castrates are fast maturing and have a better-conformed carcase.
Bull calves are generally castrated at about 2 - 4 months of age but they can be de-sexed
at any age. The older the animal at the time of castration the greater the shock and risk. It
is best to castrate as soon as the testes descend into the scrotum by any of the three
distinguished methods.
The castration of bull calves should be carried out when they are 3 to 8 months of age
with the Burdizzo pincers. Castration with the Burdizzo pincers involves the following
steps:
A. Burdizzo Pincers:

The bull calf must be well restrained and tied;

Move one testicle into the bottom of the scrotum and at the same time push the tube
as far as possible to the outside wall of the scrotum;

Position the jaws of the Burdizzo pincers over the seminal tube and clamp it shut and
hold it for some time (5 seconds), release/open the clamp and make a second crush 2 cm
below the first;
Repeat the procedure on the other testicles.

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The Burdizzo Pincers and how it is used.

B. The Elastrator and Rubber-rings:

The elastrator and rubber-ring may be used for castration of bull calves at 3 weeks of age.
The elastrator stretches a strong rubber-ring (band) which is then placed around the
scrotum above the testicles. The rubber-ring cuts off nerve and blood supply causing the
testicles and scrotum to slough off/drop off.

The Elastrator and Rubber Ring

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 C. The Surgical Method:
This involves the use of a sharp knife or razor/surgical blade to remove the testes. The
testicles are pulled down one at a time and held firmly to the outside of the scrotum
next to the leg. The incision is then made to extend well down to the end of the
scrotum to allow proper blood drainage and should extend both in the scrotum and
membrane.

4. Annual Routine Vaccinations:

Vaccines are administered as preventative measures against many diseases.

Vaccination is the injection of material (antigen) into an animal to promote immunity
to disease by production of antibodies. Whether or not to vaccinate cattle against a
specific disease depends on the probability of cattle contracting the disease, the
efficiency of the vaccines available and the cost. Vaccination is stress and is best done
when the calves are with their mothers.

The calves should be vaccinated annually against:

Anthrax;
Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (HS) with the rest of the herd;
Blackleg separately for stock under three (3) years of age or in combination as
Anthrax or Braxy Blackleg (two injections before weaning) with the rest of the herd;
and
The heifer calves should be vaccinated with S.19 at 4 - 8 months of ages against
Brucellosis (Contagious Abortion).

5. Tick Control (Dipping):

Dipping is routinely carried out to control external parasites, especially ticks. Ticks
transmit tick-borne diseases that cause livestock losses.

Calves under three (3) months of age should not be dipped because they still have
passive immunity from colostrum that contains antibodies against diseases to which
their dams were exposed to.

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 The calves cannot build their own active immunity during the first weeks of life until
after a month. It is for this reason that the calves should not be dipped until the calves
are 3 months of age in order to expose them to the antigen (disease causing
organisms) while they are covered by the colostral passive immunity (antibodies).
This will enable the calves to develop their own active immunity.

Such exposed calves will develop disease but in mild form because of the colostral
passive immunity. The calves will later recover with production of their own active
antibodies (immunity).
Therefore, dipping of the calves should after 3 months of age to allow the calves to
come into contact with the disease causing pathogens in order for them to develop
active immunity while they are still covered by passive immunity.

6. Worm/Helminth Control:
Calves are susceptible to worm infestations and should be drenched/dewormed with
anthelmintics (such as Systamex and Ranide) in January and April. The calves are usually
de-wormed in the pre-weaning week. As a routine, the calves should be de-wormed when
they are moved to a new pasture in order to leave the worms behind. Generally, de-
worming should be done before and after the rainy season.
7. Weaning of Calves.

Weaning should be carried out in May when the beef calves are 6 - 8 months of age and
their dams should be 3 - 5 months pregnant (i.e. for the summer Breeding season from
15th December to 15th March). If weaning is delayed the dam and the next calf will be
weakened because the dam will have to use her body reserves to suckle the calf and to
feed the growing foetus.

Weaning is stress to the calf and is usually accompanied by live-weight loss due to change
in diet and the physical separation of the calf from the dam. The feeding of molasses, corn
and cob meal and high quality hay helps to reduce stress.

A strongly constructed weaning paddock near the ranch headquarters should be used to
house the calves. Their dams should be moved to a paddock far away from the calves so
that they do not hear the bellowing of their calves.
The calves should be kept in the weaning paddock/pen for two (2) weeks during which
they should be well fed.

By the end of two (2) weeks, the calves and the dams should have forgotten about each
other. After two (2) weeks, the calves should be moved to a new clean paddock deferred
for this purpose and supplemented with molasses, corn and cob meal, urea of chicken
manure and minerals. Urea should be fed with extreme care.

Before weaning check for calves that have lost their tags when they can be identified with
their dams to re-tag them. A brief description of the calves can also be used to identity the
calves if the ear-tags are lost.

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BROILER PRODUCTION
Characteristics of broilers
a) Fast growth
b) Good fleshing
c) Quick feather growth because:
 They need artificial heating for a shorter time and this saves the farmer the cost of
heating.
 Less cannibalism and feather pecking occurs once broilers are fully grown.
 Fewer breast blisters occur once they are feathered.
 Efficiency of food conversionis increased. Food conversion is the relationship
between the amount of feed consumed and the live-weight gain of the birds
d) A white or yellow skin.
e) Colour of the feather must be true to breed.
f) Heavy live weight.

REPRODUCTION IN POULTRY

Cocks mate with the hens, which then lay eggs. These eggs are either eaten or allowed to hatch
into chicks. This production of off-springs is called reproduction. This reproduction ensures the
continued existence of living things.

Egg structure

The egg is surrounded by a shell which is made largely of calcium. The shell is porous allowing
air to enter the egg. The inside of the shell is lined with two membranes. These membranes
separate at the wider end of the egg, leaving an air space between them. Inside the membranes is
the thick fluid called the egg white or albumen. In the centre of the albumen is the egg Yolk,
which is yellow in colour. The yolk is held in position by two pieces of twisted string –like
material called chalazae. On top of the yolk is the germinal disc.

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Functions of different parts of the egg

a) Shell
The shell protects the inner parts of the egg. It allows air to flow in and out of the egg so
that developing c09hicks can breathe during incubation.

b) Shell membrane
This maintains the shape of the fluid part of the egg. The membrane is also porous and
helps to create and maintain the air-space in the egg.

c) Albumen and yolk

These are the source of food for the developing chick. They are rich in protein,
carbohydrates and mineral. The albumen also protects the growing chick.

d) Chalaza
This allows the yolk to turn when the egg is moved so that the germinal disc is always on
top of the yolk.

e) Germinal disc
This the nucleus of the egg cell, when fertilized, it develops into a chick.

f) Air space
The air in the space allows the unhatched chick to breathe

Identify and label the parts of the reproductive system of a female bird.

The mating of poultry is called treading. During breeding 15 hens are allowed to run with a

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cock. This is called treading ratio. Reproduction begins when a cock treads a hen and
introduces sperms into its reproductive system. Sperms are introduced into the vagina through
the cloaca and then swim up the funnel where they may remain alive for as long as 21 days. The
egg is formed in the hen’s reproductive system, which consists of the ovary and the oviduct.

Functions of the parts of the female reproductive parts of a female bird.

List the various breeds of poultry

Broiler breeds
 Cobb
 Plymouth rock
 White leg horn

Layer breeds
 Hyline
 Tokai
 Tetra

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  Rhode island red

Name some of hybrid poultry hatcheries in Zambia.

 Ross breeders
 Hybrid poultry
 Cobb breeders
 Zamchick
 Tiger chick

List the characteristics of a good poultry house

 Ventilation,
 protection from rain,
 protection from predators,
 Easy to clean etc.

The purpose of housing is to provide the essentials of fresh air, warmth, security, light and
protection from adverse climate.

Housing should be sited on well-drained areas, downwind from dwelling house and easily
accessible. Houses should face north if possible. Separate houses for chicks, growing young
birds and layers should be provided.

State the floor space to house Poultry of different ages.

Age Floor area per bird

0-5 weeks 0.045 m2
6-12 weeks 0.09 m2
13-20 weeks 0.186 m2
From 21 weeks 0.27 m2

List the equipment that must be in a poultry house.

- Drinkers
- Feeders
- Feed trays
- Feed scupper

Plan a simple poultry house.

PRINCIPLES OF INCUBATION.

Incubation is the process of sitting upon eggs for the purpose of hatching by the warmth of the
body. It starts with the development of an embryo from a fertilized egg and ends with the
hatching of a chick. The period of incubation varies with different types of poultry. Eggs of

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smaller birds have a shorter incubation period than those of larger birds

Type of poultry Incubation period (days)

Chicken 21
Turkey 28
Duck 28-35
Goose 32-35
Guinea Fowl 28

Incubation can be naturally or artificially

a) Natural incubation

Laying hen become broody after laying a clutch of 10-15 eggs. Broodiness is a natural behaviour
found in all birds- brooding is an instinct to sit on the eggs and incubate eggs until they hatch.
The hen sits on the eggs to warm them and this warmth starts embryo development.

The hen continuously turns the eggs while incubating them to prevent the yolk sticking to one
side and also help in ventilation. The hen’s body temperature is about 39.5 oC, which is ideal for
incubation. The hen controls the temperature to the eggs by leaving the nest occasionally to feed.
The turning of the eggs is not necessary after two weeks, but the hen keeps turning them until
they hatch after 21 days.

b) Artificial incubation

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CANDLING OF EGGS
Candling means lighting up the content of an egg to study them. This is done by holding the egg
in front of a strong light. During incubation eggs may be candled to find out whether they are
fertile or not. The best time to candle the eggs for this purpose is on the eighth day of incubation
as this is when chick development can easily be observed. Infertile eggs are clear while fertile
ones contain a dark spot, which may look like a spider’s web at later stages. This is the
developing chick. Candling is also carried out to check the internal quality of eggs for eating.
Electric candlers are used today. When the light is switched on and the Egg held at the hole, its
contents are illuminated. Infertile eggs are removed from the incubators and may be eaten.

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Recall the right temperature for chicks in a brooder house.

Brood day old chicks.

Identify pests of poultry Studied

Explain ways pests cause harm to poultry.

Prescribe correct methods of controlling pests in poultry studied.

Identify diseases of poultry studied

Prescribe correct methods of controlling diseases in poultry studied.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL

INCUBATION
Natural incubation Artificial incubation
Advantages Advantages
i) Has higher hatching percentage. i) Larger numbers of eggs are hatched
ii) It is inexpensive. at a given time.
iii) It does not require special skills. ii) Eggs and chicks are protected from
pests.
iii) Incubation conditions are kept at an
optimum conditions.
Disadvantages
 Hens fails to become broody. Disadvantages
 Risk of pest and vermin  Has a lower hatching percentage.
 Sometimes hens leave eggs unattended  It is expensive.
 Only few eggs are hatched at a time.  It requires special skills
 There are a lot of risks, such as power
failure and disease outbreak.

CANDLING OF EGGS
Candling means lighting up the content of an egg to study them. This is done by holding the egg

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in front of a strong light. During incubation eggs may be candled to find out whether they are
fertile or not. The best time to candle the eggs for this purpose is on the eighth day of incubation
as this is when chick development can easily be observed. Infertile eggs are clear while fertile
ones contain a dark spot, which may look like a spider’s web at later stages. This is the
developing chick. Candling is also carried out to check the internal quality of eggs for eating.
Electric candlers are used today. When the light is switched on and the Egg held at the hole, its
contents are illuminated. Infertile eggs are removed from the incubators and may be eaten.

AN ELECTRIC CANDLER
Management of broilers
There are three phases in the management of broilers: preparation for and arrival of day old
chicks, management during brooding and management during rearing. Brooding means looking
after young chicks during the first 14-28 days of their lives. Rearing of broilers involves taking
care of the chickens from the end of the brooding period to the time when they are ready for
market.

1. Preparation for the arrival of day-old chicks

The following should be provided before the chicks arrive at the farm:
i) Protection
Young chicks need to be housed during brooding to protect them from the predators,
diseases and cold. The house must be cleaned out, washed and disinfected using, for
example V-RID as a disinfectant. It must then be left unoccupied for at least ten days
to ensure all disease-causing organisms and parasites have been killed.

The house must also be well ventilated but secure enough to keep out thieves and
predators. The entire house may be used for brooding. If the house is too big, a
brooding unit may be constructed within the house. This is called localized brooding.

Brooding unit construction

Needed materials
 Sheets of flexible cardboard 50 cm wide

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  Soft plain wire
 Blocks or bricks

Steps involved in constructing a brooder unit

Step 1: stand the cardboard sheets in a circle around a heat source (brooder), to form
a guard. The circle must be about 1.2 m from the edge of the brooder. The height of
the brooding unit must be about 50 cm. if it is too short the brooder unit will be losing
heat too quickly.
Step 2: Tie the sheets with wire and support them with bricks to make them stable.
The circular shape of the unit helps to reduce chances of death by suffocation- chicks
crowd in the corners and climb on top of each other when frightened or excited, and
this may result in suffocation.

ii) Warmth
Chicks are unable to keep warm because there is little fat in their young bodies.
Although the house will provide some warmth, it is not sufficient especially in cold
season. This means that the farmer must provide further warmth by covering the floor
of the brooding unit with 50 mm of litter such as dry grass, wood shavings, rice straw
or sawdust. The litter keeps the floor warm and dry. The warming of the brooding unit
should start 24 hours before the arrival of the chicks. A brooder must be placed at the
centre of the brooding unit.

Types of brooder that can be used

a) Gas or electric (canopy) hover brooder

The temperature is controlled by a thermostat (a device the keeps temperature
within a specified range). The advantage of this type of brooder is that
temperature can be controlled more accurately and with less effort.

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b) Infra-red lamp
This is a large electric bulb that provides heat. One bulb is suitable for 100 chicks
but more lamps can be fitted onto a frame for a larger number of chicks. The
temperature is controlled by either raising or lowering the lamps. The lamps also
produce light, which is important during the first days of brooding. Infra-red light
also kills pathogens. The main disadvantage of this method is that it cannot be
used in areas without electricity.

c) Paraffin heater
This can be used in the brooding unit to provide warmth for the chicks. A
medium-sized heater is suitable for 250 chicks. Temperature is controlled by
either raising or lowering the heater. The fuel must be checked at regular intervals.

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 d) Brazier (Mbawula) heater
This is a home-made heater fuelled by charcoal, wood or coal. It is made from a
20 litre tin which is first filled with sand and holes punched in the side and
bottom. The sand is emptied out and the tin is filled with burning charcoal or coal.
The perforations allow air to fan hot coal. The heater must be brought indoors
only if the flames have died down and only embers are left. This helps reduce the
amount of oxygen used up in the house. Ambawula heater is a cheap and effective
method but great care must be taken to reduce the risk of fire and carbon-
monoxide poisoning. The heater must also be protected to prevent chicks crawling
in when temperatures drop.

iii) Food and water

During brooding, broiler chicks are fed on broiler starter mash. A hundred chicks
will need 100 kg of feed for the whole brooding period. All feeders and drinkers must
be washed, scrubbed and disinfected before they can be used. Clean water in closed,
clean containers must be brought into the house. This helps to remove the chill from
the water especially in winter.

iv) Drugs and vaccines

Drugs such as oxytetracycline (OTC) 20 % and 50 %, Tetramycin, chickmycin
soluble powders must be bought. They are handy cures for several chick diseases.

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 Vaccines for prevention of diseases such as Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis
(gumboro) and fowl pox may also be bought.

2. The arrival of chicks

When chicks arrive they are cold, thirsty and hungry. They must be brought into the house
immediately to avoid any further stress and taken out of the box one at a time and helped to have
their first drink of water. If chicks are not vaccinated at the hatchery, then they are vaccinated
against Newcastle disease and infectious bronchitis using La sota and H120mm strain eye drop
or through drinking water. Light should be provided as it helps chicks get used to the new
surroundings and to find theirfeed and water.
Management during brooding
a) Feeder and feeds
Chicks must be allowed to feed as they like (fed ad libitum) on broiler starter mash. Feed
must be place on clean boards or feed trays on the floor of the brooding unit as chicks
naturally look for food on the ground. Tubular feeders must also be place in the unit so
that chicks learn to feed from them. The floor litter may be covered with newspaper or
cardboard for one to three days to prevent chicks eating it.

b) Drinkers and water

Clean shallow water trough or founts must be used. If troughs are too deep clean pebbles
can be placed at the bottom to reduce the depth. This prevents the chicks from wetting
themselves when learning to drink. The troughs must be kept clean by washing to prevent
disease outbreak caused by pathogens. Fresh water must be available twice a day. The
water is kept in big containers in the brooding unit so that it warms up. The drinkers must
be moved every day to avoid wet patches which encourage pathogens. After three to four
days the adult-type drinkers can be introduced by placing them close to the chick founts.
Founts must be exchanged for drinkers so that all founts are removed by the 14 th day.
Drinkers must be raised as chicks grow so that water is kept at the level of the chick’s
beak. Four 1 litre drinkers are required for every 100 chicks.

c) Temperature management
The normal body temperature of a chick is 40.5-42.4 oC but young chicks fail to maintain
this temperature if the surrounding goes below 20 oC because the feathers are not
developed at this stage. Constant body temperature is important for normal functioning of
the body systems.
Temperature guide during brooding

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Where brooding is localized, part of the housed is cold and this means that more heat is
required to warm the rest of the house. In very cold weather, the farmer may have to
brood the chicks for longer.

By the time the birds leave the brooder, their temperature must be the same as the outside
temperature. The brooder temperature must be adjusted accordingly during the evening
because temperatures are lower at night. Temperature reading must be taken 50 mm
above the litter at the end of the brooder because warm air rises and cold air settles at the
bottom. The farmer must try to avoid any sudden changes in temperature as chicks will
react differently to different temperatures in the brooding unit.

NORMAL TEMPERATURE HOT CONDITION

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 COLD CONDITION WINDY (DROUGHT) CONDITION

d) Stocking density
During the first week each bird must be allowed 0.05m 2 of floor space. The brooding area
must be increased by about 25 percent every week until the is finally removed at the third
week. If the guard is not removed the floor space must be increased to 0.10m2per bird.

e) Health and hygiene

To achieve good results, birds must be vaccinated against diseases. Any bird that dies
must be destroyed by burning to avoid the spread of the disease to other health birds.
When more than five percent of the birds die, the dead birds must be taken to the nearest
veterinary office for a post mortem. The remaining birds must be given a broad-spectrum
antibiotic, such as tetramycin, for at least three days.
Broiler feeds always contain a coccidiostat, which controls coccidiosis (a disease of
chicken characterized by blood-stained dropping). Visitors to the flock must be kept to a
minimum and attendants should always disinfect their feet in a foot bath containing
formalin or V-RID when entering the poultry house. Animals such as dogs must not be
allowed into the poultry house.

f) Record keeping

Record keeping is important because it helps the farmer to know when vaccinations were
done, how many birds died, cause and treatment given, amount of feed used etc. so that
the farmer can establish whether he/she is making profits or losses.
3. Management during rearing
Brooding last between 14 and 28 days and depends on feathering and outside
temperature. Broilers must be moved to the main rearing house at the end of brooding.
a) Preparation for transfer
 House must be cleaned and disinfected
 Litter must be put on the floor
 Feeders and drinkers must be installed.

If the brooding unit was constructed in the main rearing house, then the guard of the
brooding unit is dismantled and the birds allowed to occupy the whole house. Fresh litter
is put first in the house and feeders and drinkers installed. The house will not need
cleaning or disinfecting as this would have been done before the chicks arrived.
If the house has been used for another brood, old litter and feed must be removed and
disposed of in a compost heap well away from the house. All repairs to the house must be
done at this stage. The house can then be cleaned and walls must be dusted of cobwebs,
scrubbed and disinfected and floor must also be washed thoroughly and disinfected.
When the floor dries, litter must be spread on the floor to a depth of 75-100 mm.

b) Feeds and feeding

During rearing, broilers are fed on broiler finisher mash. The change from starter to

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 finisher mash must be gradual. The broilers may be fed on finisher mash until
slaughter age. This is called two-phase feeding, because only two types of feed are
used. Some farmers practice three-phase feeding in which broilers are fed broiler
starter for 2 weeks, broiler grower for 2 weeks and broiler finisher 2 weeks. The
advantage of the three-phase feed is that it reduces the cost of feeding because the
finisher ration is cheaper than starter ration. Broiler starter mash contains more
proteins than finisher mash as younger birds need more proteins for growing bodies.
Broiler mash also contains chemical additives such as coccidiostats and antibiotics
that help in the prevention of diseases. Feeds are available from ZAMFEED, TIGER
FEED, NAMFEED, OLYMPIC FEED and NOVETEC.

Feeds are available in the form of mash pellets and crumble and sold mainly in 50 Kg
bags. The crumble form is preferred because it is less wasteful than mash. The feed
intake increases as broilers grow. The birds must be allowed four (4) tubular feeders
per 100 birds.

c) Watering

Clean water must be always be readily available to the chickens. The frequency of
watering depends on the type of drinker used. For tubular drinkers, once a day is
enough. However, for the open trough type you need to change the water more often.
On average 50 litres of water must be allowed per 100 birds per day. During hot
weather, consumption may be slightly high as 68 litres per 100 birds per day. Four (4)
5-litre drinkers must be allowed for every 100 birds.

d) Floor litter
The function of litter is to absorb moisture from droppings and, with the help of
bacteria, break down the droppings. This keeps the house dry and warm. There is a
variety of materials suitable for use as floor litter. Wood shavings and chopped grass
or straw are mostly commonly used. Good materials for litter should be :
 Highly absorbent
 Lightweight
 Of medium particle size
 Soft
 Compressible
 Cheap and readily available

During the breaking down of droppings ammonia gas is released. The typical sharp
smell of this gas irritates the birds and results in the loss of production. To control
this, good ventilation is important. Enough fresh litter to cover a quarter of the area
must be added every week and wet patches of litter removed. Turning the litter also
helps in the rapid break-down of droppings. Changing the litter for each flock helps to
reduce the passing on of diseases and parasites from one flock to another. Used litter
is very useful for making compost manure.

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e) Stocking density

Each bird must be allowed0.1-0.15 m2 of floor space. In hot weather it is better to

allow more space per bird. Overcrowding leads to poor feathering and therefore poor
carcass quality. Poorly feathered birds are susceptible to breast blisters and
cannibalism ( eating own species) frequently occurs when birds are crowded and
poorly feathered.

f) Record keeping
Records have to be kept continuously from the beginning to the end of the enterprise.
Diseases of broilers and their control

Broilers have a very short growing period compared to layers as such there is no time for
them to recover from outbreaks of diseases. With this in mind, disease-control procedures
must be aimed at prevention rather than cure.

Disease prevention in broilers

1. Keep the house and surroundings clean

2. Avoiding subjecting the birds to stress
3. Keep visitors to a minimum
4. Proper feeding and watering
5. Isolate birds with diseases
6. Vaccination
 Intra-ocular
This means the vaccines is introduced through the eye in the form of eye-drop
or a spray and is absorbed into the body by the mucous membranes of the eye.
The vaccines against Newcastle disease is given in this way to one-day-old
chicks.

 Intramuscular
This is an injection of a vaccine into the muscle. For chickens the breast
muscle is preferred. The komarov vaccine against Newcastle disease is
injected in this way.

 Subcutaneous
This is the injection of a vaccine beneath the skin. Fowl typhoid vaccine is
given in this way.

 Through drinking water

Some vaccines are added to drinking water e.g. mild strains vaccines against
gumboro diseases.

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 Common diseases of broilers

Signs of good health and ill health

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PROCESSING AND MARKETING OF BROILERS
Broilers are ready for slaughter when they are six to ten weeks of age, when they weigh 1.2 - 2.7
Kg. sometimes broilers are sold when they six weeks old. These birds are called baby chickens.
The graph below shows the growth rate of broilers. Growth rate means the average weekly
weight gain by the birds which is S shaped.

159
The steepness of the curve tells us about different stages of growth, as follows
 Hatching to two weeks: - the curve is not steep and shows that at this age the birds are
growing slowly.
 From two to eight or ten weeks: - the curve is steep and shows that at this age the birds
are growing quickly.
 After the age of eight to ten weeks:- the curve is gentle again showing that the birds
grow as they reach maturity.

It therefore makes sense for the farmer to sell the birds between eight to ten weeks.

FOOD CONVERSION RATIO (FCR)

This measures the ability of the livestock to change their food into growth, or reproduction.
The FCR tells us how quickly broilers can change their feed into meat.
FCR is worked as follows:
Feed eaten
FCR=
Live−weight gain
It can be calculated on a weekly basis or as an average for the whole rearing period.

a) Calculation of FCR for one week

Step 1find the amount of feed eaten by each bird during the first week
Feed eaten after one week = 1 x 50 Kg
Amount of feed eaten by all birds = 50 Kg
Number of birds in the poultry house = 198 birds

Amount of feed eaten by each bird

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 50 Kg
during first week = = 0.25 Kg per bird
198 birds

Step 2find average live-weight gain per bird during first week.
Average Weight of each bird on arrival = 0.05 Kg (50 g)
Average Weight of each bird after first week = 0.15 Kg (150 g)
Live- weight gain per bird = 0.15 Kg – 0.05 Kg
= 0.10 Kg
Step 3 calculate the FCR
Feed eaten by each bird = 0.25 Kg
Live-weight gain per bird = 0.10 Kg
0.25 kg
FCR =
0.10 Kg
= 2.5

b) Calculation of FCR for whole rearing period

Step 1 work out the amount of feed eaten by each bird

Feed eaten all birds = 16 bag x 50 Kg = 800 Kg
Number of birds on arrival = 200
Number of deaths during rearing period = 18
Number of birds at the end of rearing period = 182
200˖ 182
Average number of birds =
2
= 191 birds
800
Amount of feed eaten by each bird =
191
= 4.2 Kg per bird
Step 2 work out the live-weight gain of each bird

Weight of each bird on arrival = 0.05 Kg

Weight of each bird when sold = 2.80 Kg
Live-weight gain per bird = 2.80 Kg – 0.05 Kg
= 2.75 Kg

Step 3 Calculate the FCR

Feed eaten by each bird = 4.2 Kg

Live-weight gain per bird = 2.75 Kg

4.2 Kg
FCR =
2.75 Kg
= 1.53

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This means that, on average, each bird ate 4.2 Kg of feed to produce 2.75 Kg of meat or
expressed in another way, each bird used 1.53 Kg of feed to produce 1 Kg of meat. The
smaller the FCR, the better. FCR tells us the following:

 Whether the broiler feed is of good quality or not.

 Whether the broiler breed being raised is a good breed or not.
 Whether broilers are being managed properly or whether there is wastage of
feed or presence of diseases.

From the age of six to ten weeks birds become less efficient. This means that the farmer
starts losing profit as the birds grow older- he or she is putting in more and getting out
less. Therefore, to make profit, the farmer must sell while s/he is getting a favourable
response to the bird’s feed input – eight and ten weeks of age.

Broiler marketing

Broilers can be sold live or dressed (ready for cooking). Live broilers needs a ready
market so that they can be sold quickly as keeping them longer reduces profit as they will
be aeting more feed. Farmers needs adquate cooling facilities and bigger and more
reliable market.

Price for broilers

The price of any product is influenced by the supply and demand of that commodity. The
price set should cover the production cost so that the enterprise makes profit. Price set
should be lower than that of a wholesaler and a retailer because the farmer is a producer
and sells to wholesalers and a retailers. Broilers sold live the price is set per bird and
sorting is usually done so that birds of the same size are sold at the same. Dressed birds
are sold at a specific price.

Dressing broilers

This involves the following stages:

a) Slaughtering
Starve broilers for 12 hours before slaughter because food eaten within this period is
not used by the body hence it would be wasted. Also, full crops and intestines spill
during dressing process spoiling the quality of carcass. Water should be given to the
birds up to the time of slaughter. Methods of slaughter are:
i) cutting or chopping of the head
ii) breaking or dislocating the neck
iii) Piercing the brain and cutting the jugular vein. This is the least cruel method
and also the best because it ensures the carcass losses most of the blood.

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 Piercing the brain paralyses the bird and cutting the jugular vein means
bleeding thoroughly. Birds are immobilized first in the bleeding cones so that
birds are slaughter with minimal struggling. Electrified water is used to stun
or paralyzed the birds in large poultry plants before cutting the jugular veins.

b) Plucking involves removing of feathers from the birds and is of two types namely dry
plucking and wet plucking.

i) Dry plucking

This done by hand and done immediately after slaughtering because feathers
are easy to remove while the carcass is still warm. Large wing and tail feathers
are removed first then smaller feathers on the back, sides and abdomen. Avoid
tearing the flesh. Feathers around the vent, wings and legs are removed last. It
is suitable for small-scale producers and when feathers are wanted for the
purposes other than organic fertilizer.

ii) Wet plucking

The carcass is immersed in water that is 52 oC for two minutes and then the
bird is plucked by hand or by machine using a mechanical plucker consisting
of rotating drum with finger-like protrusions. The carcass is held by the legs,
pressed slightly against the rotating drum and turned until all sides are
plucked. The remaining feathers are removed by hand.

c) Evisceration

This is also done when the carcass is still warm and avoids spillage of intestinal
content on the carcass which lowers the quality of carcass. Make a cut between the
shoulders, along the back of the neck, to the tip. Peel off neck skin and the crop
removed. Then make another cut around the vent, which is then pushed back into the
abdominal cavity. Last cut is made across the abdomen for easy removing of all
internal organs through this opening.

The neck is cut off between the shoulders and neck shoulders and neck skin folded
back and held firmly in place between the shoulders using wing. The liver, gizzard
(after cleaning) and liver are put back into the chicken cavity. The legs are pushed
through the abdomen cut and through the original position of the vent. The chicken is
the washed and packed.

d) Chilling

It is done by dipping the carcass in iced water containing chlorine or by refrigeration.

Chilling reduces the growth of bacteria on the carcass and is done immediately after

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 evisceration to avoid spoiling the carcass.
e) Portioning

Broiler carcass are cut off and sold as chicken pieces.

f) Packaging

After chilling, broiler carcasses that are to be frozen are vacuum-sealed in plastic bags
as this ensures that stored carcasses do not get freezer burns.

g) Freezing and storage

The carcass is then frozen, stored and sold as frozen chickens.

Dressing-out percentage
This is the relationship between live weight and dressed weight. It is worked out as follows:
dressed weight x 100
Dressing-out percentage =
live weight
2.12 x 100
=
2.8 x 1
= 76 %

The dressing-out percentage tells us that 24 % of the 2.8 Kg was feathers, intestines and feet.
This is all that was removed during the dressing of the broiler.

Revision exercise

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EGG PRODUCTION
Revision exercise
1. State four breeds of layers.

Management of layers up to point of lay

The farmer can chose to buy day-old chicks, five-week old birds or pullets. Pullets are young
birds aged from six weeks to point of lay. Point of lay means the time when pullets start to lay
eggs .
Preparation for arrival of layers
The preparations to be carried out depends on the age of the layers to be received. If day-old
chicks are to be received, preparation is the same as for broilers. If older birds are to be expected,
no brooding preparation are carried out but a rearing house prepared in the same way for
broilers. Special feeds for layer birds have to be bought.

Management during brooding

If day old chicks are bought, then the farmer has to brood them which is the as that in broilers
except for the following things:
a) Feed
Layer chicks are fed on chick starter mash, which contain 20 % protein. Chicks are then
gradually introduced to grower mash containing 16 % proteins toward the end of the

165
 brooding period which initially is mixed with starter mash until the chicks are 7 weeks
and on grower mash untill 17 weeks or point of lay.

b) debeaking
This is done before the age of two weeks. Debeaking involves cutting off abount half of
both upper and lower beak of the chick. The lower beak is left slightly longer than the
upper one.

A hot blade debeaker is used to carry out debeaking. Debeaking reduces wastage of feed,
feather pecking and cannibalism in the flock.

Management of pullet up to the point of lay

At six weeks, pullets are transferred from the brooding house to the rearing house and
raised as a group. The following should be done before transfer:

a) Feeds and feeding

Pullets are fed on grower mash, the gradually introduced to laying mash as they approach
point of lay which is at 17, 18 or 20 weeks of age, depending on whether the breeds are
light, medium or heavy.

b) Provision of roosting

Roosting helps birds to protect themselves from predators. Pullets start roosting about
eight weeks old. In deep-litter rearing methods, wooden or iron bars (perches) fixed
at 40 cm above ground and 35 cm apart which allow birds to roost as they do
naturally. It is also clean and provide the necessary exercise for the birds. In broilers
are not provided because they are too heavy at eight weeksto lift themselves.

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c) Stocking density

Pullets are allowed floor space of 0.09m 2 per bird until they are 12 weeks old. From
13 weeks of age to point of lay there must be 0.14-0.28 m 2 per bird. In cages, pullets
are transferred directly into cages where they are allowed 0.02m 2 of cage space from
five to eight weeks and 0.05 - 0.07 m2 from nine weeks to maturity.
Management of birds during laying
Pullets are moved to the layering house at the age of 16-18 weeks when rearing and
laying houses are separate so that they get used to their new surrounding when they reach
point of lay.

Preparation for transfer

The preparations are just the same as those for rearing house
1. Feeds and feeding
Layers are fed on laying mash and each layer should eat about 120-140 g of feed per
day depending on body weight. 100 layers eat up to 100 kg of feed per week

2. Watering
Clean water must be available at all times.

3. Ventilation
Layer house must be well ventilated. Free air movement removes heat, moist and
pollutants such as ammonia gas.

4. Laying nests/box
These are used by layers to lay their eggs. Laying boxes are metal or wooden
structures with nest that must be 30 cm square and 15 cm deep and with 40 cm
headroom. Clean wood shavings or clean soft litter is placed inside to make it
comfortable for birds and avoid egg breakage. One laying box for every five layers.
Sometimes trap laying nest are used in which a layer is allowed to go inside but does
not come out and is only removed by the farmer. The advantage of a trap laying nest
is that it helps the farmer to identify non-layers. One trap laying nest for three layers.
Layers always lay in the same nest they first used.

5. Artificial lights
Layer house must allow in maximum
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sunlight and helps to kill some germs and also affects the sexual development of the
birds and the production of eggs. Provide artificial light in winter when daylight are
shorter. Layers need 12-14 hours of light per day to increase. Lighting encouirages
birds to feed which result in better growth and more eggs.

The first eggs laid are called pullet eggs. They are small and sometimes contain
double york which is an abnormality occuring in pullets disappear in full lay. Laying
is irreguler at first and reaches peak at five –eight weeks and this continoues for 300
days until moulting. Moulting is the natural way of getting rid of old feathers and
growing new ones. It marks the end of the first laying cycle. Egg production reduces
during moulting as such the flock is sold at this stage because the laying rate is very
low during the second cycle. At peak, a good layer will produce 2 eggs in 3 days.
Layer are kept for a laying period of one year.

Culling

Culling is the removal and slaughtering of unproductive birds from the flock. The
farmer should identify non-layers so that they are removed from the flock. Therefore,
a farmer needs to know the characteristics of a good layer and bad layer.

Record keeping

This is continuous process that start at brooding. During brooding same records are
kept as for broilers. Records tell us about the number of eggs collected, the number of

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 eggs lost, the amount of feed used and the laying percentage.

The laying percentage is used to check on the performance of the flock and can be
Calculated for each day or for week.

Eggs laid per day

Daily laying percentage (DLP)= X 100%
Number of layers∈the flock

Example
Eggs laid in one day = 84 eggs
Number of layers = 200

Eggs laid per day

DLP = X 100%
Number of layers∈the flock

84
= x 100%
200

84
=
2

= 42%

Total laying percetange per week

Weekly laying percentage (WLP)=
days per week
40+56+ 51+ 59+ 54+61+63
=
7
384
=
7
= 54.8%
WLP should average 60% and the more laying percentage falls below 60 %, the more the farmer
is likely to lose money.

Feed conversion ratio (FCR)

kg of feed consumed
FCR (per kg egg mass) =
kg of egg produced

Egg Collection
The egg is the main product of a layer enterprise and therefore the farmer should must take great
care with collection, grading and storage of eggs as any mistakes can be very costly.

Time of egg collection

Eggs must be collected frequently as any delay may result in breakage and soiling eggs. Soiled
or dirty eggs are unatractive to the consumer so they must be cleanedwhich is an extra work

169
before marking. Eggs must be collected three times a day. 56 % of eggs are laid between
09:00hrs and 11:00 hrs. So it best to collect twice in the morning and once in the afternoon. The
best times are 09:00 hrs, 11:00hrs and 15:30hrs. This ensures that majority of the eggs are
collected.

Eggs are fragile as such to avoid breakage wire baskets or plastic bags are used in collecting eggs
with wood shavings or other soft litter at the bottom.

After collection, all eggs are recorded and then dirty eggs and those cracked are seperated from
good eggs. Dirty eggs may be coated with contents of other broken eggs or droppings. Dirty eggs
are cleaned using a sandpaper or steel wool. Large-scale producers deep eggs in warm water
mixed with a detergent and sanitiser, which kill germs in the dirt. Change the water frequantely
to avoid contamination.

Cleaning the eggs with a damp cloth is not advisible as it may spread diseases from one egg to
another. This is so because the egg shell is porous and germs can penetrate the shell and pass
through to the inside.

Grading and storage of eggs

Grading eggs means sorting eggs into different groups according to size, weight and internal
quality. Grading helps to reduce wastage and makes uniform packing and pricing easier. It also
assures consumers of a quality product.
External quality of an egg depends on its shape, shell strength and colour and size. Internal
quality is determined by absence of inclusions such as meat, blood spots and yorkcolour (deep
yellow-orange colour). Inclusions are seen as dark spots inside the egg when candled. Candling
also helps the farmer to detect hair cracks in egg shells.
Four egg grades are:
a) Extra large- eggs of more than 60 g
b) Large - eggs of between 51-60 g
c) Medium – eggs weighing 43-50 g
d) Small or pullet eggs- egg less than 40 g

Once graded, the eggs are packed into trays with narrow ends down wards so that the air space is
on top. This prevents the inner contents spilling into the air space and causing spoilage.
Eggs need to be stored in a cool place at a temperature of 10-15 oC. In the absence of refrigeration
facilities the storage place must be cool and humid to avoid moisture loss from the egg since they
contain a lot of water causing the air space to increase.

Eggs easily absorb smell which affect flavour and this is called tainting. Eggs must be stored
away from things that give off strong smells, such as onions, fish and petrol.

Marketing of eggs
Eggs are marketed daily so that they are fresh when they reach the consumer. Store only surplus
eggs. Egg producers sell directly to wholesalers, retailers and hotels. Small producers sell the
eggs to the community. The price of the eggs is influenced by demand and supply and also the

170
grade. Larger eggs are the most expensive. Fresh cracked eggs are also sold and are the cheapest.

Identifying good and bad eggs

a) Fresh eggs sink in water
b) After boiling, it is easier to peel the shell of a poor quality egg. Boiled fresh eggs are
difficult to peel.
c) Content of freshly laid eggs are thicker than those of an egg stored for long time. The
York of a poor quality egg comes out of its membrane and mix with egg white. The York
of a fresh egg remain intact.

Grit
Laying hens kept indoors are also given oyster-shell grit which is made from broken shell of sea-
living molluscus. An alternative is limestone grit made from crushed limestone. These grits
supply the calcium needed to make egg shells. Manufacture animal feed should contain enough
calcium, but if eggs are laid with soft shells, this is a sign that oyster shell or limestone grits are
needed.
Production records
Importance
 Enables farmers to work out the annual profit and loss.
 Help farmers to cull non-laying birds.

Poultry records can be split into rearing and layer records

Rearing records
a) Number and cost of purchased chicks.
b) Daily feed consuption.
c) Cost of heating the brooder.
d) Labour and medicine cost.
e) Number of dead chicks up to point of lay.

All this information help the farmer to calculate the rearing cost per bird.
Layers records
a) Number and value of hens as they start laying.
b) Number of eggs collected per day.
c) Daily feed consumption.
d) Labour and medicine cost.
e) Number of dead hens.
f) Number of culled hens.

The farmer can make periodic calculations after collecting recorsd which give him an overall
picture of the performance of an enterprise e.g. % mortality for each period, % egg production,
average feed consumption, food consumption per dozen eggs, etc.
Rearing of table birds
i) Broiler: birds slaughter at 60-70 days old and weighing 2kg.

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ii) Roaters: birds slaughtered at three-five months; less tender than broilers
iii) Capons: castrated cockerels sold at 16-22 weeks old at a weight of 3-3.5 kg.

Parasites and diseases of layers and their control

External parasites of poultry

Internal parasites of poultry

Homework
1. Name two internal parasites of poultry

Vaccination programme for layers

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Rearing system
Poultry can be reared either under an intensive or an extensive systems of management.
Common system of rearing include free range, fold system, deep litter and battery cages.
a) Free range
Chicken in growing and laying stages are left to roam over a wide open area which may
have a perimeter. Simple shelter is provided. The system is only adopted where there is
enough land. 200-300 of birds can be kept per hectre. Birds gets green grass and insect
such as grasshoppers. Vices such as cannibalism, feather pecking, egg eating and
broodiness are reduced to a minimum. However, the area becomes contaminated with
diseases and parasites.

b) Fold system
The birds are confined in small movable houses called or arks whose size is 3.5 x 1.5 x
1
1.5 m for 15 birds.one third ( ) of the fold is roofed to provide shelter and a laying
3
2
place while two third( ) is open and covered with a suitable wire netting. The fold are
3
moved daily to a fresh area. The advantages of this system are; manure is evenly spread,
feed cost is reduced, worm and parasite builder up is reduced. However, the folds are not
durable and many would be required if a lot of chickens are to be kept.

c) Deep litter
Birds are confined in the house throughout their lives in this system. The house is well

173
 ventilated and insulated to keep the birds healthy. The house should be sited in a well-
drained and easy-to-clean place. The floor of the house is filled with an appropriate liter
up to 10-15 cm high. This litter can be saw dust, wood shavings, crushed maize cob,
chopped straw etc. old should be mixed with fresh litter to inject bacteria which break
down the droppings and thus keeping the litter dry and warm. The litter may become
dump due to water spillage, droppings, high humidity and a leaking roof. The dampness
can be controlled raking. It is advisable to remove the old litter when a new flock of birds
is put into the house. Allow adequate floor space no more than 2-3 birds/m2.
Furthermore, laying nests, roosting perches, feed and water troughs should be provided.

Advantages of deep litter system

 Low initial capital investment
 Low labour needs
 High stocking rates

Disadvantages of deep litter system

 High incidents of cannibalism and egg eating
 Predispose chickens to diseases if old litter is damp.
 Accurate records of egg production cannot be kept
 Litter may not be available when needed.

d) Battery
It is the most intensive of all the systems and birds are confined in cages. The number of
birds per cage vary from one to four. Cages are made from wires and placed in tiers one
on top of the other. They stretch across the whole house and each cage has a slopping
floor to allow easy flow of eggs. Since the droppings fall onto the floor, the lowest tier of
cages should be 0.6 to 0.9 m above the floor to facilitate cleaning. Watering and feeding
are a continuous throughout the length of cages, thus operation render themselves
mechanized. The battery house should be well lighted and ventilated. The floor should
be concrete or cemented.
Advantages

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  High stocking rate is achieved
 Individual records of birds can be kept making culling easy.
 Absence of vices such as egg eating, cannibalism, no contamination of food
water with droppings
 Clean eggs are collected.

Disadvantages
 High initial capital investment in the cages
 High level of management is needed for effective disease control.

Monogastric Production
(Pigs)

INTRODUCTION
Pigs are omnivorous animals and have very good feed conversion ability comparable only to that
of poultry (chicken) among domesticated animals. Pigs are kept for meat either as porker or
baconer and they are also kept for a number of other uses such as leather, hair (used for brushes),
some breeds are just kept as pets (e.g. pot bellied pigs), exchange of goods and services when
required and may be slaughtered at ceremonies.
The rearing of pigs requires relatively little space as compared to the rearing of cattle, sheep and
goats.

PIG PRODUCTION IN ZAMBIA

In Zambia,pig farming is not as widespread as poultry production but, it has a very huge
potential to develop and contribute positively to the gross domestic product of the country.
Traditionally, pigs are kept in the eastern province of Zambia. The pigs that are kept are usually
unimproved local breeds on small holder plots. The commercial pig farmers usually keep exotic
breeds on farms along the line of rail for easy transportation. The low populations of pigs in the
country can be alluded to:
 Feed
The feed is the most limiting in pig production. Quality feed is very expensive and
beyond the reach of most small scale farmers and in most areas like in rural Zambia it is
very difficult to access quality feeds.
 Uses of Local unimproved breeds
Most breeds that are used are small and unimproved in the most needed aspects like fast
growth and feed conversion efficiency. On the other hand the local breeds are hardy and
very adapted to the local environment

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  Poor management0
There are very few people with adequate training in proper pig management and also its
housing is usually not provided for the pigs.
 Prevalence of Diseases
Lack of proper disease control measures due to low levels of management leads to high
mortality rates
 Marketing
Lack of an organized market for pork products
 Lack of Extension services
Extension officers are not adequate, poor road network and poor communication network
make it very difficult to pass extension services to the far flung rural areas.
 Social and religious taboos
A number of religious groups do not want to be associated with pork products

FUTURE OF THE PIG INDUSTRY IN ZAMBIA

Despite the numerous difficulties associated with the pig industry, the future for this industry is
still very promising because of the following advantages:
 Pigs are very prolific –the sow gives birth to a large litter e.g. 10-12 piglets per
parturition and they are capable of reproducing twice in one year.
 They grow very fast – pigs grow very fast. They take about 9 months to start breeding
(sow) and 5 months to reach market weight of about 90 kg.
 High feed efficiency – pigs convert feed to meat with a very high efficiency
 Low land requirements – A farmer does not need a lot of land to set up a piggery
 Quick return on investment – farmers will get a return on their investment just after six
months (from birth to market weight).
 Wide range of pork products – there a range of products one gets from pigs such as
bacon, sausage, polonyetc

In Zambia about 67% of people live below the poverty datum line. This means that a lot of
people cannot afford to have decent meals and one of the most limiting nutrients is protein.
Therefore pig production is very important as it will help alleviate the problems associated with
hunger and malnutrition.

TYPES AND BREEDS OF PIGS

There are about 230 pig breeds in the world. About 30 of these are exotic breeds and they are
popular all over the world. We will talk about a few breeds that are found in Zambia. In the past
characterization of these pigs was based on the end use i.e. bacon or pork type. Presently
characterization is based on body features. In this module we will discuss both indigenous and
exotic breeds.
Indigenous breeds
These are unimproved pigs and grow slowly and are not very efficient in converting feed to
meat. They are however hardy, thrifty and have generally adapted to survive the local
environment. Their carcasses however tend to have more lean meat compared to fat and thus are
very useful in upgrading programs.
Exotic breeds
Exotic breeds are breeds that originally were not in the country but have been imported and some

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of them have been around for some time now and are part of the established breeds in most
piggeries.
Large white or Yorkshire
This breed is native to Yorkshire in England. It is a white breed with an erect dished or concave
face. Their ears are thin and large and slightly point forward. The back is straight and slightly
bow shaped. The normal weights of males and females are about 370 and 340 kg respectively.
They have a very fast growth and can reach bacon weight of 90kg within five to six months. The
large white pigs are very prolific and will usually have a litter size of 11-12 with very good
lactation. The body is long and the ratio of lean meat to fat is moderate. The breed is however
susceptible to heat burns and high temperatures. It is used intensively in crossbreeding
throughout the world as it forms a very good maternal base.

Plate 1: Large white

Landrace
This is a white breed and is native to
Denmark. Originally its roots are from the
Large Yorkshire but massive
improvements were done in the Scandinavian
countries and this stabilized breed is now exported throughout the world from there. This breed
has very big ears and they droop forward. They are good converters of feed into meat and have a
high growth rate. Litter size of this breed is between 11- 12 and they have very high fecundity.
They have long bodies their backs are straight or slightly bow shaped. The weights of the males
and females are 330 kg and 270 kg respectively. This breed is used in processed meat. The breed
is susceptible to heat stress.

Plate 2: Landrace

Berkshire
This is a black breed except for six white
points: the four feet, nose tip and the tip of the
tail. It is native to England. It was bred by crossing the red Berkshire with an Asian breed and
then crossed again with a Mediterranean breed. The face is slightly concave and the ears stand
straight. Has short and sometimes upturned nose. Normal weights of males and females are 250
kg and 200 kg respectively. It’s an excellent meat type animal.

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 Plate 3: Berkshire
Duroc
The Duroc is native to the eastern United States of America specifically in the area around New
York and New Jersey. This breed originated from the red swine native to West Africa, Spain and
Portugal. They have reddish brown fur but the depth varies considerably. They have concave
faces with small ears that droop forward. The Duroc swine has a medium length; bow shaped
back and well developed thighs. It has very good heat resistance with litter size of about 10.
Males and females will weigh about 380 kg and 300 kg respectively. The popularity of the Duroc
is growing worldwide and it is used as the paternal base in hybrids.

Plate 4: Duroc
Hampshire
This breed is black in color but has a
characteristic white stripe along the shoulders and
front legs. The ears are small and erect. Pigs
of this breed are medium sized and their backs
are bow shaped. Males and females weigh 300kg and 250kg respectively. The average litter size
is 10. This breed is less likely to suffer from sunburn. It is used as the paternal base in hybrids in
the United States, Canada and Europe.

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 Plate 5: Hamshire
Large Black
The large black is one of the oldest
breeds and is native to the United
Kingdom. It has a black skin and
black fur. It has no concavity on the face. Males and females reach weights of 380 kg and 300 kg
respectively. The average size of piglets per litter is 10 and the breed has very good lactation.

Poland China
The breeding of these pigs was pioneered by a polish farmer and hence the name. They have the
same colour as the Berkshire but with greater variation. The males and females weigh 250 kg and
200 kg respectively. The number of piglets per litter is 7. This pig is a native of Ohio in the
United States of America.

Plate 6: Poland China

THE OESTRUS CYCLE

Whereas the production of sperms in boars is continuous and males are prone to mate at any
time, the release of the eggs in sows occurs in cyclic patterns and they will accept males only at
certain times. The female reproductive system is geared to a regular, hormone-controlled cycle,
interrupted only by pregnancy or by season. This cycle is called the estrus cycle. It ends in the
behavioral signs of a sow being ‘on heat’ or ‘in estruses. It occurs on average once every 21
days.
It occurs in gilts for the first time at puberty which is reached as early as four months to as late as
eight months. Depending on breed, but mostly it depends on how they have been bred, with

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nutrition being the single determining factor. The estrus cycle might therefore be defined as the
cycle of events from one heat period to the next. It includes the development and the release of
the ova, other physiological changes in the female reproductive tract that prepare it for
pregnancy and heat.
The estrus cycle is regulated by a complex of activities from the central nervous system,
secretory tissues, target tissues and several hormones.
The ovaries contains numerous eggs, most of which are in resting stages. At birth the sow
contains all the eggs it requires in its life. During estrus these eggs become active. Fluid filled
cavities are formed each containing an egg. They develop and enlarge and eventually form
blister-like structures called follicles. Some of these follicles mature into structures called
Graafian follicles. The remaining follicles regress.
The Graafian follicle eventually ruptures and releases the eggs for fertilization. About 14 ova are
released and 70% of the ova released are fertilized.The rupture of the Graafian follicles and the
release of the eggs are called ovulation. Ovulation takes place about 31 hours after estrus.
The other function of the follicle is to produce a hormone called estrogen. This hormone enters
the blood stream and has profound effects on the behavior and physiology of the female. In
addition to heat inducement it has the following functions:
1. Growth and development of the female reproductive tract
2. Growth of the uterine muscle cells lining the uterus.
3. Increase the blood supply throughout the tract (at the time of estrus)
4. Contraction of uterine muscles(stimulation)
5. Production of mucus in the cervix and the vagina (stimulated)
6. Development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics(feminity)

Corpus Luteum
The cells that line the cavity of the Graafian follicle continue to grow until they fill the cavity,
and form the corpus luteum. If the animal becomes pregnant the corpus luteum (CL) remains in
the ovary for the whole pregnancy. If she does not conceive the CL regresses from day 13-16 as
the result of the production of prostaglandin by the uterus. The other functions of progesterone
are:
1. It stimulates growth and maintenance of the uterine mucus and increases the blood supply
to the uterus. This prepares the uterus for reception of the fertilized egg.
2. It inhibits contractions of uterine muscles and this makes it easier for the fertilized egg to
attach itself to the lining of the uterus.
3. It causes production of the cervical seal, a thick mucus plug in the cervical canal which
protects the conceptus from infection.
4. It maintains pregnancy and prevents heat and ovulation in the sow (Some other species
ovulate during pregnancy)

If the ovum is not fertilized the uterus will start releasing prostaglandin around day sixteen (16)
after ovulation. This prostaglandin initiates the regression of the CL. Once the CL regresses
production of progesterone is reduced. This means that the concentration of progesterone in the
blood will decrease. The progesterone block on GnRH release from the hypothalamus
disappears.
The general sequence of events which take place during the estrus cycle of the sow is as follows:

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 1. The hypothalamus (part of the brain) produces gonadotrophin releasing hormones
(GnRH). This in turn causes the release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luternizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland. The FSH reaches the ovary and
causes the development of a follicle.
2. The follicle on the ovary produces estrogen which brings the animal on heat.
3. The level of estrogen in the blood rises and this causes the hypothalamus to stop
producing GnRH. Without the stimulus of releasing factors, the pituitary gland no longer
releases FSH.
4. The high level of estrogen in the blood causes the hypothalamus to produce a LH
releasing factor. These act on the pituitary gland to release LH. The correct balance of
FSH and LH cause the rupture of the follicle. Under the stimulus of LH a corpus luteum
is formed which produces progesterone. If pregnancy does not occur the corpus luteum
reaches its maximum size on about day thirteen (13) after estrus and then begins to
regress.
5. In this case the level of progesterone in the blood decreases, thus permitting the
hypothalamus to produce GnRH which causes the pituitary gland to release FSH. This
starts a new cycle.
6. But if the sow has become pregnant the corpus luteum remains and enlarges. It becomes
the corpus luteum of pregnancy and continues to produce progesterone until birth of the
piglets

Figure 3: Hormonal functions

REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE
Reproduction in pigs refers to the period between fertilization and parturition of the newly born
piglets. Reproduction therefore will involve the animal to be on heat, mate, then fertilization,

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gestation and finally parturition. The gestation will refer to the period when the animal is
pregnant. In pigs normal gestation period is 114 days (108-120 days).
Heat detection
When the hormones of estrus are in play the animal will exhibit behavior that is unique to
animals on heat. These signs of heat are shown by female animals. The boars will be ready to
mate any time but they should not be overworked. The following signs in female pigs will show
you that this animal is on heat:
 Restlessness
 Swelling and reddening of the vulva
 Slimy viscous vaginal discharge
 Frequent urination
 Mounting of other animals or accepting to be mounted by other animals
 Standing response when another animal tries to mount it

The normal estrus period in pigs is about 2-3 days but some animals will have abnormal estrus
from time to time. For example a pig may have extended estrus of 5 days. The estrus period
varies with individuals and the number of litters it has had and is generally longer in multiparous
sows.
Ovulation
In the ovaries of mature female pig, exists follicles at varying stages of development. Some of
them grow rapidly to be ovulated every estrus. A similar number is ovulated from the right as
well as the left ovaries. Ovulation takes place naturally 31 hours after the onset of estrus.
Mating
Ova are released 31 hrs after the onset of estrus. The lifespan of ova in the female duct is
estimated to be 20 hrs at the most. It takes about 20 minutes for ova to reach the fertilization site
in the uterus. Sperm on the other hand will survive in the female reproductive tract for 40 hrs and
will take about 10 minutes to reach the fertilization site. The right time for mating therefore is
10-25 hours after the onset of estrus (at the starting point of the ovulation time and period) taking
into account the ovulation time, the fertile life of ova and sperms and the time taken to reach the
fertilization zone. The rate decreases to below 50% when insemination is done after 25 hrs after
onset of estrus. It is therefore not advisable to breed animals late and also to do multiple mating
or insemination for females that have longer duration of estrus because the ovulation time is also
delayed consequently. The frequency of mating will depend on the boar’s ability but generally
sperm volume output increases with age of the animal. Therefore t he following are guidelines
for frequency of service. For boars between 8-15 months you may use them once per day, or 24
times per month. For boars older than 15 months, you can use them twice per day or 36 times per
month.

Methods of mating
There are two mating methods that are used; artificial insemination and natural mating.
Artificial insemination
As artificial insemination makes it possible to breed several gilts or sows with a single semen
specimen and to reduce the number of times semen is collected, there is little possibility of
exhaustion of the boars and excellent breeding boars can be used extensively. There are many
benefits in artificial insemination, such as possible breeding between individuals of different
constitution, and no fear of the transfer of infectious diseases caused by direct contact between

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the sexes. It is now possible to use frozen semen for artificial insemination in pigs.
Natural service
Natural service is still extensively employed by commercial pig breeders. This is because there is
no need for human intervention between the boar and the gilt or sow as in artificial insemination,
it is possible to avoid the process of collection, examination, storage and injection of semen, and
no special equipment and facilities for collecting and injecting semen are required. Even if the
pig breeder cannot detect oestrus accurately, the problem is resolved by putting both sexes
together.
The main advantage of artificial insemination, however, resolves the main disadvantage of
natural service. In natural service, a relatively higher boar-to-sow ratio is required. In particular,
in the case of recent cross breeding by multi-way mating, boars of many breeds must be kept and
it is difficult to have excellent boars ready at the right time.
Natural service is further divided into hand mating where the boar runs with the gilts and sows,
mating them as they come on heat and pen mating where the boar is separated from the sows and
gilts but they are taken to the boar pen when they come on heat.
The boar will ejaculate on average as much as 225mls of semen per mating. Soto facilitate
transfer of such high volumes of semen the penis of the boar is screw shaped and locks with the
female reproductive tract during the transfer.

Fertilization
Injected sperms by natural service or artificial insemination at the right time of mating meets the
ova in the upper part of oviducts and must penetrate the residual granulosa cells, zonapellucida
and vitelline membrane in the ovum. Only one sperm enters an ovum. Fertilized ova normally
stay in the oviducts until the second division and get to the uterus 1-2 days after fertilization.
Fertilized ova in the uterus form blastocysts 6-8 days after fertilization. In pigs, intrauterine
movement of the embryos occurs before the implantation. The same numbers of embryos are
implanted with equal spacing in the right and left uterine horns. This occurs even though the
number of ova from each ovary may be different. The fetal mortality during gestation is
estimated at 30-45% and two thirds of the dead fetuses die within 25 days after fertilization,
mostly due to the failure of implantation. As the embryonic and fetal mortality before birth
increases with the age of the pig and the number of litters it has had, the litter size does not
therefore increase even though the number of ovulated eggs increases with age.
Early death of embryos is attributable to the sub-optimal uterine environment.
Gestation
The gestation period of pigs varies a little depending on the breed and on the individual but it is
relatively stable, and is hardly influenced by size, age, or environmental conditions. The average
length of the gestation period is 114 days (108-120 days) and a deviation of more than 7 days
from this is considered abnormal. Piglets delivered after a shorter gestation period are immature
and hardly grow. Fetuses in gestation for a longer period are oversized and this results in
dystokia.
Diagnosis of pregnancy
The confirmation of pregnancy after mating in swine depends on the Non-return method(NR) in
which diagnosis is determined by the presence of the next return of estrus. As too many non-
pregnant sows do not show evidence of the next estrus and some pregnant ones show signs of
estrus (estrus of gestation), dependence only on the NR method is questionable. Recently various

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diagnostic methods for pregnancy have been studied and some of them are already being applied.
The methods of pregnancy diagnosis now in use for pigs are as follows;
 The ultrasonic method in which fetal cardiac beats are detected by using the Doppler
effect of ultrasonic waves
 Assay of increasing estrogen levels in the urine and increasing progestin levels in the
blood during pregnancy
 Presence of estrus signs after injecting estrogen
 And observing the changes in the vaginal mucous membrane due to pregnancy.

Though each of these methods is excellent, none of them satisfies all criteria for an effective
pregnancy diagnostic method such as early diagnosis of pregnancy, reliability, simplicity and
harmlessness to the bodies of pregnant sows and their fetuses. It is therefore important to use
them in combination with the NR method.
Growth of the fetus.
The growth of the fetuses is considerable from about 60 days after conception and the body
weight doubles during the last one month of pregnancy. Fetal growth is affected by various
factors such as heredity, age, and nutritional status of the maternal sow, duration of pregnancy,
litter size, fetal position in the uterus, competition among litter mates, the relative growth of the
fetuses and the endometrium before implantation, and placental size.
The differences among breeds are due to genetic factors. Though the heritability of birth weight
is low, the weight of Landrace, Hampshire and Duroc breeds weigh asmuch as 1.3-1.5 kg: and
that of Middle Yorkshire, Berkshire and Large Yorkshire breeds is as low as 1.2-1.3 kg.
As a young sow is growing during pregnancy, she competes with the foetuses for effective
nutrients. In general, preference is given to foetuses in nutrient utilization during gestation,
which greatly affects the mother sows. This in turn affects the foetuses as well. Malnutrition
during pregnancy disturbs nutrient retention in the foetal body and has a negative influence on
growth and mortality after birth. If a sow or gilt is too fat it inhibits sufficient expansion of the
uterus and placenta, the piglets are often born small. In pigs, litter size has a significant effect on
the growth of fetuses. Large litter size prevents prenatal growth and reduces average birth weight
due to competition among fetuses in the uterus.
Farrowing
Parturition is the delivery of fetuses with their accompanying uterine matter out of the maternal
body at the end of gestation. Parturition is often initiated at night. In normal farrowing, the signs
of parturition are followed by the delivery phase. The signs of parturition are:
1. The sow becomes restless and moves with litter in her mouth or gathers straw with her
forelegs as if making a child's bed and leaves the group during group feeding.
2. As external changes, both sides of the tail setting sink
3. The abdomen hangs
4. The udders swell and the teats secret milk when pressure is applied
5. The external genitalia swell and become loose.

BREEDING MANAGEMENT
Young breeding stock should be separated from the remainder of the litter at 3 months of age.
You should ensure that you select more pigs than you will need for breeding as it is difficult to

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finalize which animals will be used in the end (select 3 gilts for every 2 sows). If gilts are
purchased only those with known history should be selected. All breeding Boars and Gilts should
have more than 12 teats. Boars and Gilts can be reared together until they are about 4-5 months
old. Boars are sometimes reared together or allowed to run with the gilts so that they don’t
become vicious. As the Boars grow its important to cut their tusks as they age. It has been
observed that isolating Boars alone will reduce their levels of sexual behaviour and ensure that
you mate young boars to young gilts not young and old sows. In order to stimulate sexual onset
of puberty a boar should be introduced to gilts 10-15 minutes every day. The Boar used for this
purpose should be at least 9-10 months of age and actively working so that he is producing
enough of the necessary odour (pheromones) to have a stimulating effect on the gilts. Gilts are
most sensitive to boar stimulation at between 145- 170 days of age. If they don’t come into heat
try mixing them with strange gilts. If gilts are mated and fertilized when too young, the following
things are likely to follow;
 The growth of the maternal bodies is impaired by pregnancy and nursing, resulting in
retarded recurrence of oestrus
 Due to immature genital organs, the body weight of the offspring may be small and
variable
 The size of the litter is small
 Young sows cannot nurse the piglets sufficiently

Gilts should, therefore, be served on the standard of 8-10 months of age and a body weight of
120kg.The sex organs of both the boar and the gilt will develop to the full capacity 2-3 months
after attaining sexual maturity.

SYSTEMS OF PIG MANAGEMENT

There are typically three systems of keeping pigs. These are:

 the Free-range or scavenging pig keeping system,
 the Semi-intensive system of keeping pigs,
 The intensive pig keeping system (Small–scale and large scale system of keeping pigs).
The three systems of pig keeping represent levels of care for the pigs as follows:

Free-range 'scavenging' pig keeping system

This is where the pigs are left to move freely around the house or village, scavenging and finding for
themselves most of their food. Very little time is spent by the farmer looking after the pigs and little
money is spent in improving the well-being of the animals. Very few pigs are kept.
Shelter may or may not be provided to the pigs. Although the different ages of pigs have different
needs no effort is made to separate the animals into different groups so that the pigs can be taken care

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of according to their needs. Many piglets die at birth because the pregnant sows are not separated
from others just before farrowing and put inside a house to give birth to their young in a safe and clean
place. With improper housing most of the piglets do not live and grow into adult pigs.
The pigs are left to find their own food. The sows move around with the piglets. Many piglets die
because of being exposed to cold, predators and diseases causing organisms. No money or time is
spent in buying, growing or processing the feed for pigs in order to improve the quality of the feed
eaten by these animals. Sometimes the food the pigs find is supplemented with kitchen refuse or
agricultural waste products. Pigs kept in a free-range system will not grow quickly, because they use
up a lot of energy in their scavenging activities. Sometimes the pigs are not even provided with fresh
drinking water.
Indigenous breeds are usually reared. In general there is no effort made to improve production by
choosing the best animals for breeding.
One of the biggest problems with scavenging pigs is the high rate of piglet loss. No money is spent in
buying medicines for the treatment of diseases. Parasites are also a serious problem because pigs are
kept outside, especially during the wet rainy season which provides the best conditions for increase in
the parasites. Worms are the most common parasites. A pig infested with worms will be in poor
health and will grow very slowly.

Constraints to increased productivity of scavenging pigs

The main constraints or drawbacks to increased production of the local scavenging pigs are:

 The high rates of piglet mortality or death, and slow growth.

 The pigs use up a lot of energy searching for feed and water instead of using the energy
for growth.
 The local or indigenous pigs do not grow as fast as improved breeds even if they are
provided with good feeds.

 The local scavenging pigs tend to have slower growth rates as a result of worm
infestation because of lack of investment in health care.

Semi-intensive pig keeping

More care is provided to the animals in order to improve the survival of piglets and their growth rates.
Improvements in feeding, health care practices and selection of the best pigs for breeding result in
faster growing and healthier pigs. There are also more piglets born in a litter. Although this system of
pig keeping requires only small amounts of money to be spent in improving the well-being of the pigs,
more time and effort needs to be spent on the pigs. Some technical knowledge on the care of pigs is
required. This is provided by agricultural extension workers.
In semi-intensive systems pigs spend the night in houses and during the day they are able to move in a
fenced yard, which restricts their movement. Animals kept restricted in yards will always be less
burdened with worms.
Special efforts are made to make sure that the available feedstuff is properly distributed. The quality
of the feed may be improved by buying feedstuffs.
The quality of the new pigs born is continuously improved by choosing the best animals to breed.
Keeping the nursing sows and their piglets separate from the other pigs makes it easier to select the

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stronger and bigger piglets for breeding. The remaining piglets can be fattened for sale or for
slaughter.
Separating out the best sows for breeding, giving them good housing and proper attention, are
necessary steps towards improved pig breeding practice. It is important to buy or borrow a good boar
to produce strong healthy litters. Buying a boar is costly as it involves traveling in search of a good
animal, transport costs, buying price… the costs can only be recovered if the feeding and health care
of the well selected animals is good. The buying of a boar is a project that a group of farmers may
wish to undertake together. It is also useful to exchange boars between neighbouring villages, in order
to avoid the problems of inbreeding.

The result of the improved management is that more money is raised from pig sales.

Small-scale intensive pig keeping

In the intensive pig keeping system the pigs are kept in complete confinement. Buildings are
provided to keep fatteners, boars, sows, and sows with their piglets separate. Larger numbers of
pigs are kept. More time and money are spent on the well-being of the pigs. Feeds and
medicines are bought in. High investments are required in terms of time, money and materials to
provide improved buildings.

To be able to manage the business correctly:

 Proper records must be kept
 Veterinary services should be available when required.
 Technical knowledge is required to make the right decisions at the right time
 A local extension service is important as a source of support and technical advice.

In this system of pig some feeds will have to be bought. Providing extra feed helps the pigs grow
faster, making it possible to market the animals earlier than under the other two systems of
management. Heavier animals are sold, thus earning much higher prices.

Faster growing improved breeds which produce larger litters are usually reared. Although
‘improved’ breeds have great potential they require feed of high quality and careful management.
Selection of the best animals for breeding is continuously done.

Whenever too many pigs are reared together in confined space there is a high risk of infection
spreading quickly among the animals. Preventive measures aim at increasing the animals’
resistance (for example by improving the quality of the feed) and they aim at reducing the
sources of infection, e.g. by keeping a smaller number of animals in the same area or by
improved hygiene (providing dry and clean housing, regularly moving the pens etc.). When large
numbers of pigs are kept together medicines are sometimes necessary to prevent disease
outbreaks.

Intensive systems aim to provide a major source of income for a group or household. The animals no
longer function as a savings account but are grown to be marketed. This means that regular access to
the market is needed.
BREEDING RECORDS

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A good system of record-keeping can be made using a notebook or exercise book. A few pages
in the book can be used for noting down all the important events that happen to each sow.

Important details to be included in the records

 The name of the sow or boar
 The date, month and year of birth
 The parents’ names
 The grand parent’s names

Monitoring the performance of a boar using records

It is important to record the boar’s activity and the results obtained, so that his performance can
be assessed. The fertility of the boar is indicated by the size of the litters he produces and the
percentage of sows’ in-pig after a first service (insemination rate). The information to record is:

 the date of the service;

 the identification (name or number) of the sow he has served;
 the date of farrowing (which will tell you if the sow was inseminated at the first service);
 The size of the litter.

In this way the performance of the boar can be compared with other boars and on the basis of
this decision about keeping or replacing him can be made. A boar should function well until it is
about 5 to 6 years old. Once he gets older than this the younger boar should take his place and a
new young boar selected, or brought in, for the young sows.

Important events recorded for a breeding sow:

 Date of her first heat
 Date of 2nd heat
 Date of 3rd heat
 Date of mating, and name of the boar
 Result of the heat check 3 weeks after mating (did she come on heat again?)

If there are no signs of heat she must be in-pig, and the date of farrowing can be established (115
days after mating).

If she has come back on heat she will now have to be put to the boar again - Calculate the date
when she might come back on heat (3 weeks after mating).

 Expected date of farrowing

 The date for putting the sow in a farrowing pen (1 or 2 weeks before farrowing). • Actual
date of farrowing
 Size of the litter, number of healthy piglets , and number of still-born piglets
 Number of piglets that have survived and have been successfully weaned (this gives an
idea of the sow’s mothering qualities)

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Other information to be recorded

 Dates of illness, nature of the problem and the treatment or medicines administered.
 If a piglet is selected for further breeding, such information should be transferred to the
new page of records opened for that piglet in its new role as a breeding sow or boar.

ROUTINE TASKS AND PIG REARING

Teeth Trimming
It is usually necessary to trim the piglets’ teeth to prevent them biting the udder (Figures). The
piglets are born with needle sharp teeth which may injure the sow’s udder and prevent the sow
from letting the piglets suckle. The piglets would then be left to starve. Starved piglets easily
get chilled. Chilled piglets easily catch diseases and die. Only the points of the teeth should be
removed. When trimming the teeth the tongue of the piglets should be rolled back to avoid
injuring it.

Figure: A teeth trimmer such as the Figure: The needle-sharp teeth of

one above can be bought where piglets being trimmed. (From
medicines and equipment for use on Practical Pig Production: 3.
animals are sold, usually in big towns or Essential management Practices
cities. (From Practical Pig Production: done in piglets. Musukwa, 2005)
3. Essential management Practices done
in piglets. Musukwa, 2005)

Prevention of anemia in piglets

Anemia is a shortage of iron in the blood. After two or three weeks anaemic piglets become pale
and their rate of growth drops. They may develop a fat neck. Anaemia can be prevented from
birth by putting a shovel of ‘clean’ iron-rich soil or compost into a corner of the pen every day.
Clean soil is soil which has not been in contact with other pigs, or other animals, so that there is
no danger of worm contamination. Most of the red, brown and yellow soils in the tropics contain
enough iron. Piglets (0 - 3 days old) may be injected with an iron preparation, if available.
Tender avocado leaves may be fed to pigs to prevent anemia.
Castration
Male piglets are castrated to prevent their meat from smelling strongly, and also to make sure

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that they are manageable when they become sexually mature. Those male piglets that will be
sold or slaughtered for meat before they attain sexual maturity at about 8 months of age need not
be castrated. Male piglets which are not castrated grow faster than those that are castrated.
Castration should be done in the first three weeks of a piglet’s life. The animals should be fit and
healthy and if this is not the case it is better to postpone the operation.
Castration procedure
To carry out the castration two people are needed, the person carrying out the small operation
and an assistant to hold the piglet. The pen should be dry and very clean to prevent infection to
the wound. .
The assistant takes the pig by the hind legs and holds it firmly between his/her legs, the piglet’s
head pointing towards the ground.
The other person has a very sharp knife that has been thoroughly cleaned with a disinfectant. The
figures below show how the castration operation is done.

Figure A piglet is held securely between the legs of the assistant with the scrotum exposed and
testicles rounded out. (From Essential Management Practices Done in Piglets. Musukwa, 2005)
Using the sharp knife, a large enough cut is made along the rounded stretched skin on top of one
testis and the oval ball inside is pushed out. The cord connecting the testis to the body is cut by
scraping out with the edge of a sharp blade. There is more bleeding if the cord is cut in one
stroke or sweep of the blade. The other testicle is removed in the same way. Afterwards the
wounds should be washed thoroughly with a disinfectant like iodine to prevent infection.
Weaning the piglets
Weaning is done by removing the sow from the farrowing pen. When the piglets are no longer
suckling from the udder, it dries up and the sow comes on heat again. It is best to take the sow
away from the piglets, rather than leaving her in the pen and removing the piglets. This is
because piglets should not be disturbed further by going into a new pen which they are not used
to. If they are removed from the pen they are used to, leaving their mother behind, the amount
of disturbance is doubled and their growth may be affected.
Weaning age of piglets
Piglets should be weaned when they are about 5 to 8 weeks old. If the sow is weaned early it
remains in better body condition for it to accept to be mated (go on heat) quickly after weaning.
This may be within 3 to 7 days. Early weaning of the sow increases the number of times that a
sow can be bred in a year. This increases the number of piglets that can be produced by one sow
in a year. Early weaning can be done if there is enough high protein containing feed for the
piglets to eat after weaning. They will need protein-rich feed as they will be growing fast at this
time in their life Otherwise the piglets can be weaned at eight weeks. There should also be
plenty of clean water for the piglets to drink. It is important for the piglets to learn to drink water
early in preparation for weaning.

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How can a sow be made to go on heat or oestrus after weaning?
Oestrus can be brought on by:
 Taking the sow away from the piglets during weaning, rather than removing the piglets.
 Putting the sow in a pen next to the boar after weaning.
 Bringing her into contact with the boar regularly after weaning.

Marking the Pigs for Identification

Being able to identify the pigs is essential if records are to be kept and management activities
planned.
Identifying different animals so that records can be made on them
One of the ways of identifying the pigs is by giving them animals names. Where there are many
pigs, each animal can have a marking on its body. There are various methods of physically
marking animals, but in this book we will only consider notching. All the animals should be
marked when they are young.
Notching
Notching involves cutting small pieces of skin out of the edges of the ears. This is a very cheap
method of marking using a very sharp knife. The wounds made by the cutting should be
disinfected with iodine. By having different patterns of the cuts, these can be used for the
identification of different pigs. The disadvantages of the method are that it takes time ‘to read’
the patterns (or codes), and that problems can arise if the ears are damaged.

Figure: The right ear of an adult Figure: The leftof an adult pig with
pig with notches which were made notches which were made when the pig
when the pig was very young was very young (Musukwa, 2005)
(Musukwa, 2005)

Ear notching procedure

The procedure followed when ear notching is as follows:
 Catch the pig and secure it well.
 Clean the ears with methylated spirit.
 Clean the knife or pliers to be used for cutting with methylated spirit and then cut off the
edge of the ear flap on the parts of the ear that correspond to the number you want to give
the pig.
 Apply some disinfectant like iodine, healing oil or wound spray to the cuts in the ear flap.

Do not use notching on very young piglets because their ears are still very small and notching

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may create wounds through which disease causing microorganisms can get into the body.

DISEASES OF PIGS

External Parasites
Mange
There are two types of mange mites, Sacroptic and Demodectic. Sacroptic mites burrow under
the outer layer of the skin and cause irritation and thickening of the skin. In severe cases the
animal will always try to rub itself against rough surfaces to stop the itching. Demodectic mites
on the other hand do not penetrate the skin and are not very common. Control is by spraying and
pen disinfection.
Louse
Louse has a species Hermatopinissuisthat affects pigs. The lice suck the blood from the pigs.
Good hygiene and spraying resolves the problem of lice.
Other external parasites include Fleas, flies and ticks. Fly bet can solve the problem of flies but
still the most effective control measure for the three parasites is good hygiene and spraying
Internal Parasites
Ascaris
These are parasites that infect the alimentary canal. Symptoms of this disease include
unthriftness poor weight gain and reduced feed efficiency. Control of this disease is by good
sanitation and systematic programme of deworming of pigs. Many dewormers are available on
the market. The dewormers should be used according to manufactures recommendations.
Trichinosis
This condition is caused by parasites that are very infectious to human beings. The parasites are
destroyed by heat. So cooking pigs well is effective control of this disease. Alternatively freezing
the meat at 15˚C for 20 days also helps.
Brucellosis
Brucellosis is caused by bacteria. Abortion in the early gestation is a characteristic of this
disease. Boars with this disease will have swelled testicles. Blood testing the breeding stock is
the only way of determining if the disease is present. The sows will come back into heat after
they are thought to have been bred.
ClostridialDiarrhoea
This disease is caused by a bacterium that produces a toxin which damages the cells lining the
intestines. This is a disease of young pigs usually under one week of age. The symptoms include
listlessness and a yellow blood stained watery diarrhoea. Prevention is by vaccinating the sows
twice. Antiserum can also be given to piglets a few hours after they are born.
Dysentery
This disease is also called vibrionic dysentery, blood scours and black scours. It is most common
in pigs from weaning to 14 weeks of age, though any age may be affected. It may be confused
with other scouring problems. The disease starts with bloody diarrhoea that develops into faeces
which are watery and thick with mucus. Prevention is by isolation of affected pigs.
Treatment is by administration of Arsannillic acid, sodium arsanilate, tylosin, neomycin, and
furazolidone.
Erysipelas
This disease occurs in acute mild and chronic forms. It affects hogs from weaning to market age.

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Symptoms of the acute form include fever, withdrawal from the herd, lameness, depression,
chilling signs and death. The mild form shows signs of the acute form except they are less severe
while arthritis is the common symptom in the chronic form. Prevention can be achieved
vaccination of hogs at six to eight weeks of age. A combination of penicillin and erysipelas
serum is used to treat infected pigs.
ANIMAL DISEASES

Signs of health
Careful observation of livestock tells the farmer which animals are healthy and which are
not. The main points which show that an animal is healthy are:
1 a good upright stance and a steady walk;
2 a good appetite;
3 head held upright;
4 eyes clean and bright;
5 nose cold and wet;
6 ears warm and alert;
7 skin in good condition, without patches;
8 dung of the right consistency and colour;
9 urine a normal colour and passed without difficulty;
10 correct body temperature.
The average body temperature of the chieftypes of livestock are:
Cattle 38·6°C
Pigs 39·2°C
Sheep 39·4°C
Goats 39·4°C
Poultry 41·0°C
Signs of disease state
- Low appetite or stop eating: It may because of dirty feeding area.
- Low productivity(dropped milk yield, stop laying eggs,,,)
- Abnormalities in gait(lameness):It may because of pain in the hooves, foot or limbs.
- Not being able to stand(recumbence)
- Dullness or depressed
- Rough hair coat(Poultry may have ruffled feather)
- Abnormal color of mucous membrane or skin: Pale, redness, bluish, yellowish,,,
- Elevation of skin
- Increasing respiration: It may because of high body temperature

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 - Soft or watery feces: It may because of infectious diseases, stress, coldness or excessive
ingestion
- Difficulty in defecating: it may because of stress or lack of water.
- Stop defecating: It may because of obstruction of digestive tracts or no appetite
- Respiratory signs (coughing, nasal discharge,increasing respiration):It may because of
problems in the trachea, bronchi or the lungs.
- Nervous signs (gliding teeth, twitching lips, circling, swimming, paralysis, eating what
they can’t eat,,,): it may because of poisoning, deficiency or some infectious diseases.

Describe the nutritive value of livestock feed.

Some of the
Constituents of animal feed are:
Water
Source of water
Water in the animal body comes from;
Drinking from a variety of sources such as rivers, wells, farms trough. This water in the animal’s
body is called free water.
Food the animals eat, as most of the feeds are succulent. This type of water is known as bond
water, andis released from the food during digestion.
Metabolism as water is produced when food is oxidized in the body cells during respiration. This
is known as metabolism water.
Functions of water in body
Water is very important in the animal’s bodies and its basic functions include;
i. It is responsible for the conveyance of the nutrient from one part to another.
ii. It makes cells turgid, maintaining the shape of the body.
iii. It is a component of body cells and body fluids such as blood.
iv. It is used in the body’s biochemical reaction such as digestion of food.
v. It regulates body temperature through sweating and evaporation.
vi. Helps in removing waste products from the body.
vii. Water constitutes large portions of animal products such as milk (83%) and eggs
(55).
Water requirement
The amount of water required by an animal depends on;

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 I. Feed type eaten by an animal; the drier the feed the more amount of water required.
For instance animals feed in hay or straw requires more water.
II. Environmental temperature; animals need more water when its hot due to high rate of
sweating.
III. Weight and size of the animal; a heavy animal requires more water than a lighter
animal .
IV. Level of production or amount of work; high milk or eggs yields requires more water
because water is a manager constituent of those products. At the same the time,
drought animals lose a lot of the water through sweating hence the need for more
water
Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the main source of energy.

Source of carbohydrates
i. Pasture e.g grass
ii. Grains of cereal
iii. Root crops
iv. Molasses
Need of carbohydrates in the animals
i. Energy production
ii. Synthesis of products such as milk, meat.
iii. All the body processes such as respiration.
iv.

Minerals
Minerals are required in small amounts. E.g calcium, phosphorus.

Protein
Proteins are organic compounds that are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur
and phosphorus.
Source of proteins

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Animal gets the protein they need from;
Leguminous pasture plants such as desmodium, lucene and clovers
Seed cakes made from the by- products of crops such as sunflower ,groundnuts, cotton, and
simsin.
Young green grass
Animal products and their by-product such as milk, meat/blood meal and fish meal.
Functions of proteins in the animal body
i. Proteins in the animals body is converted into amino acids that are then used in;
ii. Production of such products as meat, milk, eggs and wool.
iii. Growth, repair, and replacement of worn out body tissues.
iv. Production of digestive enzymes to break food particles.
v. Production of certain hormones needed in the body.
vi. Production of anti-bodies to protect the body from disease attacks.
Note; To express how much protein is present in the feedstuff the crude protein (CP) value is
used. All protein substances contain approximately 16 per cent of the essential element nitrogen.
If the amount of nitrogen in the feeding stuff is determined and then multiplied by 100/16(or
6·25) this gives the crude protein value of the feed. Again, not all the protein of the feed is used
by the animal, so the value called digestible crude protein (DCP) is used to express the amount of
protein available to the animal. For example, the figures for fish meal, used in pig and poultry
rations,are: CP, 61 per cent,; DCP, 55 per cent.
Oil and fats
Fats and oils are used in the body to produce energy. Animals get fats and oils from ;
Animal products and by-products such as;
Milk, bone/meat and fish meal.
Pasture plants such as grass and other foliage
By-products of oil seed such as cotton, coconut, groundnuts, cashew nuts seed and sunflower
cakes.

Types of disease
Diseases of livestock can be divided into groups according to the way in which they affect the
animal.

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Diseases caused by infection
Where a germ (bacterium, fungus or virus) gets into the animal and causes an illness.
The disease organism multiplies very quickly when it is in the right conditions and the animal
soon begins to show the symptoms of the disease, e.g. tuberculosis in cattle.
Diseases caused by parasites
These are organisms which depend on the livestock, the host animal, for their food. Parasites do
not kill their host because they need to live on it. They may be inside or on the outside of the
host. Sometimes it is the parasite itself which is the problem, e.g. roundworm, and sometimes the
parasite passes a disease into the host when it bites it or becomes established inside it, e.g. ticks
pass various diseases to cattle when they bite the skin and draw blood.
Diseases caused by poor nutrition
If there is an imbalance in the diet, such as a vitamin or mineral shortage, this can lead directly to
a disease, e.g. anaemia (shortage of iron) in piglets.
Diseases caused by poor metabolism

DISEASE CONTROL METHODS

5.1 Ban
Ban importing or exporting animals and products from contaminated area or country.

5.2 Quarantine: Period that an animal is kept away from others in order to prevent the disease
from spreading. We don’t know they are infected or not unless we do quarantine.
・A quarantine line can be established to prevent spread of disease from the affected zone to
the free area. It can be a fence or two fences spaced apart by a distance varying from a few
meters to kilometers, a wall or simply a line marked on a map between 2 areas one in which
the organism is known to inhabit and the other to be free.
・Natural barriers such as mountain chains, oceans or rivers may also be defined as quarantine
lines.
・When there is an outbreak of a notifiable disease in an area, the area can be declared as a
quarantine area. If however the disease has been cleared, the quarantine may be lifted.
Sometimes a whole country may be declared as a quarantine are.

5.3 Vector control(biological control)

・Ticks
・Flies
・Rats,,,

5.4 Disinfection(see appendix)

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Disinfection:Destroying specific pathogen
We should clean the place before we use disinfectants. Temperature of water and concentration
of disinfectants should be follow descriptions.
Skin: Iodine, Alcohol, chlorhexidine, gentian violet
Premises(floor): Caustic soda, sodium carbonate, glutaraldehyde,benzalconium chloride,,
Soil: Chlorinated lime
Carcass: Phenol, cresol, formalin(formaldehyde)
5.5 Test and slaughter
Carriers discharge pathogens without showing signs. We can examine and eliminate them
when they have a positive reaction to examination.
E.g) Brucellosis, Tuberculosis

5.6 Slaughter infected animals

We may slaughter infected animals to stop spread of pathogen.
E.g) Outbreak of African swine fever in Lusaka district

5.7 Vaccination
Vaccine is not a medicine. Vaccinated animals should be healthy.(Review UNIT4.4)
Vaccine should be preserved in cool condition.

5.8 Hygiene control

Clean regularly
Food management

5.9 Biosecurity:Management to protect animals from infectious disease at farm,

Distance between farms
Limit entrance of human and vehicle
Vector control(ticks, rats)
Quarantine when you introduce new animals
Vaccination
Hygiene control
Food management
All in all out
DISEASES
Common pests of livestock
A parasites, is organisms which feed inside or on the surface of an animal, called the host.
Parasites receive all their food from the host, and thus affect its health. However, they do not
usually kill the host as this would affect Parasites which live on the skin of a host are called
ecto-parasites, and those which live inside the host, either in the intestines or in some other
internal organs are called endo-parasites

The life cycle of the tick

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The tick undergoes four stages during its development: egg, larva, nymph and adult, in a process
similar to insect metamorphosis. Hard ticks (Ixodidae), which are the more important type in
agriculture, are grouped according to the number of hosts they have during the completion of
their life cycle - one-, two- or three host ticks.

A mature female hard tick lays eggs on the ground and after a period of time when suitable
conditions of warmth and moisture prevail, the eggs hatch out into larvae. The larvae look like
small ticks but have only six legs. They are sometimes known as pepper ticks. They crawl up
stalks of grass and climb on to the legs of passing cattle. The larvae then move over the animal's
body until they reach a suitable place to become attached and to suck blood. This is often in the
ears, in the vulva or anus, round the eyes, on the udder or on the underside of the animal where
the hide is not so thick. They then feed heavily and become engorged with blood. In this
condition they rest and their body undergoes various changes in structure. Eventually they moult,
i.e. shed their larval
skin and emerge as nymphs. The nymphs then feed on blood, engorge, rest and moult into adult
ticks. In the adult stage, mating takes place and the adults once again become engorged on blood.
The females drop off the host and lay their eggs on the ground, thus completing the life cycle.

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Effects of ticks
 Cause open wounds
 Act as vector for pathogens

Control
 Dipping or spray regularly using arcaricides

200
201
202
The life cycle of the liver fluke
The liver fluke is a flatworm which is a harmful parasite in cattle, sheep, goats and other animals.
It requires two hosts for the completion of its life cycle: the primary host, usually cattle, and the
secondary host, a water snail. Livestock suffer liver fluke infection most often when grazing on
wet land. The fluke is shaped like a leaf and it becomes attached in the liver of its host. It obtains
all its food from the liver by sucking through its mouth which is specially adapted as a sucker. In
the liver fluke, the sexes are not separate so each individual is able to fertilise itself. Organisms
which have both male and female sex organs in them are called hermaphrodites. When
fertilisation has taken place, eggs are formed and these pass out of the liver into the intestines by
way of the gall bladder and duodenum. Eventually the eggs pass out of the host with its faeces.

Under the right conditions of moisture and warmth the eggs hatch into larvae which swim
through the water in search of a water snail. When they reach a snail they burrow inside it and
undergo several changes. If they do not find a snail they soon die. After a few days new larvae
called miracidia emerge from the snail and swim through the water. When these reach some

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grass or reeds they form hard cysts which are able to survive dry conditions. If these cysts are
eaten by grazing cattle or sheep they develop inside the host. The larvae which emerge bu ow
through the animal's intestines and enter e liver where they develop into mature livers.

Endo-parasite
Tapeworm
The tapeworm is a parasitic flatworm found in several species of domestic animals and livestock.
It is a serious pest in cattle and pigs because it can pass to humans through meat which has not
been properly cooked. The adult tapeworm can grow to several metres in length and secures
itself to the intestinal wall of the first host (humans). The body is made up of a series of segments
or proglottids each of which produces its own male and female sex organs. Self-fertilisation takes
place and eggs are formed. These pass out with the faeces of the host. If a pig (the second host)
picks up the soft eggs while rooting for its food, the soft shells dissolve and small larvae emerge.
These pass through the pig's bloodstream and into muscle tissue. In the pig's muscles the larvae
form cysts surrounded by a fluid. At this stage they are called bladder worms and they remain in
the muscle without 'growing any more. If the pig is slaughtered and cut up for meat, the cysts are

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still able to infect another host. They may be killed by thorough cooking, but in poorly cooked
meat they pass into the intestines where they continue their life cycle.

The pork and beef tapeworms are quite distinct but they both use humans as an intermediate
host, Sometimes a host can be infected by a tapeworm without showing symptoms, In humans,
the tapeworm uses the food eaten and digested by the host. The host is thus unable to absorb
sufficient nutrients. Tapeworms in livestock may damage the liver, lungs or brain before reaching
the muscle.

Treatment and control

Drugs can be used to protect livestock against the tapeworm and dosing should be carried out
regularly. There is no specific treatment of infected animals. Good domestic sanitation also

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prevents the spread of eggs through the faeces. Pigs should be kept in clean pens to ensure that
they do not pick up the infection.

NUTRITIONAL DISEASES
DISEASE CAUSE SIGNS AND PREVENTION AND
SYMPTOMS CONTROL
Anemia All farm animals are Characterized by A balanced ration
susceptible. Iron deficiency general usually
prevents the formation of weakness and a lack of prevents the
hemoglobin, a red vigor. occurrence of
ironcontaining anemia.
pigment in the red
blood cells responsible for
carrying oxygen to the cells.
Bloat Typically occurs when Swollen abdomen on Maintain pastures
animals are grazing on highly the left composed of 50% or
productive pastures during side, labored breathing, more
the wetter part of late spring profuse salivation, grass.
& summer. groaning,
lack of appetite, &
stiffness.

VIRAL DISEASES
 NEWCASTLE
 FOOT AND MOUTH
 RIDERPEST
 FOWL POX

BACTERIAL DISEASES
 ANTHRAX
 MASTITIS
 CALF SOUR
 BLACK QUARTER
 CONTAGIOUS ABORTION
 TUBERCULOSIS
 CALF PNEUMIA
 FOWL TYPHOID

PROTOZOA DISEASES
 COCCIDIOSIS
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  TRYPANOSOMIASIS

TICK BORN DISEASES

 EAST COST FEVER
 HEART WATER
 RED WATER

PASTURE MANAGEMENT
Pasture: Area of land on which there is growth of grass, can be either cultivated or native pasture,
can be permanent, semi-permanent or rotational and temporally or supplemental pastures.
Pasture plant classification
Grasses: Species of the Gramineae family
Legumes: Plants that obtain nitrogen from air and fix it into soil through bacteria e.g. alfalfa,
Lucerne
Browse: Edible parts of woody vegetation like leaves, stems and twigs from bushes
Forbs (weed): Non-grass like herbs that animals eat.
Importance of pasture production
 Provide nutrients to animals all year round
 Provision of quality nutrients
 Species promotion: Maintain pasture in its most productive condition
 Influenced by season e.g. CP is highest at the onset of rainy season

Utilization of pasture
Pasture utilization is to preserve forage resources for the dry season
a) Hay
Forage harvested during the growing period and preserved by drying for subsequent use.
Good quality hay can only be produced from well-grown nutritious plants.

Reasons for making hay

 Dry season feeding
 Business
 Bedding

Hay making process

Mowing is done at the beginning of flowering time (early January). Small scale farmers can use
sickles, Hoes for cutting. Commercial farmers: tractors with mowers .Bailing should be done
when there is no dew i.e. from about 10:00hrs. Hay should be stored in moisture free conditions
under a shade.

b) Silage Making process

Silage is a fermented forage plant material. Can be made from sorghum, maize plants.
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Process is a fermentation process aimed at preserving forage in its wet state away from
air. Made in a pit or plastic depending on the level of the farmer. Plant is cut into smaller
pieces, spread about to get rapid wilting. Plant is then put into the pit or plastic and
compressed to ensure rapid air exclusion. It is left for 2 months to ferment.

General establishment and management of pasture

Land Preparation
Land clearing. This is done by using tools like axes, hoes,bull dozers to remove
stamps grass and trees.
Primary Tillage.
This can be done by hoes, ox drawn plough or dics plough, primary tillage is
done to open up the soil.
Secondary Tillage
This is done by hoes, harrows rake to break the clods and create a fine tilth for good
germination.
Planting.
Broadcasting the seeds on the field and incorporating them in the soil. Seeds can be
broadcasted after scarification (treating seeds with hot water or cold water).
For runners like star grass scatter the runners using a harrow which can also help them
establish easily.
Fertilizer application
Initial application of 400-600kg/ha of single super phosphate.
Annual application of 200-300kg/ha of single super phosphate.
And 150kg/ha of ammonium nitrate.
Mowing/Light Grazing
If grass is not doing well mow or graze lightly to encourage lateral growth
Irrigate in the dry season to ensure fresh grass throughout the year.
Grazing systems
Continuous Grazing
This is an extensive grazing where livestock remain on the same pasture for a long period
of time. It is commonly practiced on range land or grassland. The disadvantage is that it
leads to overgrazing. It can also lead to soil erosion.

Zero Grazing
This is where animals do not literally graze but are fed on green chops (grass or any other
folder). The advantage is that there is high animal production because of more efficient
utilisation.
There are no losses from falling/tramping and the pasture can be harvested at a more
advanced stage.
Deffered Grazing
This involves setting aside of small pasture paddock/areas for accumulation of herbage to
be used later.
Rotational Grazing
This is an intensive system where grazing land is divided into paddocks (e.g of 6) and the
animals are moved systematically from one to another in rotation.
Advantages.

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  Grass is grazed when it still nutritious.
 Pasture is given chance to recover
 Reduces excess defoliation.
 Minimizes the build-up of parasites in the pasture
 Reduces soil erosion.
Disadvantages
 More land is taken up.
 High initial costs of fencing paddocks.

Strip/Ration/Cree grazing
This is where small grazing areas are separated by an electric fence and animals are
permitted to graze.
As soon as the pasture is grazed to a certain level the fence is removed and a new one is
made in another area.

Effects/consequences of over grazing

Overgrazing refer to a situation where there are too many animals eating grass in an area
resulting in damage to the environment. Effect of overgrazing are as follows;
 Cause desertification
 Cause soil erosion
 Low productivity of the land
 Affect microbial activities in the soil
 Build-up of unpalatable vegetation.

BEE FARMING
Objectives
 Describe common methods of bee farming
 Construct a framed beehive
 Establish and manage an Apiary
 State methods of harvesting honey
 Process and grade honey and honey products for marketing

Bee farming also known as Apiculture is the practice of keeping bees for the purpose of honey
production
Importance of bee farming
 Production of honey which is a high energy food and is used a sweetener in beverages
and soft drinks.
 Bee farming is a source of income to farmers
 Honey is medicinal, it is used to dress fresh wounds and cough syrup
 Bees are good pollinators and must be conserved

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Colony
i. Queen-only one queen per colony, its job is to produce eggs
ii. Drones- mate with the queen, flip their wings to cool the queen when it is hot
iii. Worker bee-female bee smaller than the queen, make honey, protect the beehive from
intruders and clean the hives.

Common methods of bee farming

1. Long-hive method
A tree is cut into cylindrical logs which are carefully scooped out to form hollows, both
ends of each log are sealed leaving some small holes for entry and exit of bees. It is one
of the ancient traditional ways of bee keeping.

Fig. 1Long hives

2. Traditional-hive method

Fig. 2 traditional woven hives

Beehives are woven from local materials like soft sticks and grass. The outside of the
woven hive is plastered with mud leaving small holes for bees and a removable cover is
fixed for harvesting.

3. Top bar-hive method

A top-bar hive is made of a wooden box with sides slopping inwards measuring about
50cm wide, 100cm long and 30cm deep. A top cover of iron sheets is placed on top of the
bars to keep rain water off and control temperature. Holes are made on one side of the
hive for entrance and exit of bees. Top bar-hive facilitates production of quality honey.

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 Fig. 3 Top bar hive

4. Framed beehive
Framed beehives are also made of wooden boxes (timber); they differ from top bar hives
in lower shapes and dimensions. Framed beehive measures about 90cm long sides, 30cm
high and 48cm wide.

Fig. 4 framed bee hive

Sitting and managing an Apiary

An apiary is a place where bees are kept in beehives. Some of the factors to consider when
deciding on where to place beehives are as follows
 Availability of water at least within the radius of 3km
 Availability of flowering trees where bees can be collecting nectar from
 The place must be safe from predators like honey badgers and ants
 Ensure that the place protect bees from harsh weather conditions like direct sunlight and
strong winds
 Safety to human beings and livestock must be considered as bees can be dangerous

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  The apiary should be located in a place that is free from noise and other disturbances.

Management practices include

 Provision of water and sugar solution in open containers to bees during dry season for
their energy
 Treating beehives with non-oil wood preservatives from outside to prevent rotting of
beehives
 Protecting an apiary from fires by making fireguards around
 Suspension of the beehives above the ground to avoid rotting of timber and prevent ants
from entering.
 Record all the occupied hives
 Re-site to better places all the hives that have remained unoccupied for a long time. This
is because the scout bees use different directions
 Replace all the cracked hives or repair
 Regularly clean and re-bait all unoccupied hives during the new swarming period

Harvesting (cropping)Is the removing of combs with scaled honey from the hive.
Only ripe sealed honey must be cropped and at least 2 or 3 combs with honey should remain as
food for bees.
Cropping is done early in the morning or late in the evening when bees are less active.
When cropping do not stand in the front of the hive because bees get irritated.
There are two cropping seasons in a year, May and June and November and December.

Steps when harvesting honey

 Put together equipment to be used like protective gear, bee brush, honey container
with tight cover, hive tool for opening the hive cover and for cutting off honey
combs.
 Approach the bee hive quietly and blow smoke around the hive and later through
the entrance holes using a smoker this will frighten bees making them to eat
honey thus becoming heavy and inactive
 Lower the hive to the ground
 Cut the honey combs from each top bar 3cm from the surface and put them in a
clean container rubbing off the bees using a twig. Brood combs are not harvested
 Place back the bars and don not disturb the brood
 Return the hive to its position

Honey processing
1. Heat method
Water is boiled and a basin containing honey combs is put on top of boiling water, heating is
continued until most of the honey melts. Melted honey is strained through a muslin cloth and
stored in a clean container.

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Fig. 5 heating method
2. Crushing and Straining method
Honey combs and strained into an enamel basin using a muslin cloth. The method produces the
highest quality honey. Wax scum that may form on top of the strained honey is removed using a
wooden spoon and honey is stored away in suitable containers such as plastic or glass jars.

Fig. 6 crushing and straining method

3. Centrifugal extract method

The method uses the principle that at high spinning speed the liquid move to the edges of the
spinning vessel. Honey combs are uncapped and put in a centrifugal extractor operated either
manually or electronically.

Grading of honey
Honey is graded based on the following;
1. Granulation
This is the ability of liquid honey to solidify. This normally happens in May, June when honey is
cropped. This means that honey will look like small grain or granules on the surface (Rough)
2. Viscosity:
This is the way honey flows slowly when it is being poured from a container into another one.
This means that honey is thick and gluey, not easily poured like water.
3. Hygroscopic
This is the ability of honey to collect moisture from the atmosphere to raise the moisture content
in the honey more than required 18%

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4. Fermentation
This is the production of air bubbles from the honey due to the presence of foreign impurities in
the honey e.g. broods (MANA), pollen (NSINDA) and unsealed honey. The impurities react
with honey and then make the quality poor and not good for sale.

FISH FARMING

Farming is referred to as;

 fish husbandry
 fish culture
 fish cultivation
 aqua-culture
 aqua-farming

Fish farming is the raising of fish for house hold consumption or commercial purposes.

The success of fish farming operations depends on the farmer’s knowledge on the
biological requirements of the fish species being cultivated.

Economic Value of Fish

 Source of income for those engaged.

 Source of employment.
 Helps to diversify income generating opportunities of farmers.
 Fish production helps to reduce imports of fish and fish products.
 Source of finished used to make livestock feed e.g. starter mash for broiler chicken.
 Fish products help diversity agricultural production base.
 Promotes sport-fishing especially for tourists.

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Nutritional Value of Fish

 Source of easily digestible, high quality protein.

 Excellent source of minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, iron and iodine.
 Good source of vitamins A, B ,D, and B
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 Rich in poly unsaturated fatty acids that help reduce blood cholesterol levels.
 Fish eating help in combating nutritional diseases such as kwashiorkor, anaemia, goitre
and night blindness.
 The liver of some fish is a source of medicinal oil e.g. cold liver oil

Common Types of Fish Found In Zambia

There are many species of fish that are found in Zambia but the common ones are the;

 Pike
 Tilapia or bream
 Barbel fish / cat fish/ bubble fish
 Tiger fish
 Carp
 Bottle fish
 Tilapia is a good fish for ponds in the tropical areas.

This is because;

 it grows quickly in ponds,

 breed well,
 are resistant to diseases,
 Have a good taste,
 are easily adapted to water temperature changes and
 Suffer from few parasites.

This is why tilapia is most favourable pond fish.

External Parts of a Fish (Tilapia)

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Internal structure of fish

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Methods of Fish Farming

In Zambia the method of fish farming include;

 Lakes
 River
 Dams
 Ponds
In Zambia there is a closed season for fishing in the rivers and lakes from December to
March.This is done to give chance for fish to breed.

Integrated Fish Farming

This is the growing of fish in conjunction with other enterprises such as poultry, vegetable
garden and piggery on the same farm.

Advantages of integrated fish farming

 Manure from poultry and piggery can be used to fertilize the fish ponds.
 Vegetable leaves like cabbage from the garden can be fed to fish.
 Chicken and ducks dropping can be used to feed fish.
 There is maximum labour utilization on the farm.

Disadvantages of integrated fish farming

 It requires skills and knowledge to manage.

 It requires a lot of labour.
 Competition for growth, resources, nutrients, water, etc

The fish pond construction

 There are several types of ponds that can be used for fish production depending on the
topography.
 Earthen or dug out ponds may be cheap and easy to maintain.

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  A good pond should be easy to construct, cheap and easy to maintain, have free flowing
water and be easy to manage.

Pond site selection

The following should be taken into consideration when choosing a site for a fish pound

 The soil should not be sandy or stony since water will drain out quickly. Clay soil is the
best.
 The site should be near your home.
 Availability of water supply to keep the pond filled all times of the year.
 Water must be clean and not polluted.
 A gradual slope is best to allow for a slow water flow.

Pond construction

 Ponds can assume any shapes.

 Rectangular and square ponds are the best because it is easier to harvest from them using
nets.
 Size of ponds may vary from 10m X 5m to 20m X 25m each on small scale and in large
scale fish farms, ponds of ½ hectares or larger may be built if the site allows.
 It should be 1m to 1.5m deep.
 Measure site with pegs and string.
 Then dig out the pond remove top soil first from pond area.
 Use this soil to cover banks of ponds.
 Dig out subsoil and heap it on another site.
 Use the subsoil to build banks of the pond.
 If the soil is suspected to be too weak to hold water, a stone-water may be built to
reinforce it.
 Make inlet to channel the water from source to the pound, cover the inlet ditch/pipe with
mesh, or wire netting to prevent predatory fish.
 To prevent overflow, a spill-way is made on the opposite end to carry the water back to
source.
 This ensures fresh water in the pound at all times.
 Sand bags should be placed at the mouth of the spill-way to prevent fish loss.
 The pond floor should be as smooth as possible hence remove stumps and rocks.

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  Where the soil allows seepages, the floor may be cemented or covered with plastic sheets.
 Fill the pond and leave it for a while to test its stability before the seeds (fingerings) are
introduced.
 Grass should be planted on the dam to hold soil together.

The diagram below shows an earthen pond.

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220
Food Stuff for Fish

Fish foods can be categorized as follows:

A.Natural food

 Consist of planktons (zoo planktons and phytoplankton) insects and insect larvae, worms
and water plants.
 The productivity or natural aquatic food is enhanced by adding manures and fertilizer to
this fish pond.

NOTE: Pollution may result from excess feed and effluent (liquid waste materials) from fisheries
(eutrophication) and urea added may kill the fish if too much.

B.Supplementary feeds

 These are food stuffs thrown into the ponds by the farmer.
 Feeds thrown into the ponds can include livestock feeds such as bran, seed oil cakes,
decomposed fruit, braveries mash, kitchen and farm vegetable wastes.

The amount of these foods put in the pond will depend on the :

 age of the fish in the pond.

 Species of fish stocked in the pond.
 Water temperature.
 Frequency of feeding.

NB - Fry - small fish which have recently hatched from eggs.

Fingerlings – are slightly larger fish up to 10cm long (size of man’s finger).

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Harvesting Fish

(1)Small scale methods

These are used mainly by people that catch fish for subsistence.
They include ;

 Traps – made of reeds or sticks have cone shaped inlet through which the fish enters and
get trapped.
 Basket – They are either dragged through or lined up in shallow water and fish driven to
them.
 Hook and Line – sometimes lines and hooks with baits (food) are left in water the whole
night.
 Spears – They require patience and skill.
Spear causes wounds to fish that may escape harvest.

(2)Commercial Methods.

 Mostly fish is caught on large scale by the nets.

 Nets are of three main types.
 Gill nets
 Sine or draw nets
 Hand nets – they are used to Scoop fish out of water.
The nets are usually attached to rod or oval frame of wood with one or two handles.

Preparation and Marketing of Fish

(a)Preserving fish

Fish can be preserved by;

 Salting
 Drying in the sun
 Canning
 Smoking
 Chilling(using ice blocks and deep freezing)
(b)Marketing of fish

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  Fresh fish can be sold locally immediately after harvesting.
 The internal organs of fish can be removed.
 The fish should then be well washed in clean water and packed in clean containers such
as wooden boxes.
 The boxes should be covered with a wet sac and kept in the shade.
 Almost all the fish from Zambia’s fisheries is sold within the country especially to people
living in urban areas.

FARM STRUCTURES
Farm Buildings and Structures for water supply

Select a site for farm buildings

It is important to put into consideration the following ideas in siting the buildings on the farm.
 Security. The building should be free from predators, thieves and trespassers
 Relationship between structure- structures with related use should be constructed close to each
other to save time and labour
 Direction of prevailing wind
 Should be at the centre of the farm and near the access roads.
 should be on high ground .
 Should be on least productive part of the farm.
 should be free draining and should not encourage accumulation of crop and animal waste.
 should be near water supply.
Farm buildings
Farm buildings includes the following
i. Farm houses for workers.
ii. Buildings for livestock
iii. Buildings for farm products storage
iv. Buildings for crop production especially green houses.
v. Buildings for processing e.g. milk houses, pasteurising and bottling
vi. Buildings for equipment and supplies e.g. implements
Examples of farm structures
i. Fences
ii. Farm buildings
iii. Cattle dips
iv. pray races

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 v. crushes
vi. Roads

Layout of farm buildings

Types of farm buildings

1. Poultry houses.
2. Piggeries
3. Cattle houses
4. Produce storage units

Poultry houses

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Poultry houses must protect the birds from
• Wind
• Rain
• sun
• Predators like cats.
Types of poultry houses
1. Broiler houses
2. The brooder house
3. Deep litter system
4. Battery cage system

Housing for layers

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Houses for piggery

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Houses for pigs should
i. Provide protection against heavy, rains, strong winds and the sun.
ii. The site should not be susceptible to water-logging:
iii. Trees are necessary to provide shade and protect pens from strong winds (wind-breaks)
iv. Must be near the source of clean water.
v. Must be walled and roofed with a yard:
vi. Grass thatch is a good insulator against heat
vii. A dry area for sleeping.
viii. A strong floor.
ix. Strong walls.
x. A door which the pigs cannot break through on their own.
xi. A trough for food and water.
Types of pig houses
i. Breeding pen
ii. Fattening pen
iii. Farrowing pen
iv. Boar pen
v. Sow pen
Furrowing pen
• Pen where a sow gives birth to her litter.

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 • It contains an area called the creep where the piglets can rest and where the mother cannot
accidentally lie on them.
• It also contains a farrowing rail. This allows the piglets to get underneath and prevents them
from being crushed by the mother.
• A trough in the farrowing pen is used for putting water and food.
A plan for a farrowing pen

Boar’s pen
• Pen for the male pig
• The floor should be rough to provide
• Walls should be strong
• Door should be strong

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Goat structure
• They should protect the goats from sun, rains, strong wind
• The house should be light
• well ventilated
• Well drained and easily cleaned.
• The ground floor for ground level houses are normally made of crashed clay or earth with
concrete.

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Houses for rabbits
• Stacked cages

• Suspended cages

• Standing hutches

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Houses for cattle
i. Cattle crush
• They are used to restrain animals so that operations such as vaccination , taking blood
samples, spraying and Artificial insemination can be carried out.

ii. Cattle dip or dip tank

• This is used for dipping cattle to control external parasites.
• It has a tank to dip animals
• It has the exit ramp to enable the animals out of the dip tank
• It should have a roof to avoid dilution of accaricides by rain water
• It has a footbath to control foot rots, foot diseases
• It has a roof to prevent direct sun light which weakens the chemicals
• It should be sited on well drained land with access to a good water supply.
• The base and walls must be made of concrete to hold the fluid.
• A concrete footbath along the entrance helps to reduce the amount of mud taken into the main
tank.
• The concrete surface should be rough cast or ridged to enable the cattle to get a good grip
with their feet.
The structure of the dip tank

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iii. Spray race
• The cattle spray race consists of a corridor having walls and a roof fitted with overhead or
nozzles which spray the accaricides (tick control fluid).
• As the cattle move along they have to pass through a spray which wets them and provides the
necessary control against tick-borne diseases.

iv. Cattle shed

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 • The cattle shed protect cattle from extreme weather conditions, wild animals and thieves.
• The shed should be kept clean.
• If it is dirty, it can encourage the spread of diseases
• Dampness in the cattle shed promotes the spread of diseases

v. Calf pen
• This is the housing area for calves.
• The pen should have good ventilation and be easy to clean.
• It should allow for free movement of the calves.

vi. Milking stall/parlour

• A milking stall is a place where cows are milked.

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 • It is used by farmers who keep a few cows.

• A milking parlour is used by large scale dairy farmers and it has specialised equipment
that are used during the milking process

vii. Abattoir
• This is a place where animals are slaughtered on the farm.

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Storage structures
i. Bags
ii. Improved bin

iii. Silos
• Silos are large storage structures made of concrete, bricks, metal, or wood in which large
quantities of grain can be stored.

iv. Crib
• The roof is thatched by corrugated iron sheets.
• The floor is raised from the ground to prevent dampness from the ground.
• It has rat guards to prevent rats from climbing

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v. Granary
• It is constructed using local materials such as poles, grass and mud.
• A granary should be raised above the ground for proper aeration.
• Insecticide is applied to the walls of a granary after it has been cleaned.

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Construction or building materials
i. Stone
ii. Mud
iii. Wood
iv. Soil cement blocks
v. Concrete blocks
vi. Mortar
vii. Corrugated iron sheets
viii. Burned bricks

Concrete mixtures
• This is a mixture of coarse aggregate, sand and cement.
• For the best results, the components of the mix should be weighed out carefully: 3: 2:1
(aggregate, sand, cement) is suitable for foundations, floors and walls
• While 4:2:2 are required for beams and lintels.
The diagram below shows the activity of concrete mixing

Making blocks and bricks

Brick making
• The clay is well worked and put into moulds and pressed firmly on a piece of Hat board.
• The made bricks are removed from the moulds

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 • The bricks are left to dry on a hard and level ground
• The bricks are inspected and turned regularly for drying.
• After complete drying, bricks are taken to the kiln for firing.
• Bricks are fired until they are red-hot.
• Burnt bricks are left to cool down after which they are used. I.
Block making
• After mixing the concrete in the right proportions, concrete is put into moulds and it is pressed
firmly.
• The blocks are removed from the moulds.
• The blocks are put on a level and hard ground to cure while they are covered and sprinkled with
water for a week.
• After complete curing, the blocks can be used.

Structure for water supply

Describe different structures for water supply.
i. Dam

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 • It is manmade structure which acts as a source of water
• Dams are major structures built across valleys to hold back a river or to collect water
from the surrounding area.
• This water is then available for irrigation, domestic use or generating electricity.
ii. Weirs

• Weirs may be constructed from loose rocks sometimes held together by wire mesh, or
from logs such weirs are semi-permanent, but cheap to construct
• Permanent weirs can be made from concrete.

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 iii. Water storage tank

• Metal tanks or concrete tanks are often used to store water for farm use
• The water is pumped into them from a nearby supply.
• Earth tanks or reservoirs may be lined with plastic sheeting to prevent seepage.
iv. Borehole
• A sunk water structure which used to obtain water from deep down
• This is usually drilled by machinery and the pump mechanism is housed at the bottom of the
borehole

Maintenance of water supply systems

 Describe methods of maintaining named water supply system.
i. Mending the cracks in case dams
ii. Planting star grass to make the walls of the dams to strong and to prevent soil erosion
iii. Replacement of ironed out pipes

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 iv. Adding of sediments to avoid mud which may block the pipes
v. Greasing the movable parts of the hand pump to reduce on friction

Pollution of water supplies

Describe water pollution.
• Water pollution is the presence of impurities that can be harful to human beins, livestock
and other forms of life.
Describe ways in which water supplies on the farm may be polluted.
i. Application and use of agro chemicals in agricultural production which includes fertilizers,
pesticides, herbicides and accaricides. These chemicals can be washed into rivers, lakes or into
lower ground levels and may reach the water table
ii. Wrong disposal of chemical containers
iii. Pouring effluent into water sources
iv. Disposing of pollutants into the water sources
v. Soil erosion deposits silts into water bodies
vi. Discharge of sewage into water
Describe ways of preventing and controlling pollution of water supplies on the farm.
i. Avoid damping of agro chemicals into water bodies
ii. Proper disposal of effluents from processing factories
iii. Use of manure instead of inorganic fertilizers
iv. Use of organic pesticides and herbicides
v. Following instructions how to use agro chemicals
Fencing
Fencing is a farm practice of enclosing an area for agricultural purposes on the farm.
Uses of fences
i. Acting as windbreaks.
ii. Helping in controlling breeding in livestock.
iii. Adding value to the farm.
iv. Controlling spread of diseases among animals.
v. Double fencing helps in controlling ticks.
vi. Helping in managing animals where rotational grazing is practised.
vii. Demarcate boundaries of farmland therefore, reducing on land disputes.

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Different types fences.
Describe the different types of fences
There mainly two types of fences. These are
a) Dead fence.
These are fences which are made from non living materials. Examples are as follows
i. Metallic fencing
ii. Post and rail fencing
iii. Barbed wire fencing
iv. Diamond mesh fencing
v. Suspension fencing
vi. Wooden fencing
vii. Wall fencing
viii. Grass fencing
ix. Electric fencing
b) Live
These are types of fences made from living materials e.g. Hedges

Wire fences
 Plain wire, woven wire or barbed wire may be used in the construction of this type of fence.
 Though dangerous to animals, barbed wire is very effective for controlling their movement

The figure below shows a barbed wire Stretching

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Wooden fences
These are frequently the most economical fences to construct, particularly in areas where timber is
plentiful. They are made using wood.

Electric fences
• This method consists of a power source, usually a battery.
• The purpose of the electric fence is to give any animal touching it a mild electric shock
making it step back.
• The advantage of this type of fencing is that it can be moved each day, or whenever
necessary, and no post hole digging is needed.
• Strip grazing of cattle is usually controlled in this way.
Disadvantages of fences

a) High costs for the materials used in constructing them

b) Fences require regular labour for their maintenance and repair.

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 c) Fencing lines reduce the available useful land.
d) In case of shifting fences, extra farm expenditure must be needed.
e) Enclosed farm animals become vulnerable when they go out.

Hedges
Hedges are fences constructed by planting trees, shrubs and plants as fencing material. The plants may
have thorns or repellent sap that will keep away intruders. Examples of plants used are:
Sisal, acacia, cypress, cactus, tick berry
Uses of hedges
i. Acting as windbreaks.
ii. Help to control soil erosion
iii. Helping in controlling breeding in livestock.
iv. Adding value to the farm.
v. Controlling spread of diseases among animals.
vi. Double fencing helps in controlling ticks.
vii. Helping in managing animals where rotational grazing is practised.
viii. Demarcate boundaries of farmland therefore, reducing on land disputes.
Establishment and maintenance a hedge
 The hedge can be established by digging a continuous trench around the area for fencing during
the rainy season whose depth should be about 30 cm.
 This trench should be filled with loam soil which should be mixed with decomposed organic
matter.
 Planting materials can be seedlings, suckers and stem cuttings, depending on the type of plant to
be used for the hedge.
Advantages of hedges
i. They are cheap
ii. There are no risks of rotting of planted trees or bushes.
iii. Hedges need less maintenance and labour.
iv. They give permanent demarcations hence, making it easy in settling land disputes.
v. They act as wind breaks.
vi. Hedges add value to the fenced land coupled with enhancing beauty of the farm.
Disadvantages of hedges on a farm
a. They take long time to get established.
b. Plants may not establish evenly, thus requiring gap filling, which is an additional expenditure

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 c. There are risks of fire, especially during prolonged drought.
d. Hedges can be good habitats for snakes, rats and insects; which are quite a danger to human
beings.
e. Bushes created by hedges, may also become hiding places for thieves.
f. Hedges made up of plants with thorns such as sisal can injure farm animals.
g. Regular trimming requires much money, time and labour.
h. Hedges cannot hold big animals such as cattle satisfactorily.
i. Hedges are not effective where security is a problem.

Green houses
Describe a green house.
• A greenhouse is a building or complex in which plants are grown
• They are made of grass or transparent walls and roofs
• They are used for growing horticultural crops such as tomatoes.
Material required for construction of green houses
i. Metal or wooden frames
ii. Translucent materials such as polythene and sheets
iii. Nails, hinges, wires or strings
Maintenance practices on green houses
i. Dirty polythene sheets should cleaned
ii. Broken frames should be replaced
iii. Torn polythene materials should be replaced
iv. Blocked water systems should be repaired and cleaned.
Advantages of a green house
i. Crops can be grown throughout the year.
ii. The productivity of the crop is increased considerably.
iii. Superior quality products can be obtained as they are grown under a suitably controlled
environment.
iv. Gadgets for efficient use of various inputs like water, fertilisers, seeds and plant protection
chemicals can be well maintained in a greenhouse.
v. Effective control of pests and diseases is possible as the growing area is enclosed.
vi. Percentage of germination of seeds is high in greenhouses.
Disadvantages of green house
i. Greenhouses are fairly expensive to construct

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 ii. Electricity costs normally raise during the cold season as well, since the majority of greenhouses
may require heating during the very cold times.
iii. Glass is also extremely susceptible to dirt, meaning that owners are required to constantly clean
the glass
iv. Contributes to global warming

Revision questions on farm structure

1. Figure1 shows a farm structure for water supply.

Identify:
i. The farm structure labelled A
ii. Part B of the farm structure.
iii. State a local material used to construct the farm structure.
iv. Name any two other farm structures for water supply.
v. What is water pollution?
vi. Describe two ways in which water supplies on the farm may be polluted

246
 2. Figure2 shows an activity mixing concrete

i. Identify the tool used to mix concrete.

ii. Name the materials which are mixed to make concrete.
iii. State the use of concrete on the farm
iv. How is the finished concrete cured
3. (i). List the types of structures for cattle on the farm.
(ii). State the materials used to construct buildings on the farm.
(iii). Explain the importance of maintaining farm structures on the farm.
4. Figure 4 shows an improved storage bin.

a) On the diagram, label parts A and B.

b) Explain why it is referred to as an improved bin.
c) State any two causes of crop loss in storage.

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 d) Explain how the causes of crop loss in storage can be reduced.

5.
a) Explain the main purpose of fencing in livestock.
b) Describe the following types of fences:
i. electric fence
ii. Barbed wire fence.

6.
Figure 5shows a dip tank.

a) Name the structure labelled X in Figure 5

b) Describe the function of the structure labelled X in Figure 3.1.
c) Explain why it is important to include the following structures to the dip tank:
i. draining race
ii. a roof
d) Why is a farmer advised not to dip calves under six months?
e) Name a group of chemicals used in the dip wash.
f) What one precaution should a farmer take when dipping livestock in the dip wash?

6. Figure 6 shows the farm structure

248
a) Name the farm structure represented by Figure 6.
b) Place an arrow on Figure 6 to show the entrance for cattle.
c) State three ways in which farmers use this structure.
d) Explain why the farm structure in Figure 6 has a narrow passage
e) State two locally available materials which can be used to construct the structure above.

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FARM MECHINERY

FARM TOOLS
a) Classification of farm tools and equipment
The farmer has many types of jobs to do on the farm. There are crops to be tended, animals
be looked after, and buildings to construct and repair. These many and varied jobs need a
variety of tools and equipment. These tools and equipment are consequently
Classified on the basis of the jobs they are designed to do. These classes include:
i. Garden tools and equipment (or crop production tools and Equipment)
ii. Workshop tools and equipment
iii . Livestock Production Tools and Equipment
iv. Plumbing tools and equipment
v. Bricklaying tools and equipment

b) Repair and maintenance of farm tools and equipment

It is important that farm tools and equipment are regularly maintained and repaired if they
break down. Repair and maintenance of farm tools and equipment is important because:
i. It ensures durability hence increasing their working life.
ii. It increases efficiency in their use and that of the workman.
iii. It is a means to avoid accidents on the farm, (using faulty and defective tools and
equipment can easily lead to accidents).
iv. It is a means to avoid having to buy new tools, hence away of cutting farm costs.

Garden tools and equipment

Tool Uses Repairs and maintenance
l. Panga Cutting. Sharpening of blunt edge.
Digging (cultivating). Replacing of broken handles.
Oiling when in storage to avoid
rusting.

250
2. Hoe Cultivation. Sharpening.
Replacing broken handles.
Oiling when in storage.

3. Forked Hoe Cultivation. Replacing broken handles.

Oiling when in storage.

4. Rake Collecting trash, leveling Replacing broken handles.

seed-bed.

5. Slasher Cutting weeds or grass. Sharpening cutting edge.

Replacing broken handle.
Oiling metal part when in
store.

6. Garden fork Lifting manure/ Replacing broken handles.

compost. Digging. Oiling when in storage.

251
7. Trowel Lifting seedlings and Replacing broken handles.
transplanting. Oiling when in storage.

8. Axe Cutting trees/ wood. Sharpening cutting edge.

Replacing broken handles.
Oiling when in storage.

9. Secateurs For pruning e.g. coffee, Sharpening cutting edge or

Fruit trees, tender Replacing cutting edge, where
suckers and buds. it is replaceable. Oiling pivot.

10. Pruning saw For pruning woody parts Replacing cutting edge.
e.g. Oiling when in storage.
Coffee, fruit trees.
Sharpening the cutting

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 teeth.

11. Spade For digging trenches and Replacing broken handles.

furrows and removing Oiling when in storage.
soil

12. Shovel Lifting e.g. soil, manure. Replacing broken handles.

Also used in Oiling when in storage.
construction for
concrete work.

13. Soil auger To collect soil for testing Replacing broken handles.
Oiling when in storage.

l4.Sprinkler Watering the crops. Oiling moving parts.

Cleaning/ clearing nozzles.

I 5. Shears Trimming hedges and Replacing broken handles.

shrubs. Can be used to Oiling when in storage.
cut back pyrethrum. Sharpening cutting blades.

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l6.Sickle Harvesting crops like Replacing broken handles,
rice, wheat, etc. and Sharpening cutting edges,
cutting grass. Cutting Oiling when in storage.
back pyrethrum.

17. Pickaxe Breaking heavy soil. Replacing broken handles.

Removing large stones.
Digging out stumps.

18. Watering can Applying water to crops Mending any holes/ broken
(overhead irrigation). puts Painting to prevent
rusting.

19. Pruning Knife For pruning especially Sharpening the cutting edge.
tea. Replacing broken handles.
Oiling when in storage.

20. Tape measure. Taking measurements Cleaning if dirty. Oiling if metal

type.

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21. Leveling board Guiding the farmer when Keeping clean.
laying terraces on sloppy
Ground.

22.Meter rule Taking measurements. Cleaning if dirty.

Oiling if metal type.

23. Pruning hook To hook down branches Replacing broken handles.

high up on the tree to Oiling when in storage.
enable the farmer to
reach them for the
Purpose of pruning.

24.Wire strainer Used to tightly stretch Cleaning if dirty.

fencing wires when
constructing a fence on
the farm

Workshop tools and equipment

The farmer has to carry out some construction as well as repair work on the farm and

255
therefore he needs workshop tools. Construction and repair work will involve measuring,
cutting, shaping, smoothing, and sharpening, marking, boring, hammering and building
tools. This wide range of tasks means a wide range of tools. Some of the tools are shown
below:
Name uses Repairs and
maintenance
Claw hammer Hammering in nails. Replace broken
Pulling out nails. handles. Proper
storage.

Ball pane hammer Flattening rivets. Flattening Replace broken

metal pieces. handles.

Mallet For use with wooden handled Replace broken

chisels. Driving pegs into handles.
mound
Cross cut saws Cutting wood (sawing) across Replace broken
the wood grains. handles.
Oil blades. Sharpen
and reset teeth.

Rip saw Cutting wood (sawing) along Replace broken

the grains. handles.
Oil blades. Sharpen
and reset teeth.

Tenon saw Making fine cut on wood. Replace broken

handles.
Oil blades. Sharpen
and reset teeth.

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Hack saw Cutting metal. Replacing blunt
blades
Oiling blade fixing
screw
Oiling frame when in
storage

Cold chisel (metal) For cutting metal. Sharpen cutting edge.

Remove the
'mushroom head'.

wood chisel Cutting/sharpening wood. Sharpen cutting edge.

Replace broken
handles.

10. Screw-driver: star Driving in screws. Slow screwdrivers

Slot may need
sharpening and
resetting blades if too
sharp or blunt to fit
into screw slot.

12. Pliers Holding nails/ pieces of metal Oil pivot

when working on them.
Cutting wires.

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13. Spanner Undoing or tightening nuts and Keep it clean. Oil for
bolts. long storage.

14. Brace-drill Used to make or drill holes in Oil.

wood using bit or required
size.

15. Tape measure Measuring distances Applying leather

preservatives
16. File: metal or Smoothing and shaping metal Apply a little oil to
wood rasps or filing wood. prevent rusting.

17. Square: carpenter Check and mark out angles Carpenters may need
or mason (right). to ensure that the
angle is 900 by
checking rivets.

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 Joining blade to
stock/ handle.

8. Coping saw Coping saw is a thin saw I Sharpening cutting

fitted on a revolving wheel I blade. Replacing worn
and moves in a complete cycle out blades. Oiling
Used to cut decorations and moving part of the
circles on wood. driving wheel.

19. Compass or key hole saw To cut small holes when fitting Sharpen the saw
locks on doors. blade.
Replacing broken
handles.

20. Bow saw Cutting logs or thick pieces of Sharpen the saw
timber blade. Oiling the metal
Can be used to fell trees. saw frame when in
storage.

1. Wire brush To scrape off dirt or rust on Proper storage away

metal. from wet places to
Can also clean dirt on concrete avoid rusting
walls.

22. Marking gauge Mark points on metal or wood Replacing marking pin
to guide on where to cut. if worn out.
Proper storage.

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23. Divider Take measurement on pieces Oiling the pivot.
of wood or metal being worked
on.

24. Centre punch Making dents on metal or Keeping punch tip

wood sharp enough for
to guide where a specific and effective marking or
precise operation is to be making the dent
carried
out, e.g. boring a hole on a
piece of metal.

25. Spoke shave Making curved shapes on Sharpening the

wood. Smoothening such cutting blade. Oiling
shapes. when in storage.

26. Scrapper Remove dirt and paint, or Keeping the scraping

anything sticking on a piece of edge sharp.
metal to be worked on.

27. Wood clamp For holding a piece of wood in Oiling the clamping
position when it is being mechanism. Keeping
worked on. it tightly fixed on the

260
 working bench.

28. Soldering gun: The gun is fitted with a Keeping kerosene jet
cylinder that holds the clean Oiling hand
kerosene. pump diaphragm
Pressure is built in the same Replacing worn out
cylinder, which forces the pump diaphragm.
kerosene out in a jet through a
burner when lit it produces
very hot flame. To produce
high temperature by burning
kerosene to meld the solder for
soldering.
29. Tin snip For cutting metal of thin gauge. Keeping cutting edges
e.g. iron sheets. sharp.
Oiling the pivot.

10. Paint brush For applying paint on wood Cleaning after use
or metal

31. Sledge hammer For breaking heavy stones, Replacing broken

driving wedges into wood handles
when splitting it. Oiling when in storage

32. Wire gauze It is used for tightening wires Cleaning after use.
strainer (Sieve) during fencing. It is mainly Keeping in dry places
used for tightening barbed to avoid rusting.
wire.

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Livestock production tools and equipment
The farmer needs a variety of hand tools in his livestock production operations, operations
include feeding, milking, castration, docking, hoof trimming, branding, shearing, de-beaking
and disease control.
The table below gives details of some of these tools.
Tool Uses Maintenance
Burdizzo Castrating bull calves, ram and Oil the moving parts.
goats.

2. Elastrator To expand castration rubber Oil the moving parts.

rings

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3. Drenching gun or Dosing Giving oral drugs to animals. Wash thoroughly after
sun use

4. Syringe for injecting medicine or Wash and sterilize after

vaccines into animals. use.

5. Strip cup checking whether cow has Wash after use

mastitis.

6. Spray pump spray chemical on livestock for Wash thoroughly after

parasite control. use. Oil pump shaft and
valves.

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7. Shears Clipping or shearing wool from Sharpen cutting edges.
sheep Oil.

8. milk churn Holding milk Wash after use

9. Hot iron For burning the emerging horn Replace broken or burnt
bud of a calf for the purposes of out handle
dehorning or discouraging the
horn from growing.

Halter For straining or leading animals

when walking them
thermometer for taking temperature of Keeping clean to avoid
animals infecting other animals
Hoof trimmer Cutting over grown animal Keeping clean to avoid
hoofs. infecting other animals

Trochar and canular For piercing the rumen of an Keeping clean to avoid
animal when it is suffering from infecting other animals
bloat.

Hard broom for cleaning livestock houses Replacing broken

and structures such as milking handles or broom heads
sheds when worn out
Ear notcher For making cuts or knotched in Sharpen the cleaning
the ears for purposes of edges. Keeping clean to

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 identification.
Bull ring and lead stick For controlling and leading
bulls.
Bucket For milking, drawing water or
carrying any other things on the
farm.
18 Strainer/ sieve For straining milk to remove any Thorough washing after
foreign material, e.g. hair that
might fall into the milk during
milking.
Rope Can be used to tether, strain,
cast the animal, tie things on the
farm.
Milking stool For the milk man or woman to
sit on when milking.
Weighing balance To weigh things such as milk,
crops, fertilizers on the farm.
Teeth clipper For cutting off or clipping teeth
avoid infecting other
animals
Can replace the handle
of the lead stick if
broken.
Keeping it clean.
every use.
Replace it with a new
one if it gets worn out.
Keeping it clean .
Keeping it clean. Oiling
parts that might get
rusty May require
calibration as required
by the Law.
Keeping clean to avoid
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 of Young animals especially the infecting other animals
piglets
Bolus gun For the administering of tablet Keeping clean to avoid
drugs orally. infecting other animals

Dehorning wire For cutting off cattle horns Keeping clean to avoid
where there is a need to dehorn infecting other animals
an animal with outgrown horns.
Chuff cutter For cutting animal fodder such Keeping clean to avoid
as Napier grass into small Pieces infecting other animals
to facilitate feeding.

Weighing bund Estimate weight of farm animals Keeping it clean.

Animal drawn implements
These are implements which are pulled by animals. The implements are mainly used for
transportation and cultivation. The common animal drawn implements include the ox-
plough, seeders, cultivators, and the mowers. Animals also pull carts.
i) Ox-drawn mouldboard plough
This is mainly drawn by oxen. An ox plough is used for ploughing, weeding, opening a
furrow in which seeds are placed during planting and harvesting crops such as ground nuts.

266
Parts of an ox-plough include:
1. Beam - this is the component onto which all other parts of the plough are attached. It
also adds weight to the plough for better penetration.
2. The handles - there are two handles, one on each side of the rear part of the plough.
Handles enable the operator to set the implement in proper direction while
ploughing.
3. Mould board - it inverts furrow slices.
4. Share - it cuts the furrow slice horizontally.
5. Land side - the land side presses against the wall of the plough land and therefore
helps to stabilize the plough.
6. Land wheel - the wheel is adjusted to regulate ploughing depth. When adjusted
upwards, it gives a deep ploughing depth while a downward adjustment gives a
shallow ploughing depth.
7. Draft rod - this is a metal bar that is attached to the main beam of the plough. At the
front end of the draft rod, there is a chain which connects it to the yoke. The rod and
the chain form the draught mechanism of the plough.
ii) ox-Carts
These are connected to the animals by means of a yoke. The small carts have only two
wheels and are pulled by animals in singles or in pairs. In most farms, carts are used for
transport between the farm and the market and within the farm.

267
iii) Ridgers

The same principle is applied as in ox- ploughs, the ridger makes ridges. Ridgers require the
following maintenance:
1. The moving parts should be oiled or greased regularly in order to reduce friction and
wearing.
2. The yoke should be properly maintained.
3. Tyre pressure should be checked daily before the start of the work.
The advantages and disadvantages of animal drawn implements as compared to tractor
drawn implements are:
Advantages
1. The initial costs of purchasing the animals, the yoke and the implements is much lower
than that of buying the tractor and the tractor drawn implements.
2. A person who operates the animal drawn implements requires less training than one
who operates the tractor.
3. Animal drawn implements can be used where land is steep.
4. They are suitable for small scale farm.
Disadvantages
1. They are more tiresome than tractor drawn implements.
2. More than one person is required to guide the plough and the animal.
3. The speed of work is slower.
3. Animals get tired and this slows the work.
4. The animals require some grazing land and medication, hence increased costs.

268
 1. Yoke: a yoke is a piece of wood placed on the neck of oxen which is used for pulling
implements.
2. Stroop: the rope enclosing the neck or harnessing the animal to the yoke
3. Where the treck chain is attached
4. Skeis (wooden brackets)
 Treck chain attaches the centre of the yoke

Tractor drawn implements

b) Tractor operated implements
The most commonly used farm implements include the following:
i) Trailer - It is a tractor drawn implement used to carry loads in the farm while being
pulled by the tractor. The amount of load to be carried will depend on the size of the trailer
the power of tractor engine, and the gradient in place.

ii) Tractor drawn mould board plough - This is a primary cultivation plough. It is a
tractor mounted implement which gives a better inversion of the furrow slice than the disc
plough. It is ideal in heavy soils and it requires less skill to operate. However, it cannot work
in stony or stumpy areas and it is expensive to maintain.

269
iii) The disc plough - This is a primary cultivation plough. It is a tractor-mounted
implement which has the ability to roll over stones and stumps as it ploughs. It is normally
faster in operations than the mould board plough. However, it produces a poorer invasion
of furrow slices compared to the mould board plough. Disc plough leads to increased
secondary cultivations. It requires more skills to operate. Conditions that favour the use of a
disc plough include:
. Hard compact ground
. Heavy and sticky soil
. Fields with many obstacles like roots and stones.
. Fields with a lot of trash or organic matter.

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Main parts of a disc plough
a) Cross shaft - use in attaching the plough onto a tractor
b) Main beam for
holding other parts of the plough.
-it contains weight to improve penetration
c) Disk
-for cutting and inverting furrow slices
d) Scraper
-it is attached to the main beam. for removing or scraping soil from the disk
e) Furrow wheel - assist disk to penetrate deep in to the soil
iv) The disc harrow - It is mounted on tractor and is used as a follow up to the plough in
getting a field ready for planting. It is used to break down the soil lumps and to provide an
even tilth for planting. Examples include disc notched harrow and plain harrows. The
notched harrows include spoke tooth and spring tined harrows.

v) The sub-soilers - This is a tractor mounted implement that is used to break the hard

271
pan that has formed in the soil. Hard pans will form due to continuous ploughing at the
same level.

iv) The ridger - A ridger is a secondary cultivation implement that is tractor mounted
Implement used for making ridges across a field so that crops can be planted in them e.g. a
potato ridger. It is normally pulled by a tractor or an ox. Ridges of the required height are
created in the seedbed

vii) Rotary tillers - These can be used both for primary and secondary. Cultivation are
operated by power take off shaft of the tractor. They are used for breaking thick clods of soil
and weeding between rows. Normally, they do not dig deep into the soil. Rotary tillers have
many tines which rotate and break up the soil surface leaving an even tilth.
viii) Mowers - These machines are mounted to the tractor's P.T.O. shaft and are used for
cutting grass for hay making or silage making. Mowers are also used for clearing vegetation
form the field before ploughing. Most of them are attached at the back of the tractor
through the power take - off shaft of the tractor. The mowers are of three types.
- Reciprocating mowers
- Rotary mowers
- Gyro mowers

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ix) Planters and seeders - Seed planters are drawn by the tractor. They drop individual
seeds and space them accurately. The seed is then covered by a wheel at the back of the
planter.

x) Cultivators - These are mainly used in harrowing- an already ploughed land or they are
used for weeding in a plantation. They are mounted on the tractor.

xi) Sprayers - There are two types of sprayer in common use namely:
1. Knapsack sprayer - this is a common equipment with most farmers. They use it to
spray chemical solutions.

273
2. Tractor mounted sprayers - these are common in large scale farming in the production
of crops such as coffee and pineapples, For example, pineapple plantations in Thika use
tractor mounted sprayers which are normally attached to the power take off shaft of the
tractor.

xii) Harvesting machine - A number of implements are attached to the tractor, either
mounted or attached to the P.T.O. shaft, to harvest various crops. These include mowers for
harvesting grasses for silage or haymaking. They are commonly referred to as forage
harvesters. A combine harvester is used in harvesting wheat and barley. It combines a
number of operations such as cutting the wheat stem, removing the grains and baling the
wheat stalks and putting the grains into the container. (See fig- 16.22)

274
xiii) Shellers - These are also mounted to the tractor's P.T-O- shaft. The grains are removed
from the crops before they are put into bags.
The internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is a machine which works as a result of burning of a
mixture of fuel oil and air enclosed in chambers. An engine will either be powered by diesel
or petrol. In most cases, tractors used for agricultural production use diesel since it is
cheaper than petrol.

The engine has three major parts:

1. Cylinder head - This is the upper part that holds the push rods, tappets, valves and
cams.
2. The block - It is the middle part that has the cylinders, the piston and the rings.
3. The sump - This is the lower part of the engine that houses the connecting rod, the
crankshaft and gudgeon pins. Oil is normally stored in this part of the engine.

275
The essential parts of the engine include the following:
1. The cylinder - Fuel is introduced into the cylinder for burning.
2. The piston - This is a cylindrical component that moves up and down the cylinder
walls.
3. Piston rings -There are metal rings on the piston that ensure a complete seal
between the cylinder wall and the piston, thus the fuel will burn completely on the
upper side of the cylinder.
4. The crankshaft - This is a heavy metal rod normally on the lower part of the engine
and always submerged in oil. It is designed in a zigzag manner and splashes oil to all
parts of the engine, thus helping in lubrication. Its zigzag nature ensures that the
pistons are at different positions.
5. Connecting rod - This is a metal rod that connects the crankshaft to the piston. It
changes the crankshaft's circular motion to the piston's vertical motion.
6. The Inlet valve - It provides for the entry of oil to the cylinder.
7. The exhaust valve - This opens to let out Gasses to move out when the engine is
running.
8. Camshaft - This is a metal rod on top of the engine. It has cams that help in closing
and opening of the valves in the cylinder.
9. Valve springs - These are fitted with valves and their work is to help in closing and
opening of the valves.
The four stroke cycle

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1. lnduction stroke
 As shown in the diagram, the fuel-air mixture is sucked into the cylinder.
 During this stroke, the inlet valve is open.
 The exhaust valve is closed.
 The piston moves downwards and the fuel is sucked in.
2. The compression stroke
 The fuel-air mixture is compressed in the cylinder.
 In this stroke, both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
 The piston moves up to the Top-Dead Centre. The volume of fuel-air mixture
is compressed in the ration of 8:1.
3. The power stroke
 As indicated in the diagram, the mixture explodes after it has been ignited by
a spark plug in petrol engine. In the diesel engine the spark plug is not
needed, it is a fine spray of diesel into highly compressed air whose
temperature is at ignition point.
 In this stroke, both the inlet and outlet valves are closed.
 Sparks ignition takes place on the compressed fuel. The mixture explodes.
 A lot of power is produced in the cylinder.
 The piston is pushed downwards.
 The crankshaft is also turned as the piston moves downwards, creating the
motion in the tractor that is used in doing work.

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 4. Exhaust stroke
 In this stroke, the inlet valve is closed.
 The exhaust valve is opened to let out burnt gases.
 The piston moves upwards to push out burnt gases from the combustion
chamber, as indicated in the diagram.
After the exhaust stroke, the whole process is repeated all-over again.

Petrol engine
The sequence of the petrol engine is as shown in above description of the four stroke
engine. For the above to be possible the petrol must be ignited to release the energy. It is
ignited as a mixture of air and petrol vapour by means of a spark from the sparking plug.
The explosion occurs internally thus the name internal combustion engine. This explosion
causes the piston to move down wards and this then transmits the power to the crankshaft
of the engine. The four-stroke cycle is commenced by means of the electric starter motor
which fires when the ignition is switched on and the starter is pressed.

Petrol engine fuel system

1. Tank: this acts as a reservoir fuel/petrol.
2. Tap: it opens and closes fuel from the tank. The tap remains open when the engine is in
operation. It is closed when service is being done to the engine.
3. Sediment bowl: any dirt and various sediments in fuel are deposited here. It is normally
emptied after some time.
4. Float: this regulates the amount of fuel getting into the carburetor.
5. Carburetor; this mixes air and fuel before it passes to the throttle.
6. Throttle: it regulates the amount of air petrol mixture getting into the engine cylinders.
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7. Pre-cleaner: this lets in air from the atmosphere.
8. Oil bath: it traps dirt particles and settles them at the bottom.
9. Wire mesh: it filters air from oil droplets which come up from oil bath.

The diesel engine

It does not require a spark to ignite the fuel mixture: instead, the air in the cylinder is
compressed to such an extent that it becomes very hot. At this point diesel fuel is injected
into the system through a valve and it ignites. This causes the piston to be forced
downwards through the cylinder and the power of this stroke is transmitted through to the
crankshaft of the engine. This system is also known as the compression ignition engine.

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Diesel engine fuel system
In diesel engine, air gets into the cylinder first. It is compressed and this leads to a rise in
temperature before diesel fuel is sprayed by the injector into ignition chamber.
l. Diesel tank: it stores diesel fuel.
2. Tap: it opens and closes flow of diesel from the tank.
3. Sediment bowl: it traps all dirt particles and any water from the tank.
4. Fuel lift pump: it pumps diesel fuel into the injection pump. It is particularly useful when
bleeding the diesel engine. Bleeding is the removal of air in the diesel fuel system. Air may
enter the system when diesel fuel gets finished in t1s tank when the engine is running.
5. Fuel filter.' this collects fine dirt particles that were not trapped in the sediment bowl.
6. Injection pump: this pump forces fuel to high pressure pipes under very high pressure.
7. Injectors.' these spray diesel into the cylinder in vapour form. The sprayed diesel ignites
the compressed air.
8. High pressure pipes: these are thin tubes made of strong materials to withstand high
pressure.

Major differences between a petrol and diesel engine

PETROL ENGINE DIESEL ENGINE

1. Uses petrol as fuel Fuel is diesel.

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2. Fuel is ignited in the engine by an electric Fuel is ignited by compression.
spark from spark plugs.

3. Has a carburetor for mixing air and petrol. Does not have a carburetor.

4. Has spark plugs. No spark plugs.

5. It operates at a lower compression ratio It operates at a higher compression ratio

(8: I) and therefore is less powerful. (16: 1) and is thus more powerful.

6. Power occurs when air and petrol mixture Only diesel is ignited.
is ignited.

7. No injectors. Injectors which atomize diesel are present.

8. It uses more fuel per unit area, e .g. per Diesel engines use less fuel than petrol
hectare, for the same work done. engines.

9. Lighter. Heavier.

10. Given tractor of the same horse power, Diesel engines cost more than petrol engines
petrol engines cost less money to buy. to buy.

11. They produce less smoke. They produce a lot of smoke.

12. Maintenance is more frequent and they Maintenance is less frequent. Immune to
usual1y, have problems in starting. action of weather. i.e. no plug leads to get
worn, no distributor to get wet, which would
cause problems in starting.

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13. Produces less noise. Produces a lot of noise.

The two-stroke engine and cycle

The two-stroke engine does not have any valves to admit the mixture or to expel the
exhaust gases. This is accomplished instead by the movements of the piston, which
uncovers ports cut into the cylinder wall. At the start of a cycle, the piston is at the bottom.
As it moves upwards, it uncovers the inlet port and the mixture is drawn in. As the piston
reaches TDC (Top Dead Centre), ignition occurs and the piston is forced downwards,
compressing the mixture in the crankcase. The transfer port opens and the mixture in the
crankcase is forced into the cylinder. At the same time, the exhaust port opens and burnt
out gases are expelled. The burnt out gases and the fresh mixture are prevented from
mixing by the deflection-type pistons. Thus in a two-stroke cycle there are two complete
upwards and downwards movements of the piston and one revolution of the crankshaft.
Though cheaper to run than a four-stroke engine, the two-stroke engine has a number of
disadvantages. The passage of the fuel air mixture through the crankcase during induction

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means that the engine cannot have oil in the sump to lubricate the crankshaft bearings. This
lubrication has to be provided by oil added to the fuel, polluting the exhaust and creating
blue smoke. Also, less power is developed from this type of engine and it is only suitable for
smaller machines. See fig 20.8.
Firing order This is the order in which the power stroke occurs in the cylinders. The
sequence of events is staggered from one cylinder to another so that the crucial power
strokes occur at equal intervals one after the other. The order of the cylinders firing in
relation to their position on the crankshaft is also staggered to minimize stress on the shaft
and its bearing mountings. On a four-cylinder engine with its cylinders numbered 1-4 from
the front end, the firing order is l, 2, 3, 4 or 1,3,4,2.
Compression ratio This is the ratio of the total air in the cylinder to the ratio of
compressed air. It is usually in the range of 5: I to 8: I in petrol engines and 14: 1 to 20: I in
diesel engines.
Because of the higher compression ratio, a diesel engine is more efficient and economical
than a petrol engine.

a) Electrical system
This is important in a petrol engine. The petrol engine requires this system when starting
and when the engine is running. However, diesel engines only require it when starting.
Components of an electrical system
1. the battery: this stores the electrical energy required to start the engine. Batteries
are usually 12 volts. Inside the battery is an electrolyte (dilute sulphuric acid) and
lead plates. The battery is maintained by topping up the electrolyte. When the
engine is running, the generator charges the battery.

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2. Generator: this has primary and secondary electrical coils in them and they produce
electricity needed in the tractor. The generator or the alternator charges the battery
and maintains its power when the engine is running.
3. The starter mortor: this is normally mounted close to the fly wheel. When the tractor
is ignited, it turns the fly wheel. The fly wheel starts the engine through the crank
shaft.
4. The lighting circuit: this is designed in such a way that the electrical current from
either the battery or the generator will light the bulb when the lighting switch is
closed. Fuses are fitted to break current if any fault occurs in the lighting circuit.
5. Voltage regulator: this prevents over charge of the battery thus prolonging the life of
the battery. Excessive voltage in the system will burn out lights or damage the
ignition coil.
6. The distributor: this houses the contact breaker points, condenser, and spark plugs.
The distributor has high voltage current that is conducted from the secondary
winding of the coil to the spark plugs according to the firing order of the engine.
Most engines have a firing order of 1342 or 1243.
7. Contact breaker points: they break the flow of current in the primary winding of the
coil. This induces high voltages (10,000 volts) in the secondary winding. The
secondary current is delivered to the spark plugs.
8. Spark plug: this provides a small gap in the circuit of high voltage current. The gap is
inside the cylinder. The high voltage forces the current to jump into the gap causing
a spark that ignites the fuel mixture.

9. Condenser: It is also called the capacitor-It has capacity of storing up electricity for

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 a short interval. On one side, the condenser is connected to the primary circuit
which leads to the contact breaker point while the other side is grounded or
attached to the body of the engine. Condenser prevents contact breaker points from
sparking or burning when they open. This makes a quicker stoppage of primary
current.
10. Coil ignition system: When the cams in the motor open the contact breaker point the
current has nowhere to go to and very high voltage is induced into the secondary
coil. It passes through the king lead to the distributor. In the distributor, the motor
touches the motor into the distributor points. The high voltage of 10,000 votts is
pressed to the spark plug. Then, different voltages exist between the tips of the
spark plug. A spark is produced- The spark ignites the fuel in the cylinder.

b) Cooling system
Normally, the engine should warm up to a certain temperature. After the thermostat
regulates the temperature by opening and closing, water in the radiator circulates in the
water jackets in the engine block to cool the engine.

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Components in the cooling system
1. Radiator cap: it is opened when more water is being added into the radiator. It is
pressurised in order to withstand the pressure when the engine warms up.
2. Radiator.' it acts as the storage tank for water. It has fins/coiled pipes, which help to
cool the water.
3. Bottom hose: this delivers water from the radiator into the engine.
4. Pulley: this helps in turning the fan.
5. Fan: it is used to draw in air from outside. The air passes through the radiator and
thus helps to cool down water in the radiator.
6. Water jackets: these are passages for water in the engine.
7. Thermostat: it is used to regulate the temperature of water in the engine. When
temperatures are low, the thermostat remains closed. When temperatures are high,
the thermostat opens and water circulates through the radiator to cool it.

c) Lubrication system
Oil is the lubricant in the engine. It is mainly stored in the sump when the engine is not
running. As soon as the engine starts, the oil is splashed upwards by the crankshaft and the
pump ensures that all parts are lubricated. Oil also helps in cooling the engine. Lubricant

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oils are classified based on as per their viscosity. The engine uses S.A.E. 40 (S.A.E - Society
of Automobile Engineers) while the gear box use S.A.E. 90. The number rises with the
thickness of the oil.

LUBRICANTS
A lubricant is something which reduces friction between two moving surfaces in machinery.
Examples of lubricants are grease and oil.
Oil is of three types:
(i) Mineral oil---obtained by distillation of crude petroleum.
(ii) Animal oil-from animal products, e.g. tallow and Iard.
(iii) Vegetable oil-made from seeds, e.g. castor, simsim, sunflower and groundnuts.

USES OF OIL IN FARM MACHINERY

(i) Oil reduces friction. Thus, it increases the efficiency of machinery.
(ii) It keeps two touching surfaces cool and in this way prevents overheating.
(iii) Oil reduces the wear and tear of moving parts.
(iv) It acts as a seal between two moving surfaces. In other words, the two surfaces
are prevented from touching each other.
(v) Oil removes dirt and small metal particles which usually chip off when machines
are in operation.
(vi) It prevents rusting; that is why it is advisable to paint plough discs and shares
with old engine oil.

PROPERTIES OF A GOOD LUBRICANT

(a) Low viscosity
Viscosity is the ability of a liquid to flow, i.e. flowability. It is measured by finding out how
long it takes for oil to pass through the hole of a filter pump at a given temperature.
Viscosity falls with temperature. Consequently, it is not advisable to use oil which becomes
thin quickly because it loses its cushioning effect. On the other hand, oil that is very thick
does not flow quickly and may not circulate properly in the engine.
(b) High flash point

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A flash point is that point at which explosion occurs when enough vapour has been given off
by oil after which the vapour ignites. Good oil should have a high flash point to enable it to
lubricate moving parts without igniting.
(c) Ability to pour
The pour point is the lowest temperature at which oil will flow freely. A low pour point is
required, especially in the case of oil used in starting cold engines.
(d) Good body
A good lubricant should be thick enough to prevent contact between two moving parts.
(e) Good film strength
It should be able to resist pressure.
(f) Relative density
A good lubricant should have a high relative density.
(g) Detergents
It must have substances which act as detergents, i.e. substances which have cleaning
properties.
(h) Oiliness
Oil should be smooth and slippery.

CONTAMINANTS OF OIL
These are: dust or soil, metallic particles which chip off as parts move, fuel, water, paint,
carbon deposits in the tank when oil is stored and acids formed when oil decomposes.

Routine Maintenance of a Battery

(i) The level of the electrolyte should be checked daily to ensure that the plates are
fully immersed. In some batteries the level should be 0.6 cm above the plates.
When the level is low, distilled water should be added.
(ii) Clean battery terminals to remove corrosion material using a wire brush.
(iii) Terminals should be coated with grease or Vaseline to prevent corrosion.
(iv) Always ensure that the terminals are connected correctly to the tractor, i.e. the
negative and positive poles should be in their right positions.
(v) At certain intervals the specific gravity of the electrolyte should hydrometer. S.G.

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 should be between 1.2 and 1.25. When the specific gravity is low, more H2 SO4 is
added.

(vi) Do not allow the electrolyte to touch electrodes or else the latter will be
corroded.
(vii) Keep the battery fully charged all the time. If it has not been used for some time,
recharging is necessary. Depending on the age of the battery, recharging should
be slow and of a long duration. Recharging an old battery in a short time usually
ruins the battery.
(viii) When a battery will not be used for a long time, it is advisable to put it on a piece
of wood and not on the bare ground or concrete because it will lose its power. It
is also advisable to empty the cells and put the battery upside down when it is
not going to be in use for a long time.
(ix) The plates should always be covered to prevent the electrolyte from spilling out
and to avoid contamination.

Daily Maintenance of a Tractor

Preventive maintenance of a tractor is necessary to keep it in good running order.
Unnecessary wear, tear and repair are avoided when tractors are serviced regularly, e.g.
daily, weekly etc. The servicing points which require daily attention are:
Engine oil: Engine oil is necessary for lubrication of moving parts. Among other things, it

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reduces friction. A dip stick should be used to check the level of oil in the sump. If the level
is low, some more oil should be added. Dip sticks have two levels: 'high' and 'low marks.
Under no circumstance should a tractor be operated when the oil level is indicating 'low".
When oil gets dirty, it becomes dark in colour. Such oil should be drained out of the sump
and replaced by clean oil.
Fuel tank: Check to see whether the fuel tank contains enough fuel for the job to be done
that day. If not enough, clean fuel should be added. In order to reduce chances of driving a
tractor without fuel, the tank should be filled the previous evening.
Battery: The level of the electrolyte should be checked daily. If it is below the required
level, that is, if the plates are not covered. Distilled water should be added until it is about
0.6 cm above the plates. Terminals should also be checked to ensure that the battery' is
tightly secured on the tractor.
Greasing points: Movable parts should be greased by forcing grease through grease
nipples using a grease gun. Force in new grease until the old one comes out.
Fan belt: Check its tension and condition. It should have the recommended play and when
torn or cracked, replacement is necessary. Loose fan belts should be tightened.
Radiator: The level of water in the radiator must be checked. More water should be added
when necessary and it is advisable to remove vegetation such as grass which may block the
radiator and cause overheating.
Air filter: These are also called air cleaners. Check excessive dust. In certain types, air
filters are made of paper. Such types should be blown using air at a high pressure to remove
dust. However, some have oil baths. In such types, when the oil is dark, it is a sign that it is
dirty. It should then be emptied and filled up with new oil up to the recommended level.
Tyre pressure: Tyre pressure should be checked before work. If it is low, tyres should be
inflated with more air. Rear tyres: 0.85 kgf/cm3 to 1.05 kgf/cm3; front tyres 1 .75 kgf/cm3?
Bolts, nuts and pins:Bolts, nuts and pins should be tightened with spanners before a day's
work.
MEANING OF A MACHINE
A machine is an instrument which makes work easier.eg bicycle.
FRICTION
Friction is defined as a force that opposes motion.

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EFFECTS OF FRICTION ON FARM MACHINERY
1. Causes wear and tear on the machine.
2. Slows down the pace of doing work.
WAYS OF OVERCOMING FRICTION
1. Lubrication: by applying oil or grease.
2. Reduction of contact part: if you reduce the area of contact, you will reduce the amount of
heat generated
3. Mechanical engineering: using wheels, ball/roller bearings help to convert sliding friction
into a milder form of rolling friction. Rolling friction is less than sliding friction.
5. Polishing: smooth bearings work well than rough ones.
6. Sprinkling soft powder on the surfaces reduces friction.
RUSTING
DEFINATION
Rusting is the name given to the oxidation of iron or steel in damp air. Rusting is an example
of corrosion.
CONDITIONS THAT CAUSE RUSTING
1. Iron rust when it is in contact with both oxygen and water
2. Rusting is faster if the water involved contains an electrolyte, either an acid or a dissolved
salt.
3. Rusting is accelerated if the iron is; in impure, In contact with a less active metal and
when it is under mechanical stress.
WORD AND CHEMICAL EQUATION OF RUSTING
Iron+oxygen+water(vapour) –hydrated iron(iii)oxide(rust)
HOW TO PREVENT RUSTING
1. Oiling.
2. Painting.
3. Greasing.
4. Plating with a layer of metal.
5. Galvanizing.
6. Chromium plating.
Work and power

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Specific outcomes
• Describe when a machine is doing work on a farm.
• Explain the meaning of horsepower.
• Explain the importance of knowledge of horsepower on a farm.
(a) Work
Work is the application of a force over a distance. A pulley lifting a 1000 kg bale of hay from
the ground and putting it on a lorry is a good example of work. The force is equal to the
weight of the hay, and the distance is equal height of the lorry. When a tractor is moving, it
has to apply a force to counter the forces of friction and aerodynamic drag. If it drives up a
hill, it does the same kind of work that you do when lifting a weight. When it drives back
down the hill, however, it gets back the work it did. The hill helps the car drive down.

Work has two parts. One is the amount of force either a pull or push needed to do the work.
The other is the distance over which the force is applied.
The formula for work is Work = Force × Distance
Force is a pull or push on an object.
Example:
If a person weighing 70N runs upthe flight of steps 25M high. Calculate the work done.
Work= force × Distance
70N × 25 M = 1750 joules
b. POWER
Power is the rate of doing work.The unit fro power is watt

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The formula for calculating work is Power =Work/Time
If a person weighing 70N runs upthe flight of steps 25M high in 3.5 seconds. What is his
power.
. Work= force × Distance
70N × 25 M = 1750 joules
Power = 1750/3.5s = 500 watts .
c. HORSE POWER
A horse power is the unit used to measure the power of engines and Motors.One horse
power is equal to 745.5 watts
IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE OF HORSE POWER
The knowledge of horse power is to help the farmer and the farm manager to know the
type of tractor used for a particular work on the farm. The size of the largest tractor should
be based on getting critical, high-horsepower job done within a specified time or period.
LEVERS, PULLEYS AND SCREWS
SPECIFIC OUTCOMES
 Eplain the use of various tools on the farm
 Calculate verocity ratio and mechanical advandage
 Demonstrate understanding and practical application of centre of gravity
A) LEVER
A lever consist of a rigid bar which is free to turn about a fixed point called fulcrum. A
fulcrum is a pivot. The effort force is exerted upon one lever arm and the other lever arm
will go up or down in the opposite direction. The resisting weight is the load,which is
exerted on the other arm which turns to move the lever in the opposite direction of the
applied force.
The force is applied at adifferent point from the load.The closer the fulcrum to the load the
less force needed to lift the load.Leavers are divided into three classes according to the way
the load and the effort force are arrange around the fulcrum.
FIRST CLASS LEVER
The first class lver has a pivot between the load and effort

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SECOND CLASS LEVER
In the second class lever, the load arm lies between the fulcrum and the force arm. A good
example of this type of lever is the wheelbarrow. The axle of the wheel serves as the
fulcrum, the handles are the force arm, and the load is carried between the two in the
bucket part of the wheelbarrow. In the second class lever, the fulcrum is usually closer to
the load, which reduces the force needed to accomplish the work. Some other examples of
the second class lever are: a pair of nutcrackers, and a bottle opener.

THIRD CLASS LEVERS

In this class of levers, the force arm lies between the fulcrum and the load arm. Because of
this arrangement, a relatively large force is required to move the load. This is offset by the
fact that it is possible to produce movement of the load over a long distance with a
relatively small movement of the force arm. Think of a fishing rod, because of this
relationship, we often use this class of lever when we wish to produce large movements of a
small load, or to transfer relatively low speed of the force arm to high speed of the load arm.

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(h) Pulleys
A pulley is a wheel with a groove that allows a rope, belt or chain to ride securely on it. A
pulley is a circular lever, with the wheel rotating freely on the axle. A fixed pulley
is fastened to one spot, and does not move around. It provides no gain in force, distance or
speed, but it changes the direction of the force. A fixed pulley acts as a first class lever. The
fulcrum is the axle (the point at which the pulley is supported).
The force arm is the radius of the pulley - that is, the distance from the fulcrum (axle) to the
side of the rope on which we pull. The load arm is also the radius of the pulley - the distance
from the fulcrum (axle) to the load-carrying side of the rope. Examples of fixed pulleys can
be seen on flag poles, or on a sail mast. In each case, the pulley changes the direction of the
applied force, to enable work to be accomplished.
A movable pulley moves along a rope or wire. It provides a gain in force, but a loss in
distance. (You have to pull the rope twice as far.) A movable pulley works like a turning
second class lever. The fulcrum is at one rim of the pulley wheel, the load is at the axle, and
the force is at the other rim of the pulley wheel.
Pulleys make lifting easier because more sections of the rope are supporting the weight.
This is like having someone help you carry something heavy. The more help you have, the
lighter the load seems to be. Mechanical advantage is determined by the number of
supporting ropes. A compound pulley, also called a block and tackle, is a combination of a
fixed and a movable pulley. This type of pulley changes direction, and yields a gain in force
at the same time.

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(c) Screw
A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder. The inclined plane forms ridges in
a spiral along the cylinder. These ridges are called the threads of the screw. The distance
between the threads is called the pitch of the screw.
It would be impossible to completely insert a screw into a piece of wood without using a
screwdriver. Thus you trade the extra distance moved as you turn the handle of the
screwdriver, for the reduced force required to turn the screw. As with the inclined plane,
force is applied in a direction different from the movement of the load. The screw also
resists pulling out much better than a nail and therefore provides a stronger joint.
A screw depends on another simple machine, a screwdriver (a lever), for its operation. A
screw works with rotating movement, which is provided by a lever. When the lever arm
makes a full turn, the screw is moved a distance equal to the pitch, or the gap between
adjacent threads.
A screw's mechanical advantage is the ratio of two dimensions: the length of the lever that
turns it, and the distance between the threads. Thus, a screw can function in two ways. It
can raise weights (liquids or solids), or it can press or fasten objects.
Some modern examples of screws include:
1. To move or raise liquids or solids - a snow blower, a ship or airplane propeller, a worm
gear, a corkscrew, a jack screw, a pig feeder, a grain thresher, a meat grinder, a piano stool, a
corn sheller.
2. To press or fasten objects - book binding press, a vice, a screw hook, nut and bolr, an
auger (hand drill), a monkey wrench, an ordinary screw, a jar lid, and a screw press for
printing.

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Calculating mechanical advantage and velocity ratio
A mechanism is simply a device which takes an input motion and force, and outputs a
different motion and force. The point of a mechanism is to make the job easier. The
mechanisms most commonly used in mechanical systems are levers, linkages, cams, gears,
and pulleys.
Both first and second class levers provide mechanical advantage. This means that they
allow you to move a large output load with a small effort. Load and effort are forces and are
measured in Newtons
(N). Mechanical advantage is calculated as follows:
Mechanical advantage = load / effort
In the example above, where the load = 5OON and the effort = lOON, the mechanical
advantage would be: 5OON / lOON = 5
Fulcrum
The mechanical advantage gained with first class levers and second class levers makes it
seem like you are getting something for nothing: moving a large load with a small effort.
The catch is that to make the effort smaller, you have to move a greater distance. This trade-
off is calculated by the velocity ratio:
Velocity ratio = distance moved by effort + distance moved by load (Lever:2)

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS:

Agricultural economics is the study of the allocation of scarce resources to satisfy human needs
in farming context

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FACTORS OF PRODUCTION:

 State factors of production in agriculture.

 Suggest ways of improving production.
 Explain the law of diminishing returns.
 Explain the law of supply and demand.
 Explain the effects of controlling prices of agricultural inputs and products on demand
and supply.
FACTORS OF PRODUCTION IN AGRICULTURE:

There are four factors of production: land, capital, labour and entrepreneurship.
8.1.1.1Land:

The term land in economic terms is used to denote all natural resources. Land is a nature-given
source of food, fibre, pasture, building materials, minerals and other raw materials needed by
human beings. The availability of land varies according to population growth and technological
advances but its supply is fixed.
The return to use of land is called rent, that is,a regular payment made by a tenant to an owner or
landlord for the right to occupy or use property.
Rate is a tax levied by local authorities on all properties in their areas of jurisdiction, based on a
fixed ratable value for each property.
8.1.1.2Capital:

Capital consists of physical items such as machinery and buildings that are used to produce other
goods or services. Expenditure on capital is calculated to bring in more goods and services than
the cost of employing it. Such expenditure is called investment.
A return (reward) to own capital employed is called profit and a payment on borrowed capital is
called interest.A regular payment to the owner for the right to use equipment or personal
property is called rent.
a. Sources of Agricultural capital in Zambia:

Farmers in Zambia can obtain loans from the following money lending institutions:
i. Commercial Banks (e.g. Barclays Bank of Zambia, Standard Chartered Bank (Z)

ltd.); ii. Farmers’ Cooperative unions; iii. Insurance Companies; iv.

Individuals etc.

b. Types of Agricultural Loans:

Basically in all types of lending institutions, there are three types of loans: short-term or
seasonal; medium-term and long-term loans. Security (also called collateral) in a form of
assets of equal value to the loan is required.

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 i. Seasonal or Short-term Loans - The purpose of these loans is to provide working
capital such as for purchasing inputs like fertilisers, chemicals, seed, and feed or
for employing casual labour. The amount of money that may be borrowed depends
on the size and viability of the enterprise. However, the period of repayment is
one year.

ii. Medium-term Loans - Generally, this type of loan covers a period of three to six
years depending on the size and viability of the enterprise to be undertaken.
Medium term loans are meant for purchase of movable assets such as machinery,
livestock and equipment.

iii. Long-term Loans - These loans are usually for buying a farm or establishing fixed
assets such as bore holes, fencing, land improvements etc. A loan to purchase land
is called mortgage. The period of repayment depends on the amount of money
borrowed, the size of the enterprises and its viability.

8.1.1.3Labour:

Labour human effort used in the production of goods and services. It refers to able-bodied
population available for work. It excludes children below 15 and old people above 55 (retirement
age), as well those between 15 and 55 that are in education and training institutions.
Factors that affect available labour include:
i. The total population; ii. The percentage of the

population proportion in the labour force; iii.The wage rates;

iv. Capacity and output of workers;

v. Health of the workers including freedom from HIV/

AIDS; and vi. Average hours worked per day or week per

person.

8.1.1.4Entrepreneur:

A person who runs a business to make a profit is called an Entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship has
two most important functions: (1) risk bearing and (2) management control (see 8.1.2 (ii)).

8.1.2 WAYS OF IMPROVING PRODUCTION:

The aim of any farmer is to produce the maximum net profit from a fixed unit. He/ she has to
make many decisions regarding what products to invest in, and what inputs are required to
achieve maximum output. Many of these decisions are guided entirely by the size of the farming
enterprise.
Methods of increasing production:

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 i. Improved farming methods - This includes more effective ways of cultivating the
soil, observation of correct plant spacing and careful control of weeds, pests and
diseases.

All farmers can practise these methods in some way since they (methods) depend
neither on mechanisation, nor on a large labour force.
ii. Improved farm management - This involves careful forward planning and
utilisation of land and labour. Knowledge of the market will also help a farm
manager. Regardless of the size of a farm, good management is essential.
Farm Management may be described as the art and science of organising and
operating a farm business. There are two aspects involved - the technical aspect
and the business aspect.
The technical aspect calls for a knowledge of the scientific principles and
practical skills of crop and livestock production.

The business aspect is a decision making and organisational process and calls for
judgement and business tact. Given a range of choices (alternatives), a farm
manager should be capable of deciding what to produce, how to produce and how
muchto produce to maximise farm profit using a given set of resources.

iii. Intensification of production - Production can be increased within limits in a

number of ways: (1) more yields per hectare will result from raising livestock in
an intensive such as a battery house for example (2) supplementary feeding to a
dairy cow will increase the yield of milk and (3) application of fertilisers will
increase the yield per hectare of the crop.

iv. Mechanisation - Mechanisation increases the rate at which a job can be completed
and reduces the number of man-days involved in production. Products harvested
mechanically are often more uniform and therefore more acceptable to the
consumer.

Capital outlay on machinery is enormous, and only when a farm is really large
can mechanisation be considered. Even then there are drawbacks. Some machines
may remove too much vegetation and produce erosion of the soil. Fewer
labourers will be required, and this may create an unemployment problem.

8.1.3 LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS:

Recall from 8.1.1 above that the main factors of production are labour, capital, land and
entrepreneurship. The factors, because they are put into the production process of goods and
services are also termed inputs.
In practice, the four inputs are classified in two categories as either fixed inputs e.g. the size ofthe
farm or variable inputs e.g. the amount of fertiliser per hectare can be increased or reduced.
Fixed inputs cannot be varied easily within the period under consideration, while variable inputs

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are applied at different rates or levels depending on the scale of production. On a farm, land is
regarded as fixed while labour, capital and entrepreneurship are variable to some extent.

Fig 8.1 below illustrates the effect of on yield of a crop for applying an additionalkilogramme
per hectare (kg/ha) of a fertiliser.
Yield increased with each additional one kg/ ha of fertiliser until about nine kg was applied. Nine
kg/ha is the optimum require for maximum yield (approx. 55kg/ ha) to be obtained. Any
additional fertiliser tends to reduce (and not increase yield against our expectations). The returns
on the crop no longer justify any additional application of fertiliser.
Yield drops probably because soil structure is damaged or soil pH is lowered plus many other
factors.
The point at which additional application of an input will not give additional output is called the
point of diminishing returns (Fig. 8.1).

Fig. 8.1 Diminishing returns

The law of diminishing returns states that if a variable input is increased while all other inputs
are held constant, a point is eventually reached where the additional output for each additional
unit of input, will decline.

Notice that the law refers to additional output per additional unit of input, and not total
output. Total output could still he increasing while additional output per additional input is
declining.

8.1.4 LAW OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND:

On an open market, the price a farmer can obtain for the farm produce depends on the interaction
between the supplyof and demandfor the produce.
Supply is the amount of the produce that is available for sale while demand is the amount or
quantity of produce that people are willing and able to buy. The price that results from the

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interaction of demand and supply is the Equilibrium price. In fig. 8.2 amount of produce
demanded at K60, 000.00 per 50kg bag (equilibrium) is equal to that supplied. Fewer bags are
bought at prices higher than K60, 000 / 50kg and very few farmers are willing to supply at prices
less than K60, 000/ 50kg bag

Fig. 8.2 The law of demand and supply

The quantitiesof a crop (or other commodity)whichcan be suppliedare generallylinkedto the price the item
commands. If a grower knows that he/she can get a good price far his/her crop, he/she will
supply as much as he/she can. As the price falls, the supply falls too.

The supply of an item is dependent upon there being a demand for it from the consumer or
customer. Demand is also linked to price. As the quantity demanded goes up, the price per unit
falls. Thus the law of demand can be stated: the lower the price, the greater the quantity of the
product demanded.

The supply (and prices) of agricultural products vary with seasons and harvests. If very little
maize is harvested for example, the price goes up, and when there is a surplus, the price falls.

8.1.5 EFFECTS OF PRICE CONTROL:

Price controls are a feature of the command or government controlled economy in which the
decisions about production and distribution are made by a central planning authority.
The authority is generally made up of large administrative machinery responsible for issuing
directives about: (1) What to produce; (2) Where to get the supply of farm inputs - seed,
fertiliser, feed etc; (3) What techniques of production to use; and (4) Where to dispose the
finished farm produce.
Positive effects:

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 i. Because prices of many goods and labour services are fixed, a much
lower rate of inflation can be maintained than under liberalised
economy;

ii. Full employment of resources can more easily be achieved; iii.

Waste of resources arising from monopoly can be minimised; iv.

Some extremities can be taken into account when deciding upon the

pattern of output; and

v.Inequalities of income and wealth can be minimised thus bridging the gap between
peasant and commercial farmers using subsidies.
Negative effects:

i. The cost of gathering information about what, how and for whom to produce is
likely to be very high as it requires many experts;

ii. Without price signals, it is immensely difficult to estimate the existing and future
pattern of demand for goods and services - shortages recur often;

iii. Even if required information about allocation decisions is collected, the pattern of
consumers' preferences and the society's composition of resources might well
change before production and distribution plans are implemented. Thus, there is a
further time-lag between the implementation of production plans and the
realisation of production targets;

iv. With administered prices and wages, farmers and their workers may lack the
motivation to produce more; and

v. Because demand is manipulated to march the limited range of produce available

on the market, consumers have a restricted choice.

Methods of Price control:

Occasionally, price control is achieved by setting floor price, ceiling price and intervention
price.
A ceiling price is the maximum ‘acceptable price' that the government allows a particular
produce to be bought and sold at.
A floor price is the minimum price below which the price cannot legally fall.
An intervention price is the price at which the government will intervene to buy up excess
supplies so as to prevent the price from falling any further. The intervention price of maize for
2006 was K38, 000.00 per 50kg bag.

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8.2MARKETING OF AGRICUTURAL PRODUCE:

 Suggest ways of increasing sales of agricultural products in the local area.

 Describe the effect of production distribution on marketing of farm produce.

 Explain the effects of agricultural marketing policies on the development of agriculture.

 Identify advantages and disadvantages of liberalizing marketing of agricultural input and

products.

8.2.1 INCREASING SALES:

Sales are increased through activities that constitute marketing. Marketing is carried out by an
individual farmer on a large farm or by a co-operative on behalf of small farmers.
Marketing functions are tasks which must be performed if marketing takes place. Irrespective of
the
agency which performs the functions, marketing increases the value of the product but involves
costs. Efforts to reduce the cost of a given function should contribute to marketing efficiency.
There are many ways of categorising marketing functions. For ease of presentation, marketing
functions are here classified under the following nine headings.
a.Buying and assembling:

This function involves purchasing in small lots from producers or other small suppliers and
bulking up the commodity. For example, co-operative societies and marketing boards
purchase small quantities of milk, maize, coffee, cotton and paprika and assemble the
products into large quantities ready for the next operation.
A small farmer may not buy or assemble.
b. Selling:

In the broad sense, selling includes all those activities that help in the presentation of a
product or a commodity in an attractive manner to the consumer. It includes bargaining for
an advantageous price, arranging the goods in a suitable manner for display as well as
advertising.
c. Transportation:

Transportation involves the physical movement of goods from supply centres to eventual
consumption centres. For example, maize has to be moved from the farming areas to the
main urban centres where it is consumed. Flowers have to be air-freighted abroad where they
are in demand. Alternative transportation methods have to be considered, for cost efficiency
and adequacy in meeting the consumers' needs.
d. Storage:

Storage is a particularly important function in agricultural marketing. Production of most

agricultural commodities is seasonal in nature. Products have to be stored from the harvesting
season so that they are made available to the consumers as and when they are needed.
In Zambia, storage of maize (the staple food crop) is very prominent and expensive storage

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facilities have been constructed at district centres to ensure adequate supplies of food to the
people throughout the year, especially where harvests are poor. Food Reserve Agency (FRA)
runs the storage facilities.
Milk and other fresh farm produce need storage too.
e. Processing:

Processing is the changing of a product from its raw form to a more acceptable or easily
utilisable form. It is largely a manufacturing activity.
For example, milk is pasteurised, separated, converted into butter, cheese, ghee and ice cream
as well as condensed or powdered milk. Wheat is ground into flour and then manufactured
into bread; animals have to be slaughtered and dressed; cotton has to be ginned and then
woven into cloth and fruits and vegetables have sometimes to be canned for ease of storage
and transportation. Literary all agricultural produce are processed in one way or another.
f. Grading and standardisation:

Grading involves the sorting out of things into uniform lots. Standardisation on the other
hand is the establishment and application of measurements, either of quality or quantity.
Grading and standardisation go hand in hand and are essential to effective marketing. They
facilitate buying and selling, especially the pricing mechanism, and this helps to transmit the
consumers' desires to the producers. For example buyers will pay more for the quality they
desire and producers will be induced to produce more of that quality. In addition,
standardisation facilitates the establishment of criteria for inspection and control to ensure
safety and avoid exploitation of consumers. g.Financing:
The process of procuring the raw product from the supplier and transforming the product to a
commodity ready for consumption takes both time and resources. The time factor implies
that whereas money has to be paid today in the procurement of the raw product, the final sale
of the finished commodity and hence receipt of the returns will take place only at a future
date. Capital is therefore required to finance all the activities from original buying of the raw
product to the final sale of the finished good. Most of the marketing agencies have to borrow
the necessary capital from both public and commercial institutions such as banks. A few are
able to meet all their capital needs. In either case, tying up of capital resources is involved
and there is opportunity cost in financing.
h. Bearing of risk:

Owing to the time lag between the original procurement of the raw product to the final sale
of the finished goods, there is uncertainty regarding the final outcome of the marketing
process. The product may suffer physical damage such as destruction by fire, theft or merely
deterioration in quality. On the other hand, consumers' taste may change or other events may
lead to a decrease in demand for the final product. The marketing agency must accept the risk
involved and be prepared to bear the risk.
i. Collection and analysis of market information:

Efficient marketing depends on the availability of market information to all concerned with
the marketing process. Knowledge of supply and demand conditions of a commodity helps
both sellers and buyers to determine the appropriate price. Such questions as where and when
to buy or sell can only be answered if information on the market conditions and trends is
available. Everyone involved in the marketing process must therefore be involved in the

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 gathering, analysing and interpreting of market information.
8.2.2 EFFECT OF POPULATION ON MARKETING:

Population growth causes an increase in the number of consumers as well as an expansion of the
labour force; the rate of economic growth caused by population growth must exceed the rate of
population growth if output per head (and therefore potential social welfare) is to increase.
8.2.3 AGRICULTURAL MARKETING POLICIES IN AGRICULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT:

Unlike in a state-run economy (see 8.1.5), in a liberalised economy, the economy's decisions of
what, how and for whom to produce are not taken consciously by individual farmers or
consumers - both prices and output levels are determined by the interaction of the free forces of
demand and supply.
Farmers supply produce (input suppliers supply inputs) and services motivated by their desire for
profit and consumers demand those goods and services that will maximise their satisfaction.
Farmers are free to sell within the country or export produce even at the expense of local demand
just like input suppliers and consumers will import commodities (at lower prices) even when the
same are available in the country.
8.2.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LIBERALISING MARKETING OF
PRODUCE AND INPUTS:

Advantages:
i. It is argued that a liberalised marketing system fulfils both the farmer and
consumer's choices of goods and services more accurately by providing goods and
services of high quality at reasonable price;

ii. Competition among farmers (and suppliers of inputs) give rise to large number of
goods and services being offered for sell hence the consumer has greater freedom
of choice;

iii. A liberalised economy responds more quickly to the changing economic

conditions both on the home and foreign market; and

iv. There is a great incentive to bear risks.

Disadvantages:

i. Scarce resources are diverted to the production of luxury goods like flowers just
on the strength that they are very profitable;

ii. Where the country's manufacturing industry is still young, like Zambia, the free
inflow of imports of capital goods from outside the country reduces the
development of local ones;

iii. Because large profitable enterprises are owned by foreigners, profits are usually
externalised and do not benefit the country; and

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iv. Greater freedom of choice entails consumers are free to buy goods and services
anywhere in the world, local goods are often viewed as being of inferior quality.

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8.3COOPERATIVES:

 Describe how cooperatives are organized.

 Explain the common interest of farmers in a cooperative.

A co-operative society is a registered organisation of people who have decided to work together
for mutual economic benefits. A co-operative society may consist of people who want to join
together to do something that they may not be able to do successfully as individuals. These
members of the co-operative must be relatively of the same interest in terms of the type of
enterprises the co-operative would like to pursue.
The main important factors of forming a co-operative society are that (1) it enables the co-
operators to operate at a lower cost by reducing overhead costs and (2) it provides services to
members on sound economic lines. The two factors are achieved in the following ways:
i. Farmers can produce market or consume products at low costs. They can benefit
from the economies of large scale production and spend less money on
commodities because they can be able to buy commodities in bulk as a
cooperative society.

ii. Members of the co-operative society can share overhead costs such as
depreciation of machinery, buildings etc., house rent, permanent labour etc. As a
result of this, a higher net income can be realized by the individual Farmer.

iii. Members of the co-operative society can have access to loan facilities to help
them in their farming activities much more easily: It is possible, for instance for a
co-operative society to secure agricultural inputs on credit and pay for them at the
end of the marketing season. This type of arrangement may not be possible with
an individual farmer.

iv. Members of a co-operative society have better bargaining power for better prices
of their products. This is particularly the case when they want to obtain
agricultural credit, inputs or when they want to purchase capital items such as
tractors which need big capital investment.

v. Members of a co-operative society have easier access to agricultural inputs such

as drugs for livestock, feeds, fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, seeds etc.

vi. To a great extent, co-operative societies can help to eliminate the unnecessary
profits made by middlemen in trade.

vii. Co-operative society members can employ well trained and experienced staff such
as managers, cashiers etc., to do specialised jobs which may not be done by an
individual farmer.

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 viii. Agricultural knowledge or information is easier to disseminate among members of
a co-operative society. This can be information regarding production of crops,
rearing of livestock, marketing of agricultural produce or accounting expertise.

ix. It is easier to transport farm produce to the market as a co-operative than as an

individual farmer.

x. Improved storage and processing is possible with a co-operative society than as an

individual farmer.

8.3.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF COOPERATIVES:

1914 The first cooperative formed by European settler farmers as a means of

marketing agricultural produce to the newly opened copper mines in the Copperbelt of
southern Zaire and northern Zambia.

The earliest cooperatives were largely restricted to the Eastern and
Southern provinces of Zambia
1946  The Farmers Licensing Ordinance Number 30 of 1946 defines a farmer as any
person other than an African or any company or body of persons where the
controlling interest was held by Africans.
1947  The colonial government was forced to recognize cooperatives amongst
indigenous
Africans under a cooperative ordinance
1948  Formation of a government department, the Department of Marketing and
Cooperatives, for the registration and regulation of cooperative enterprises.
1964  Independence

1966  A new act abolishes the colonial definition of a "farmer" and all assets, liabilities
and obligations of the Northern Rhodesia Farmers' Union (NRFU) were
transformed into the Commercial Farmers Bureau of Zambia (CFB).
1973  Formation in of the Zambia Cooperative Federation (ZCF), the cooperative apex
organization, to coordinate the development, representative and business functions
of the cooperative movement.
1979  Established of the Cooperative College through funding from SIDA, situated in
Lusaka and owned by the Government, is the major institution carrying out
cooperative education and training. The only other institution, which is involved
on a much smaller scale, is the government owned President Citizenship College.
The Cooperative College runs residential, correspondence and field training
courses. The training is aimed at educating cooperative members, elected
cooperative leaders, and cooperative staff in the areas of cooperative organization,
leadership and management.

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 1983  The Ministry of Cooperatives was formed and given the responsibility of
cooperative policy formulation. The Ministry included the Department of
Marketing and Cooperatives (DMC) and the Cooperative College, which had been
established with donor funding in the early 1970's.

 Cooperatives were declared a mass movement by Zambia's sole political party, the
United National Independence Party (UNIP). Through this measure, which
included cooperative representation in the highest decision making body of UNIP,
the cooperative movement became affiliated to the party.
1984  The government adopted as a deliberate policy the formation of Provincial
Cooperative Unions (PCUs) in all the nine provinces of Zambia. As a result six
unions were formed in addition to the three already existing. The main function of
the PCUs was agricultural marketing, initially as agents of the National
Agricultural Marketing Board (Namboard).
1988  Government decided, partly as a result of lobbying from the cooperative
movement, that all marketing functions were to be performed by cooperatives
only, while Namboard would be responsible for importation of fertilizer and
maintenance of strategic maize reserves.
1989  Namboard was abolished and all its functions were transferred to the ZCF, which
for some time had been actively advocating this course of action.

 Government decided that District Cooperative Unions (DCUs) should be formed

and within less than a year such unions were established in about half of Zambia's
over 50 districts.
1990 
Government agreed to transfer the Cooperative College to the cooperative movement,
in line with the original intention of the donor.
1991 
Zambia Cooperative College Society Ltd (ZCCS) was established with PCSs,
cooperative unions and national level cooperatives as members
1992 
CFB changed its name to the Zambia National Farmers’ Union (ZNFU).

8.3.2 PRINCIPLES AND MANAGEMENT:

i. Open membership - A co-operative society must be open all. This means that
anyone should be free to join irrespective of religion, race, creed, tribe, sex etc.

ii. Democratic - A co-operative society must be run on democratic basis. The status
of a member in society (for instance a Headmaster or Minister etc.), should be less
important than the co-operative society membership. All members should have
equal say and equal voting rights in the running of the cooperative society. All
decisions must be taken on a democratic majority basis;

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 iii. Shares and dividends - To become a member of the co-operative society, one
must be able to buy shares. Dividends and interest on capital shares must be
calculated proportionately to the shares one has in the cooperative society.

iv. Leaving or joining freely - Members must be able to join or leave the co-
operative society at their own free will.

v. Education - One of the major functions of a co-operative society must be to

educate members. Farmers for example should be taught constantly on how to
keep accounts, records, how to reduce production costs and how to be loyal to
their cooperative society.

8.3.3 FORMATION OF COOPERATIVES:

Formation of Co-operatives:

When farmers in a given area feel the need for forming a co-operative society, they come
together, discuss among themselves and declare their intention to form a co-operative society.
The members draft the co-operative rules or bylaws which specify the objects of the society, how
the society will be run as well as the rights and obligations of the members. At the same time, the
society should elect its officials - Chairman, Secretary, Treasurer and Committee Members who
form the Management Committee. The society would normally also have a paid manager, clerk
or clerks and drivers if the society owns vehicles.
If the number is enough (In Zambia, the minimum number of eligible persons who can form a
co-operative society is ten
(10), the prospective members should then apply for legal registration of the society to the
government (Registrar of Societies). Legal registration of a society gives it a corporate existence
enabling it to own property, invest money, engage in buying and selling and conduct any other
approved activity in its own name.
Types of co-operatives:

Co-operative societies at the local level are known as primary societies and are joined by
individuals with similar interests. Local societies join into district co-operative unions which
further join to form the National Cooperative Federation and later the International Co-operative
Alliance.
Primary co-operatives are mainly for production and marketing and to a very small extent
trading. A primary cooperative that is engaged in all the three functions is called a multi-
purpose co-operative.

Factors necessary for success of Co-operatives:

a. Aims:

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 The aims of the co-operative society must be clearly defined and well understood by all the
members of the cooperative society.
b. Funds:

A co-operative society needs adequate funds for erecting buildings such as offices, stores
etc., as well as for buying agricultural inputs. Furthermore, a co-operative society needs
money for making prompt payment whenever their members take their farm produce for sell.
c. Volume of business

The volume of business should be large enough to enable a co-operative society to benefit
from economies of large scale operations.
d. Entrepreneurial ability

A high level of entrepreneurial ability is necessary for the success of the co-operative society.
The following factors are very important:
i. Management - Insufficient management can lead to a collapse of a co-operative
society.

ii. Honesty - Leaders of a co-operative society must be honest and duty-conscious.

iii. Training - Managers and staff should be exposed to necessary education

especially business education which helps them bookkeeping.

8.3.4 ROLES OF COOPERATIVES IN NATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT:

a.Processing:

All kinds of farm products such as crops or animals can be produced by a co-operative
society. Livestock products such as milk can be processed into cheese or butter. Crops such
as fruits can be processed into juice and marketed by the cooperative society.

Production and processing of produce can be done more efficiently and cheaply when people
work as a group because a co-operative society may be able to afford better processing
equipment than an individual farmer.

b.Marketing:

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 Marketing is sometimes linked with processing of farm products in the same co-operative
society. A co-operative society may open up a shop where it sells the products such as
cheese, butter or fruit juices after processing them.
Co-operative shops help to improve the standard of living for the members as they enable
members buy products at reduced prices. Transport and storage costs are cheaper per article
or unit of weight when large quantities are involved. Some customers too, often prefer to
grade and buy in large quantities. Co-operative marketing is better than bargaining as an
individual.

c. Buying:

Farm inputs such as seeds, sprayers, farm implements, fertilizers etc, cost less if they are
bought in large quantities. A buying co-operative can save its members money by purchasing
these goods in large quantities at discounted prices.
d.Machine sharing:
One of the best ways in which small scale farmers are able to use power machinery on
society would be able to purchase or hire farm machinery which would not be profitable if
used on a single small farm. The fixed costs are spread over several fragmented ‘farms’
which will give a large total form production at low cost.
e.Other Services:
A farmers' co-operative society can provide other services such as improved bulls, artificial
insemination services and other breeding livestock can be owned by a co-operative and used
by all members.
f.Banking:
When farmers put their savings together, the amount of money may become a large sum. Out
of this sum, members are able to borrow money as individuals.
Government and other organisations are more willing to support co-operative banks by
lending them money. In this way, the co-operative banks can then be able to help the
members of the co-operative society as it may be possible for members to obtain larger sums
of money in form of loans.

8.3.5 ROLES OF AGENCIES IN AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVE

DEVELOPMENT:

Some important agencies in Cooperative development are:

a. Ministry of Cooperatives responsible of cooperative policy formulation. The Ministry
includes the Department of Marketing and Cooperatives (DMC) and the Cooperative
College.

b. Zambia Cooperative Federation (ZCF), the cooperative apex organization coordinates

the development, representation and business functions of the cooperative movement.

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ZCF has 15 affiliates. Besides the nine PCUs, one for each province, the following organizations
are affiliates: Credit Union and Savings Association of Zambia (CUSA Zambia), National
Marketers Cooperative Union, Zambia Agricultural Trading Cooperative, Zambia Army Multi-
purpose Cooperative Society, Zambia Farmers Cooperative Society and Zambia National
Farmers Union (ZNFU).

Two specialized national cooperative apex organizations, the Cooperative Bank of Zambia
(COBZ) and the Zambia Cooperative College Society Ltd (ZCCS) are closely related to ZCF but
not formal affiliates.

In addition to being a spokesman for the cooperative movement ZCF serves as a coordinator of
foreign aid and development programs for cooperatives. National level cooperative business
activities are also carried out through ZCF and its subsidiary companies. ZCF Finance Services
(ZCF FS) provides mainly short and medium term agricultural input loans; ZCF Professional
Services (ZCF PS) renders computer, audit and accounting services; the newly established ZCF
Insurance Services (ZCF IS) is already a major actor in the insurance market, and ZCF Properties
administers ZCF's real estate.

ZCF also operates the following autonomous divisions: ZCF Commercial Services for
agricultural inputs and implements, as well as consumer goods; ZCF Transport and Engineering
Division operating a sizeable fleet of trucks for transporting mostly of agricultural commodities;
ZCF Agri-Business Division, currently primarily involved in national maize storage operations;
and ZCF Development Services Division with a focus on the development of PCSs in the rural
areas.

c. Cooperative College is the major institution carrying out cooperative education and
training. The Cooperative College runs residential, correspondence and field training
courses. The training is aimed at educating cooperative members, elected cooperative
leaders, and cooperative staff in the areas of cooperative organization, leadership and
management.

d. Collaboration is an area which the cooperative movement has not yet given sufficient
attention. Such organizations, with which preliminary contacts have been taken, include
the ZNFU, other farmer organizations, the National Confederation of Chambers of
Commerce, the National Federation of Employers, and a number of special interest
NGOs. After areas of mutual interest have been identified, the organizations can be
instrumental in influencing public opinion and in assisting in applying pressure for the
desired change on the government and the political system

e. Financial institutions and donors – External organizations have for many years provided
finance and technical assistance for the implementation of the previous cooperative
policies of government.

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8.4BUDGETING:

 Explain budgeting
 Prepare a budget for an enterprise.
 Prepare a cash flow budget for an enterprise.
8.4.1 A BUDGET:

A budget is an estimate of how much you are going to have to spend, and how much you are
likely to get back, for each farming enterprise.
8.4.2 PREPARING A BUDGET:

To prepare a budget, write down in detail the maximum expected costs and all the minimum
expected returns. It is wise to estimate cautiously to be on the safe side. These two lists can be
put side by side, as in an account sheet.
Examples of budgets are complete, breakeven, partial, capital and cash-flow budgets.
On a farm, a complete budget may take the following form:

Table 8. 1 A example of a complete farm budget

Activity description Item Qty Unit Unit Total

description cost
Estimated Revenue(sales) Milk
Beef
Goats
Maize
Cotton
Total Revenue (sales)
Proposed Expenditure (costs) Bought feed
Bought seed
Fertiliser
Wages
Fuel
Repairs &
maintenance
Total Expenditure (costs)
Projected Net farm income/
revenue (profit)= sales-costs

8.4.3 CASH FLOW BUDGET:

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Cash flow budgets have different names such as cash budgets, cash statements, cash-flow plans,
cash-flow profiles and cash diaries. In a chart form, they are often called cash flow charts or
capital profiles. Cash flows are important in farm planning. The farmer must estimate what the
future costs and income will be month by month for the whole year.
There are two important features to a cash flow: the inflow or receipts and the outflow or costs.
The inflow is the estimated income from the sales of produce on the farm while the outflow are
the breakdown of all planned expenditure, including interest and bank charges and the
purchasing of capital goods.
Cash flows are done for a period of one year where crops are the major enterprise. A longer
period may be better for livestock farms, especially beef cattle ranching.
Importance of cash-flow budgeting:
i. For making out seasonal financial requirements; and
ii. Most financial lending institutions insist on the preparation of cash flow budgets
when requesting for a loan.

Oct No De Jan. Feb Mar. Apr May. Jun Jul. Au Sept.

. v. c. 2005 . 2005 . 2005 . 2005 g. 2005
200 200 200 200 200 200 200
4 4 4 5 5 5 5
Cash
inflows
(receipts)
(+)
Opening
cash
balance
(K696)
Maize 261
480
Tobacco 383
174 17
Groundn 63
uts 90
Orchard 52
52 52
Livestoc 44 17 17
k 11 14 17

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 Total 44 261 0 0 0 452 80
inflows 480 11 240 86 90
Cash
outflows
(expenses)
(-)
Seed 26
Fertilizer 188
Pesticide 7
s
Labour 24 24 24 24 24 24
24 24 24
Capital 44 1832
cost
Personal 94 21 21 21 21 21 21
21 21 35 21 21
Others 7 70 38
35
Total 383 45 45 45 52 1891 115 59
outflows 45 45 56 21
Net cash - +21 -45 +435 -45 -52 -1651 +33 +21
flows 339 6 -34 7 +30 +69
Cumulative +35 +57 +52 +963 +91 +884 +83 -819 - -452 - -362
NCF (+696) 7 3 8 8 2 482 431
Table 8. 2 Example of a cash flow budget for a small arable farm for the financial year
October 2004 to September 2005

8.5 COSTING AND ACCOUNTING:

 Distinguish between direct enterprise costs and overhead costs.

 State factors that determine prices of commodities.
 Calculate gross margins of an enterprise.
 Suggest ways of increasing gross margin of an enterprise.
 Calculate profit of an enterprise.
8.5.1 DIRECT ENTERPRISE COSTS AND OVERHEAD COSTS:

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 a. Direct costs:

They are also called direct enterprise costs, variable costs, operating costs or prime costs.
Direct costs are all the purchases of items used in the process of producing crops and
livestock i.e. they are all those costs that vary in roughly direct proportion to the level of
activity and are specific to a given enterprise.
Examples:
i. Raw materials:

• Seed,
• Fertiliser,
• Chemicals.
• Livestock purchases,
• Stock feed. ii. Contract hire:

• Machinery,
• Transport, • Labour

iii. Costs of using/ running fixed assets:

• Fuel,
• Repair and

maintenance, iv.

Veterinary expenses

and dip fees,

v. Specific casual labour, vi. Regular and

non-specific casual labour, vii. Electricity,

viii. Depreciation of breeding stock and tree

crops, ix. Specific production insurance,

x. Packaging materials, selling costs & levies.

b. Indirect costs:

They apply to the farm as a whole and therefore do not vary according to the number, kind or
size of the enterprises. They are also called common costs, overhead costs or fixed costs.
Examples:
i. Administrative office expenses:

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 •
Accountancy fees,
•
Post, fax and telephones
ii. General overheads:
•
Roads and other rates,
•
Licences,
•
General insurance;
•
Liming.

iii. Costs of owning fixed assets:

•
Depreciation
machines and buildings,
•
Licences and

insurance. iv. Loan

repayments e.g.

mortgage,

v. Interest on existing

loans, vi. Bank charges,

vii. Managerial salaries,

and viii. Rent.

8.5.2 FACTORS THAT DETERMINE COST OF COMMODITIES:

Price is the cost of one unit of a good or service. It is usually expressed in money but not always
- the price of a bride may be 25 herds of cattle.
The selling price of a product is vital in marketing because sales depend on consumers’ attitudes
to the selling price.
The attitudes of consumers are expressed in the demand for the product while the willingness to
sell at any given price is shown by the supply. Price of a product in an open market is therefore
determined by the interaction of the supply and demand. (See 8.1.4 above)
The complexity and importance of deciding the ‘right price' varies with the size of the business
and the product to be sold. This difficult decision is easier for those, like stall-holders, who are
continually facing their customers and can quickly adjust their prices.
Two basic factors affect price of a product are therefore the cost of production and the market
(consumer attitude).
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The most common pricing methods are as follows:

a.The cost-plus profit method:

For example,

Sales forecast: 6, 000 of 50kg bags of maize

Estimated costs: K 120, 000,000
K120, 000,000
Unit cost (cost/ 50kg bag): / 6,000 = K20, 000
Add profit margin: 20 % of K20, 000 = K4, 000
Selling price: K20, 000 + K4, 000 = K24,

000 b.Marginal pricing:

In the last method the estimated costs of K120, 000, 000 covered both variable costs and a share of
common costs, say K20, 000,000. The sale of 833 bags (K20, 000,000/ K24, 000) will cover the common
costs to be met by the contribution from
the crop enterprise.

Since the common costs have already been met, any price over the variable cost of production will
add to profit.

For example,

Variable costs for 6,000 bags: K100, 000,000

100, 000,000
Variable cost/bag: /6,000 = K16, 666.67

Add profit margin: 20%of K16, 666.67 = K3, 333.33

Selling price: K16, 666.67 + K3, 333.33 =

K20, 000 c. Competitive pricing:

Price is fixed after considering the price range among competitors offering the same or substitute
products and after allowing for any difference in quality. If Farmer A is selling maize at K30, 000
and the rest are selling at K25, 000.
Any price below or equal to K30, 000 will attract consumers than one above K30, 000.

d.‘What the market will bear' method:

The product is priced according to assessments of how much consumers would be willing to pay. A
balance must be found between too high a price, which might attract competition, and too low a

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 one to yield inadequate return.

8.5.3 GROSS MARGINS:

A farm is often viewed as groups of independent, productive units called enterprises. Gross
margin (also called gross profit) is the difference between enterprise production and the marginal
cost of that production.
For practical purposes, however, gross margin is taken as the surplus (or deficit) remaining after
variable costs have been deducted from the value of production or gross income.

Gross margin = Gross income - variable costs.

Gross income (total value of production) the value of the produce sold and value of produce
consumed by the farm household or farm labour, less livestock purchases, adjusted for changes
in value of growing crops, livestock and stocks in hand.
8.5.4 INCREASING GROSS MARGINS:

There are two (2) ways of increasing gross margins:

i. Reducing the enterprise variable costs, and/ or ii. Increasing

the level of activity without raising the variable and fixed costs

8.6 FARM VALUATIONS:

o Prepare an opening and closing valuation on a farm.

o Prepare an inventory of assets on the farm.
o Describe the various methods of calculating depreciation of farm machinery.

8.6.1 FARM ASSET INVENTORY:

An inventory is a list of crops, livestock and ‘deadstock'. Deadstock consists of assets other than
growing crops and animals e.g. buildings, machinery, inputs and produce in store.
An inventory involves taking physical measurement and counts of assets.
The procedure of carrying out an inventory involves listing all the assets found on the farm: (1)
Fixed and part fixed capital assets like land, buildings, improvements, plant and machinery; (2)
Purchased stores like seed, feed, fertilisers and chemicals; (3) Harvested produce on hand;
whether for sale or feeding and fodder; and (4) Growing crops and Livestock.
8.6.2 VALUATION:

Valuation or ‘stocktaking’ means costing the identified business assets. It is the process of
estimating the current value of the farm.
Reasons for valuations:

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There are two main reasons for valuations:
i. To find the value of assets for entry in the balance sheet as at the date to which the

accounts are drawn and

ii. To find the value of the stock used during the period concerned.

8.6.3 OPENING AND CLOSING VALUATION:

Considering annual valuations for an ‘on going concern’ (any business that will, and can
financially stay in business) valuation, or `stocktaking' means attaching money value of the
business assets identified when the farm inventory was taken.

The procedure is as follow:

a.Opening valuation:

i. A new farm - The total value of the assets at the beginning of the financial year
is called opening valuation. On a new farm, it entails determining the value all
the assets present and finding their sum as follow:

Table 8. 3 Costing farm assets

Asset
Fixed and part fixed assets
Purchased stores
Harvested produce
Asset
Growing crops and
animals
Breeding stock
Method of valuation
Replacement cost less accumulated
depreciation.
Cost price or net realisable value;
whichever is least.
Cost of production or net realisable value;
whichever is least.
Method of valuation
Cost of production or net realisable value;
whichever is least.
Replacement cost less accumulated
depreciation.

ii. An on-going concern - The opening valuation is the closing value of the

previous financial year. b.Closing Valuation:

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 The closing valuation is carried out at the end of the financial year. The procedure is similar
to that of opening valuation.
An outgoing/ incoming valuation is quite different as it relates to an actual sale/ purchase of
assets - the end of one business and the start of another - and requires professional valuators.
8.6.4 METHODS OF DEPRECIATING MACHINERY:

Depreciation is the loss of market value of an asset over time.

a. Reasons for depreciation:

There are three main reasons for depreciation:

i. Tear and wear due to use ii. Obsolescence - out dated because of change

in technology and consumer taste; and iii. Gradual deterioration with age.

b. Importance of calculating depreciation: It provides funds for the replacement of the

asset.

c. Methods of depreciation:

The main methods used in practice are:

i. The straight line or fixed instalment method:

Depreciation is calculated as the estimated total loss of value of the asset divided by the
estimated useful life on the farm.
Depreciation is written off in equal annual instalments that are included in the profit and loss
account. The estimated residual (salvage or scrap) of the asset is deducted from the original cost
and the balance is divided by its expected life.
Example:
Calculate the depreciation of an asset worth K5, 000, 000 over a period of 5 years if its scrap
value is estimated at K1, 200, 000. Plot a graph of annual depreciation.
Table 8. 4 Straight line depreciation
Year Value of asset Annual depreciation
Fraction
1 1 3,800,000 760,000
/5
2 1 3,800,000 760,000
/5
3 1 3, 800,000 760,000
/5
4 1 3,800,000 760,000
/5
5 1 3,800,000 760,000
/5

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 6 Scrap 1,200,000 1,200,000
Total 5,000,000

ii. The reducing or diminishing balance method:

Depreciation is calculated by writing off a fixed percentage from the falling written down book
value each year; not of the original cost. Annual depreciation falls as the asset ages.
Example:

Calculate the depreciation of an asset worth K5, 000, 000 over a period of 5 years by reducing
or diminishing balance method. Assume the asset depreciates at 5% per annum.

Plot a graph of annual depreciation.

Table 8. 5 reducing or diminishing balance method

Year Value of asset Annual depreciation

Fractio
n
1 5% 5,000,000 250,000
2 5% 4,750,000 237,500
3 5% 4,512,500 225,625
4 5% 4,286,875 214,343
5 5% 4,072,532 203,627
Scrap 3,868,905 -

iii. The sum - of - digits method:

Depreciation is calculated as a fraction that drops each year so that the total depreciation is
covered during the asset’s useful life. The denominator is the sum of the individual years of
expected useful life and the numerator is the years of life still left at the start of the year (table
8c).
Example:
Calculate the depreciation of an asset worth K5, 000, 000 over a period of 10 years by sum of
digit method. Plot a graph of annual depreciation.

Table 8. 6 sum of digit method

Year Value of asset Annual depreciation

Fraction
1 10/55 5,000,000 909,090

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 2 9/55 5,000,000 818181
3 8/55 5,000,000 727,272
4 7/55 5,000,000 636,363
5 6/55 5,000,000 545,454
6 5/55 5,000,000 454,545
7 4/55 5,000,000 363,636
8 3/55 5,000,000 272,727
9 2/55 5,000,000 181,818
10 1/55 5,000,000 90,909
55 1 - 4,999,995

iv. The annuity method:

This is a way of adjusting the straight line method to allow for interest on the reducing balance.
It adjusts the asset value to the time value of money.
v. Use adjusted methods:

This method considers use and not the passage of time. The expected loss of value is divided by
the output that it is a likely to process produce.
Alternatively, the amount written off may be divided by the hour that the machine is likely to
work or if it is a vehicle by its estimated life in kilometres. This method considers tear and wear
only.
vi. Revaluation:

This method requires annual revaluation of all the farm's assets in the light of current conditions.
The difference in value from one year to another would be the value of depreciation.
8.6.5 CALCULATING DEPRECIATION:

i. Calculate the depreciation of asset costing K1, 000,000.00 by straight line and
reducing balance methods.

ii. Plot your answer on two separate graphs.

8.6 INSURANCE:

 Explain the difference between risks and uncertainties.

 State the importance of insurance policies in agriculture.
 Describe various types of insurance in agriculture
8.7.1 RISKS AND UNCERTAINITIES:

There are many variables outside the producer's control which influence agricultural production.

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Because the farmer will not know everything about future events, he/ she is often uncertain of
the outcome, in the future, of his production decisions at the present time. The farmer can only
predict based on his experience and on information available to him about what is most likely to
happen. A farm Manager has to constantly deal with elements of risk and uncertainty.
a.Risk:

Risk is the difference between the expected and actual outcome. A risk is measurable. Risk is
therefore an eventuality to whose occurrence, a probability can be attached. For example if
drought occurs, on average, every two years out of five, the probability of drought occurring
is 2/5.
Example of risks:
i.Weather changes,
ii.Fire,
iii.Theft,
iv.Accidents,
iv. Pests and diseases,

v. Crop yield, and

vii.Health of the farmer and

his/her family.

b.Uncertainties:

An uncertainty is an event whose likelihood of occurrence is neither known by the decision

maker nor any other person. It is a state of imperfect knowledge about future events or
outcomes. Basically, most forms of uncertainty affect yield and price fluctuations.
Examples of uncertainties:

i. Natural Hazards:

This refers to the unpredictable impact on output of weather, pests, and diseases and other natural
calamities. Natural hazards may also be described as yield or output uncertainty. For example,
rains may fail, as happened in 2004/5 growing season, or disease and pest outbreaks may occur.
ii. Market Fluctuations:

This refers to the rise and fall of prices of commodities on the market. The price of a product
may rise when it is in short supply and many producers are attracted to the idea of producing this
commodity. As a result, the supply becomes excessive and the price falls. The problem is more
severe where information is lacking and markets are imperfect. Market fluctuation is also called
Price uncertainty.
iii. Social uncertainty:

Social uncertainty refers to insecurity caused by differences over control of resources that
farmers depend on. This occurs where there is unequal ownership of land especially among
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peasant farmers. A farmer renting land may experience insecurity of tenure. Where a farmer is
leasing land from a landlord, the farmer is never sure whether after he/ she has to put their
money and effort into improving the land, the landlord may cancel the lease and ask the farmer
to leave the land.
iv. State actions and Wars:

The peasant farmer is not only uncertain about the weather, the market and the local behaviour of
the Land lord or money lender. Peasant economy is susceptible to the various decisions by
agencies of the state. A coup, a visit by IMF, globalisation of economies, political party
manifestoes, and warfare all affect agriculture in unpredictable ways.

v. Innovations:

In addition, when a new crop or production technique is being adopted, there is the added
uncertainty associated with incomplete understanding of the crop or technique. Example a farmer
doing mixed farming for the first, if he/she does not have experience on how to manage he can
record a loss.
8.7.2 WAYS IN WHICH FARMERS ADJUST TO UNCERTAINTY:

Some farmers are more willing to take risks than others. Farmers with more resources at their
disposal are more able to bear the risk than those who have very limited resources. Nevertheless,
all producers tend to adjust their production plans to take account of uncertainties and risks. The
adjustments are intended either to reduce the degree of uncertainty, or to increase the farmer
ability to bear risk. The following are the most common measures that farmers may adopt.
Natural hazards:

i. Irrigation:

Irrigation is an answer to rainfall shortage. Note that irrigation serves both to reduce the risk of
drought between one season and the next season due to fluctuations of water supply to plants. In
addition it permits higher productivity and cultivation practices such as multiple cropping.
Irrigation usually takes the form of private investment by individual farmers. Large scale
irrigation schemes involving dams, canals, flood control etc. infrastructural investment may be
carried out by the state.
ii. Agriculture Insurance:

This is the sector that helps to assist the farmers who are the members to the insurance company
on the impact of natural hazards occurring in agriculture. It is a requirement in Zambia that
farmers, who are advanced in cash for the production eg: maize and wheat under the seasonal
credit system, also insure their crops. Premium is collected from members and paid only to the
risk bearers
iii. Resistant Varieties and breeds:

Coming up with new varieties and breeds in plant breeding and selection helps to come up
withcrop and animals resistant to pests,diseases, drought and therefore stability of yields.
iv. Diversification:

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Diversification is having more than one enterprise within the same farm for example rearing
livestock alongside crops one product would achieve maximum profits, uncertainty will
influencethe farmer to engage in the production of several products.
Incase a disease wipe one enterprise, or the price of one product fall to an unprofitable
level, the farmer will not suffer total loss, since the other products will bring him/ her
some revenue.
Enterprises selected for diversification should not be influenced in the same manner by the same
factors, nor should their prices rise and fall together. For example, grains and legumes as well as
crop and livestock enterprises should be good combinations for diversification, rather than a
grain and another grain.
v. Input rationing

The farmer applies less than the optimum quantity of input, so that should unfavourable
production conditions lower yield, or prices become reduced, the loss the farmer suffers is less
than the maximum he/ she could have suffered.
For example, if 10 units of a compound fertiliser are the most profitable application in potato
production, the farmer may only apply eight units. If conditions are favourable, he/she will forgo
the additional output the ninth and tenth units would have brought. But should conditions be
unfavourable, his/ her loss will be the cost of eight units instead of ten.
vi. Flexibility in production methods:

This involves selecting less than optimum production methods which will make it possible to
switch from one product to another should production or market conditions dictate a change.
For example, livestock buildings would be such that, with minor modifications, they could be
used for pigs, dairy cattle or poultry. Similarly, a farmer with dual purpose cattle can emphasise
either dairying or beef production, depending upon which production conditions favour him/her.
A wheat farmer may decide to hire a combine rather that buy his own, so that when wheat is no
longer profitable, he may shift to maize production without incurring losses on fixed costs of
machinery.
In general, annual crops are more flexible than either perennial crops or livestock enterprises.
vii. Selecting more certain enterprise:

The farmer selects an enterprise which is more certain to yield a return than a more profitable
one. For example, a poultry enterprise may be more profitable than a dairy enterprise, but it is
more likely for poultry to be wiped out by disease than dairy cattle. Hence the farmer may select
the more reliable dairy enterprise and forego the high profits of poultry production. This again
involves opportunity cost.
Market Stability:

i. Price stabilisation:

It takes many forms that contributes to price stabilization such as state intervention, from issuing
minimum floor prices for key strategic staple food crops to fixed producer prices across a wide
range of crops.

ii. Information:

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Where risk occurrence is attributed to inadequate information (about new seed, prices, use of
inputs etc.) the information provision is a useful component of a risk reduction policy.
Transmission of information to peasant farmers may take the form of extension work, farmer
training and visitation programs, radio, bulk leaflets, and Agricultural science teachers in
schools.
iii. Credit Subsidies:

Where risk aversion is related to disaster avoidance and when the farmer fails to adopt higher
productive technologies like use of new seed varieties and other inputs that go with them e.g.
fertiliser and pesticides because of the same, easier credit is seen as a means of overcoming the
barrier.
Social and State Hazards:

There are no single policy solutions but rather a matter of politics.

8.7.3 TYPES OF INSURANCE POLICIES IN AGRICULTURE:

The development of the Agricultural sector to attain self-sufficiency and exportable surplus in all
areas has necessitated large capital investment, both short and medium term, making insurance
an important consideration for farmers at all levels. While the details of the policies offered by
different insurance companies may differ, there are two types of insurance: crop and livestock
insurance. (Note that the outline given below is typical for Zambia State Insurance Company
only, other companies may have different packages under the same headings.)
8.7.3.1Crop Insurance:

The basic protection available covers loss or damage due to fire and lightening and is suitable for
both irrigated and rain-fed crops
The following crops are insurable against the exposure to fire and lightening: Maize, Wheat,
Sunflower, cotton Groundnuts, Soya beans, Barley, Sorghum, Sugar cane and Tobacco (from
harvest to auction).
The basis of cover relates to the expected yield. Cover in respect of perennial crops such as
coffee and tea is also available on request.
8.7.3.2Livestock Insurance:

This covers a range of animals and birds under All Risks Mortality (A. R. M):
a. Beef and dairy herds - The three levels of cover cater for the dependence which a farmer
requires and can afford, and cover death of the insured animal(s) resulting from accident,
illness and disease or epidemics and emergency slaughter of the insured animal on the
advice of the qualified veterinary surgeon.

i. Single Animal Cover - Designed to cover the high valued breeding animals
especially bulls. Imported animals are restricted to accidental death only for the
first three months.

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 ii. Scaled Indemnity Cover - It is designed for small to medium sized herds of 8 to 60
animals, especially dairy stock. As the title suggests indemnity increases are
dependent on the number of animals lost.

iii. Large Herd Catastrophe Cover - It is suitable for large herds of over 100 animals.
Cover is in respect of major tosses e.g. Epidemics able to endanger farm success.
Extension can be made to cover theft, calving and transit risks.

N.B. In all forms of cover, calves under 6 months and animals of over 10 years
are not insured.
b. Game ranching - The cover under All Risks Mortality can also be used for game animals
in respect of the original wild stock and those bred in captivity.
c. Ostrich farming - The same cover is available for ostriches whether original wild stock or
bred in captivity. Cover can also be provided for poultry, pigs, horses, dogs and sheep.

d. Lima ox - Where commercial Banks provided loans for purchase of oxen, cover under All
Risks Mortality (A.R.M) can be arranged during the loan repayment period. In respect of
the above scheme claim settlements are made to the bank.

e. Aquaculture - Fish farming is now a major new Agriculture Development and cover can
be arranged to meet the individual requirements of each operation.

f. Farm pack - This package Cover provides for the major types of risks that a farmer needs
to consider protecting assets and liabilities. With one Proposal, one Renewal and one
Premium, Administration costs are reduced enabling the Insurance Company to give
discounted rates, dependent on the number of sections effected. A unique concept under
the fire and exposure Cover is deletion of the condition of average. The proposer (farmer)
decides the value of building and in the event of damage the claim settlement will be the
percentage loss against the sum insured.

The following covers are contained in the Farm Pack:

•
Fire and Perils

•
House owners

•
Householders

•
Employers Liability

•
Public Liability

•
Cash In Transit

•
Livestock

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 •
Farm workers Personal accidents

•
Cold Rooms

•
Plant all Risks

•
Motor vehicles

•
Goods in Transit

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
Economic Importance of livestock
State the economic importance of the types of livestock
• Source of manure
• Oxen are a source of farm
• Source of foreign income.
• Source of income
• Provide employment to the farmers.
• Source of milk.
• Provides hides.
• Improves the standards of living.
• Source of meat.
• Source of proteins.
• Poultry provide eggs

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.Anatomy and physiology of livestock
 Explain digestion in a ruminant, non-ruminant and bird.
 Describe the structural function of the circulatory system of animals.
 Describe the storage of energy in animal bodies.
 Explain the energy release and utilization in the body of animals.
 Identify breeding cycles of various farm animals.
 Describe the characteristics of breeds of farm animals studied.
 Explain the criteria used for selecting breeding animals.
 Explain the importance of cross breeding and in-breeding in livestock production.
 Describe the process of artificial insemination.
 State the advantages and disadvantages of Artificial Insemination in livestock production.
 Describe development of the foetus.
 Describe the structure and functions of mammary glands.
 Explain the process of milk let-down and milk hold-up in lactating animals
Health in livestock
 Identify signs of good and poor health in livestock.
 Describe the nutritive value of livestock feed.
 Determine the presence of various types of nutrients in animal feeds.
Nutritional deficiencies
 Identify symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in livestock studied.
 Identify suitable species of pasture for livestock production in Zambia.
 State sustainable utilization of pastures and the consequences of overgrazing.
Livestock feed
 Describe the nutritive value of the livestock feed for the animals studied
Pests of livestock
 Explain the effects of pests on livestock.
 Describe the life cycles of ecto-parasite and endoparasite of farm animals
 Investigate methods of preventing and controlling pests of farm animals studied
Diseases
 Identify methods of preventing and controlling diseases of animals.
Housing and Marketing
 Explain the suitability and maintenance of various types of livestock housing.
 Describe the preparation of livestock and livestock products for marketing.
 Identify organizations in Zambia that process and market livestock products

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Bee farming
 Describe common methods of bee farming.
 Construct a framed bee hive.
 Establish and manage an apiary.
 State methods of harvesting honey.
 Process and grade honey and honey products for marketing
Types of fish in Zambia
 Identify common types of fish found in Zambia.
 Describe the foodstuffs for fish.
Methods of fish farming in Zambia
 Identify common methods of fish farming in Zambia.
 State advantages and disadvantages of integrated fish farming
Fish pond
 Establish and manage fish pond.
 Describe different ways of harvesting fish.
Fish Marketing
 Prepare and market fish.

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