GPCOM REVIEWER 2ND TERM THREE CONCENTRIC CIRCLES

VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN 1. English as a Foreign Language

AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE
2. English as a Second Language
Varieties of English
3. English as Native Language
Localized varieties of English as they are
used or spoken in certain areas.
An Indian Linguist Braj Kachru
introduces World Englishes (WE)

 English as an International
(auxiliary) language
 Global English (es)
 International English(es)
 A wide range of differing
approaches to the description and
analysis of English (es) worldwide WORLD ENGLISHES
 Localized varieties of English
 New Varieties of English  symbolizes the functional and
 Non-native varieties of English formal variation in the language,
and its international acculturation

 The language now belongs to those

NEW ENGLISHES
who use it as their first language,
CARIBBEAN Nigeria and to those who use it as an
EAST AFRICAN additional language, whether in its
WEST AFRICAN Kenya standard form or in its localized
forms (Kachru and Smith, 1985:
Hong Kong English, 210)
Indian English,
ASIAN ENGLISHES Malaysian English,
Singaporean English,
and Philippine
English.

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  BASILECTAL
FIVE STAGES IN THE LIFE CYCLE OF NEW
the speaker's ethnic tongue forms
VARIETIES OF ENGLISH (RODNET MOAG)
the substratum
1. TRANSPORTATION
Structural variation is Influenced
 The language is brought to a new by the local languages.
environment aiming to take a – Grammar
more permanent root – Phonology
2. INDIGENIZATION – Lexicon
– Syntax
 The new variety of English – Discourse
becomes distinct from the present
language and the indigenized Phonological features
varieties as well. This results in • Word stress and rhythm
lexical borrowing of sentence • Syllable timed vs. stress-timed
structures from the local language. – economy
3. EXPANSION IN USE OF FUNCTION – development
– success
 Allows the use of English in new – origin
domains – recognize
– organize
4. INSTITUTIONALIZATION
 Stress is not utilized to
 Sees the further growth of the distinguish between nouns and
transplanted language by its use in verbs.
creative writing by local writers
– import import
5. RESTRICTION
– record record
 May or may not occur. Should it
– rebel rebel
occur a vernacular language poses
a challenge and the national – address address
language gradually takes control of
the former domains of English – content content
until fewer people speak it For
SMU use only.
 Voiceless plosives such as p, t, and k
SOCIOLECTAL VARIETIES (EDULECTS) are not aspirated in the initial position.
 ACROLECTAL – paper
broadcasters approximate General
American English – tank
– kite
 MESOLECTAL
used by professionals, marked by • Perceived as b, d, g by the Inner Circle
phonological deviations from GAE,
countries
but accepted by educated Filipinos

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• Stress is not used for focusing. – seat sit
– Cleft sentence pattern – feat fit
John did it. – beat bit
It was John who did it. (NE) [cleft sentence] – sheep ship
– fool full
– Emphatic particle ‘only’ – pool pull
John only did it. (IE)
ACTIVITY ON PHONOLOGICAL FEATURE
OF PHILIPPINE ENGLISH
Spelling pronunciation exists.
– plumber
Recall: Identify the phonological feature
– bomber
that is
– climbing
exemplified in each of the following:
– combing
1. We are taking Purposive
Communication this

The Fricatives ƒ ν θ δ š ž s z are often SEmester. SYLLABLE-TIMED

replaced by other sounds. 2. We would like to exten our deepes

gratitude for all your support.
– flower phlower SIMPLIFICATION OF CONSONANT
– vet bet CLUSTERS

– teeth teet 3 Rich out wid joy. SOUNDS NOT

DISTINGUESHED
– those dose
4. Place the cups in the cupboard.
– shell sell SPELLING PRONOUNCIATION
– zipper sipper 5. It was my mother who went abroad.
Consonant clusters are simplified. THE USE OF CLEFTING TO EMPHASIZE
– Left lef
– Exist exis GRAMMAR FEATURES
– sport sәport • Verbs
– school iskul • Verbs are not inflected for tense
– Start istart – I talk to her yesterday. (East and
• I and i and U and u are not Southeast Asian)
distinguished.

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– I have written to him yesterday. (African – You didn’t want to come, isn’t it? (a
and straightforward question requiring yes-
no answer)
Asian)
• PREPOSITIONS
– Last time working in Golden Mile.
(formerly) • There is difficulty in the use of
prepositions across varieties.
• I used to work in Golden Mile.
– Call some students to answer. (PhE)
Verbs
–What could have happened with him?
• The sequence-of-tense phenomenon
(PhE)
is almost always absent
– To combat against proverty (PE)
• Her fiancé at the time brought over
some – N. Korea, Sri Lanka to Discuss about
Reopening the
canned ribs, pork ribs, yes, about… twenty
Mission.
eight (of) cans of them. And then we
return Lexical features
about fourteen of them…he came over • Singapore English
with (a)…basket of fruits which we retain
– actsy means to show off
half and return the other…
– missy means nurse
– chop means a rubber stamp
GRAMMAR
– Marina kids are term for youngsters
• Question-answering system
who spend their leisure time around
• The positive-negative system is followed Marina square
vs. agreement-disagreement for IC.
–graduate mothers refers to well-
– Did you not go to the library? educated married women
• No (confirming) Lexical features
• Yes (disconfirming) • Malaysian English
• For agreement-disagreement system, – antilog a male hated by a girl
confirmation is always positive while – popcorn a loquacious person
disconfirmation is negative. – Kachang means easy
• Tag questions – slambar is to relax
• A general tag, is it, isn’t it or no, is often – Red spot, open shelf means girls who
used universally. are popular and those who are not
– You are not going home, is it? (for – day bugs are those who come to attend
confirmation or agreement) school but do not live in residence halls

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PHILIPPINE LEXICONS IN THE ENGLISH field, mode and manner of
OXFORD DICTIONARY discourse
 Balikbayan Box • associated with the organization of
 Sari-Sari Store situation
 Halo-Halo
 Kikay Kit
 Pulutan 1) Your silence is required.
 Pasaubong
 Pandesal 2) Quiet, please.
 Dirty Kitchen 3) Would you be kind enough to tone
 Karinderya down your voice?
 Turon 4) Do shut up.
 Dirty Ice cream
 Bagoong(alamang) 5) Drop dead!

Some implications • Field-Mode-Tenor framework is

• To avoid misunderstanding
• To avoid communication breakdown
• To overcome language barriers
• To enhance personal and social
interaction
LANGUAGE REGISTERS OR REGISTERS
OF ENGLISH
Register
• “A variety of language defined
according to its use in social
situations e.g. Register of scientific,
religious, formal English.” (Crystal,
2008, p. 409)
• Refers to a kind of language whose
forms are of a definable social
situation, regardless of the status
of the participants
important
STYLE
• Within the Hallidayan paradigm,
style refers to the degree of
formality attached to a particular
interpersonal social situation
which is reflected by differences in
language. i.e.
Slang: It’s ok, dudettes!
Informal: It’s ok, gals!
In-between/Neutral: It’s alright, friends!
Formal: It’s acceptable, ladies!
Stuffy/Verbose: It’s within tolerable
parameters, my dear female comrades!
Register: FIELD
• social setting and the
communicative purpose in which
the text is produced

– Legal language, liturgical language, • the subject of conversation or

scientific language discourse matters

• According to Hallidayan linguistics, priests – liturgical language

register is classified according to lawyers – legalese language

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 reporters – journalese language
teachers – academic language
Register: MODE
• medium of communication matters
• spoken or written
• can be explained in light of the
knowledge of other texts required
of speakers/listeners and
writers/readers as regards the
genre including the formal text
features
Five Language Registers
1. Static language
The style of communication rarely or
never changes.
It is frozen in time and content.
Examples: Preamble; the Lord’s Prayer,
biblical quotes, wedding vows, SMU
hymn, national anthem
2. Formal register
• This language is used in formal
settings and is one-way in nature.
• This use of language usually
follows a commonly accepted
format.
• It is usually impersonal and
formal.
Examples: sermons, rhetorical statements
and questions, speeches, pronouncements
made by judges, announcements
3. Consultative register
This is a standard form of
communications also called consultative-
professional register. Users engage in a
mutually accepted structure of
communications. It is formal and societal
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expectations accompany the users of this
speech.
Examples: when strangers meet,
communications between a superior and
a subordinate, doctor & patient, lawyer &
client, lawyer & judge, teacher & student,
counselor & client
4. Casual register
This is informal language used by peers
and friends.
Slang, vulgarities and colloquialisms are
normal. This is “group” language.
One must be a member to engage in this
register.
Examples: buddies, teammates, chats and
emails, and blogs, and letters to friends
5. Intimate register
• This communication is private.
• It is reserved for close family
members or intimate people.
• Examples: husband & wife,
boyfriend & girlfriend, siblings,
parent & children
In a nutshell...
• Language register refers to the
formality of language which one
speaks.
• Different registers are used in different
situations.
• Through register, one can determine the
kind of lexicon or vocabulary and
structure to use.
Legalese language
• Characterized by archaic
expressions, technical jargon
 • thereby, hereby, in loco parentis
(assumption of parental rights),
jurisprudence, habeas corpus,
caveat emptor (let the buyer
beware) and many others.
• Embedded structures
Example of embedded language in a DEED
OF DONATION:
That FOR AND IN CONSIDERATION of the
DONEE'S trust, devotion
and affection shown to the DONOR, and as
an act of gratitude and liberality on his
part, the DONOR hereby voluntarily GIVES,
TRANSFERS, and CONVEYS by way of
donation, unto the said DONEE, his heirs
and assigns, the above described property,
together with all the improvements found
thereon, free from all liens and
encumbrances.
• Nominalizations
i.e. interference is the nominal form of the
verb interfere; while declaration is the
nominal form of the verb declare
• Passive voice
i.e. The sentence, “The court held Juan
dela Cruz guilty of treason” is in active
voice, while “It was held that Juan dela
Cruz was guilty of treason by this court”
follows the passive voice.
• Long, kilometric sentences
Textese Language
• use of abbreviations
• acronyms
• slang words and expressions
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• Probable results: misinterpretation,
miscommunication most especially when
vocabulary and knowledge of context are
limited
CAUSES OF MISUNDERSTANDING IN
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Ambiguity
• Lack of explicitness on the part of
the speaker in the form of
problematic reference and
ambiguous semantics in which an
utterance is open to different
interpretations.
• Example: Japanese employees
rarely speak their minds while
Americans are loud and bossy,
hence silence may be interpreted
in various forms.
• “We saw her duck.”
Performance-related
misunderstanding
• Slips of tongue and mishearing
which may be due to utterance
spoken quickly and unclearly
• Example: British vs Philippine
accent
Language-related misunderstanding
• Ungrammaticality of sentences
-i.e. problematic pronoun reference:
The young child said that the pretty
woman hurt herself.
- Missing punctuation or pause marks.
Let’s eat grandma! Vs Let’s eat, grandma!
I like cooking my family and friends.
Gaps in world knowledge
• Gaps in content rather than
language
An example of a knowledge gap can be
observed in the communication skills of
educated and non-educated individuals.
Local Context
• Turns and the turns within
sequences produced by the
participants themselves, and the
orientation of the participants as
well as the repair moves that
follow the displayed
understanding.
• “Oh! It’s fine.”
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON DEFINITIVE
FEATURES OF PHILIPPINE ENGLISH
Philippine English is a highly intelligible
and acceptable language, its vocabulary is
dynamically expanding, and its rules and
conventions in grammar, style, and usage
is flexible and eclectic.
IMPORTANT POINTS TO CONSIDER IN
FURTHER UNDERSTANDING THE
ATTRIBUTES OF PHILIPPINE ENGLISH
1. Lexicon refers to the vocabulary of a
person, language or subject. It comes from
the Greek word “lexikon” meaning “word”.
Aside from preference of specific words
such as shall, could, such, wherein, and of,
and collocations (the combination of two or
more linguistic elements, i.e. “make do”,
“speed up”), Filipino speakers of English
also favor the use of words such as actually,
already, bottomless (instead of refillable),
and the collocated phrase, in fairness.
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1. The most common types of collocation
are: a. adverb + adjective: completely
satisfied (NOT wholly satisfied) b. adjective
+ noun: excruciating pain (NOT
excruciating joy) c. noun + noun: a surge of
anger (NOT a load of anger) d. noun + verb:
lions roar (NOT lions shout) e. verb+ noun:
commit suicide (NOT undertake suicide) f.
verb + preposition with expression: burst
into tears (NOT blow up into tears) g. verb
+ adverb: wave frantically (NOT wave
feverishly)
2. As forwarded by Bautista (2000),
unusual words and collocations, specific
terms, and word combinations are also
evident. These may have been originally
confused with other collocations but
because of frequent use, they have become
fixed combinations in their own right.
Examples are results to (instead of results
in), based from (instead of based on), fill up
(instead of fill out), cope up (instead of cope
with), sick with (instead of sick of) and
studied under (instead of studied with).
3. Moreover, there is also the use of
unusual prepositional usage, including
omission of preposition in two-word verbs,
addition of prepositions to verb phrases
and the local use of different preposition in
noun phrases following certain verbs or
adjectives.
 For example:
it’s for free – instead of it’s free
failed in – instead of failed taking up –
instead of taking/studying
remains to be – instead of remains
demand for – instead of demand
a example – instead of for example
As regards syntactic features:
1. Word-order features, consisting of the
placement of the adverb of time before the
place adverb. However, Standard American
English and British English typically follows
the order; adverb of manner + adverb of
place+ adverb of time. For example:
Philippine English (P.E.): No child should
grow in the 21st century in the Philippines in
poverty.
Standard American English (SAE) of
British English (BE): No child should grow
in poverty in the Philippines in the 21st
century.
2. Philippine English also features the
placement of the adverb between noun and
prepositional phrase. For example:
P. E: I buy my shoes always at Robinson’s
Galleria. S. A. E. : I always buy my shoes at
Robinson’s Galleria.
3. Placement of the indirect object
introduced by to between verb and direct
object:
P. E.: Mary gave to her sister a sincere
advice.
S. A. E. : Mary gave her sister a sincere
advice.
4. Absence of definite article:
P. E.: University of the Philippines is a
premiere academic institution instead of
The University of the Philippines is a
premiere academic institution.
5. Use of definite article:
P. E. : She is studying at the Saint Mary’s
University instead of She is studying at Saint
Mary’s University.
EXPLORING COMMUNICATION
SITUATIONS REFLECTING DIFFERENT
CULTURES
What often causes miscommunication in
oral communication?
•pronunciation
•Why do cultures have different ways of
pronouncing words according to Kachru?
•Differences in phonology
•What is the result of these differences?
•Grammatical consequences affecting
comprehension
Language barrier:
What do you mean?
•Hit it!
•Heat it!
•She asks.
• She ass
•Syllable-timed –pronouncing words as
they are written or spelled out
•stress-timed -blending syllables/ making
the syllables short by dropping some
sounds
1.American English:Gotcha
Philippine English: Got you!
2. American English: Whatchesay?
Philippine English: What did she say?
3. American English: Wherdyugo?
Philippine English:Where did you go?

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4. American English: Jahitit?
Philippine English: Did you hit it?
5.American English: Can I getcheadrink?
Philippine English: Can I get you a drink?

Cultural practices:
customshttps://matadornetwork.com/re
ad/10-interesting-customs-around-
world/
•Switzerland“honesty shopping”
•Colombia“tranquilo” (It’s not important,
don’t worry, chill out)
•Turkey“heart-warming hospitality”
•Korea“Not tipping” ( a sign of insult;
they are given fair wages and they take
pride in their work)
•China“Noodle slurping” (makes the food
enjoyable, that you like it)
Germany“Crossing the street” (wait for
the traffic lights)
•Vietnam“traffic never stops for
pedestrians”
•Iceland“Christmas eve book giving”

CUSTOMS FROM DINNER TABLES

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 EYE CONTACT

AMERICA Direct eye contact

between
interlocutors
WESTERN Sign of honesty, intelligence,
CULTURES sincerity,
trust
GHANA, Direct eye contact from a
GUINEA, child to an
PHILIPPINES adult is an act of defiance,
disrespect
BANGLADESH Respect to
a person with a higher status
is shown by keeping eyes to
the ground
and speaking only when
spoken to
JAPAN Speakers
look at the listener’s neck or
elsewhere

WINKING

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 Hong Kong, Tunisia Impolite
and Bangladesh
SIGNS OF APPROVAL
Nepal, Paraguay, Vulgar to wink at the
Australia opposite sex Zimbabwe Hand clapping to
Nigeria Tells the children to show thanks or
leave the room positive feeling
U.S.A “We are having fun, Greece Shaking the head
aren’t we” from side to aide
“The person over Lebanon, Iran Downward
there is ridiculous, nodding
doon’t you think?” Honduras Clasping both
“we have a secret hands
between us” “ I like Tonga Raising eyebrows
you” “I want to get (agreement or
sexually close to you liking)
Italy Cheek screw
(gesture of praise
or happiness)
Kissing of one’s
own finger tips
LIKE REACTION
(happiness,
North American Strong Approval of approval)
Culture goodness
France Approval
Latin American Approval
Countries
Bangladesh Rejection
Kenya Double thumbs up
- approval

Greece, Iran, Slight upward nod

Italy
SIGNS OF DISAPPROVAL
Bulgaria Nod up and down

Lebanon Upward
movement of the
head of raised
eyebrows and
sometimes
accompanied
by a clicking of the
tongue; shaking
the
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index finger from
side to side
 10 ways in which speakers of emerging
varieties of English all over the world
shape the vocabulary of the language,
illustrated by entries from the Oxford
English Dictionary (OED).
1. By adding affixes
presidentiable, noun
-Formed by the addition of the –able
suffix to the noun president, this word is
OTHER GESTURES used in Philippine English to denote a
person who is a likely or confirmed
Latin Countries Don’t throw things
candidate for president.
to someone,
2. By combining English Words to
always
create compounds
hand them to
batchmate, noun
someone
-This combination of the English words
Quebec Burping is
batch and mate is first attested in a 1918
uncouth (rude);
article from a Jamaican newspaper, but it
thumbs
is now more commonly used in Philippine
down
and Indian English. The word refers to a
gesture offensive
classmate or a member of the same
Switzerland, Talking with your
graduation class as another.
Russia, hands in your
3. By combining two words from
Austria, pocket
different languages to create hybrid
Germany, with people is
compounds
Finland, Wales, obnoxious
balikbayan box, noun
France, (annoying,
-In Philippine English, a balikbayan is a
Guatemala disgusting)
term borrowed from Tagalog that means
For
a Filipino visiting or returning to the
Africa Spitting is
Philippines after a period of living in
inappropriate
another country. It is combined with the
Senegal, Belguim, No scratching in English word box to form the hybrid
Wales, France public compound balikbayan box, which is a
U.S Scratching is carton shipped or brought to the
allowed expect in Philippines from another country by a
formal settings Filipino who has been living overseas,
10 WAYS SPEAKER OF WORLD typically containing items such as food,
ENGLISH ARE CHANGING THE clothing, toys, and household products.
LANGUAGE 4. By shortening words
Note: India, Hong Kong, and the mani-pedi, noun
Philippines, where English is primarily -This abbreviated term for a beauty
used as a second or even third language treatment comprising both a manicure
alongside local vernaculars, borrowing and a pedicure has been traced back to a
remains the biggest source of new words. 1972 Philippine publication, but is now
used all over the English-speaking world.

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5. By making up an initialism
KKB, interjection and adjective
-This Philippine English initialism stands
for the Tagalog phrase ‘Kaniya-kaniyang
bayad’, which literally translates to ‘each
one pays their own’. It is used as an
interjection or adjective to indicate that
the cost of a meal is to be shared.
6. By making an analogy with another
English word
carcade, noun
-This is an Indian English word meaning a
procession, parade, or convoy of cars,
typically one escorting a prominent
person. The word is formed with the –
cade suffix as an analogy with the English
word motorcade, which itself was
modeled after the much older word
cavalcade.
7. By translating a word or expression
from a local language
go down, verb
-In Tagalog, the word bumaba means to
go down or descend, but also to alight. For
this reason, Filipinos tend to use the
English phrasal verb to go down also in
the sense of alighting from a vehicle, or
getting off a bus, train, etc., especially at a
specified stop.
8. By continuing to use words that have
fallen out of use in standard British or
American English
comfort room, noun
-This expression began life in the United
States in the late 19th century, where it
was originally used to refer to a room in a
public building or workplace furnished
with amenities such as facilities for
resting, personal hygiene, and storage of
personal items. It is now rarely heard in
America, but it is still in widespread use
in the Philippines, where it is the most
common term for a public toilet,
equivalent to the words restroom and loo.
9. By changing a proper noun to a
common noun
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Suzie Wong, noun
-Suzie Wong was the name of the leading
character in the novel The World of Suzie
Wong, a 1957 novel by R. L. Mason. The
name has since become Hong Kong slang
for a woman who consorts with visiting
servicemen.
10. By changing the meanings of words
gimmick, noun
A gimmick is usually a clever trick or
publicity stunt, but in the Philippines, it
means a fun night out with friends.
10 MOST INTERESTING CUSTOMS
AROUND THE WORLD
1. Switzerland- Honesty Shopping
 Tiny little shops in the middle of the
Swiss Alps share the idealism of this
society in the form of honesty shops.
These are little shops that allow you to
buy your fresh cheese, milk, bread,
honey, and butter without anyone
there to watch you indulge in the
delicious dairy products of the area. In
fact, most of the day, no one watches
these shops because they are owned by
farmers who are out taking care of the
animals, so all you do is leave your
money behind in a little basket. And
what’s amazing is that this form of
consumer trust results in incredible
customer loyalty and honesty among
the communities.
2. Colombia – “Tranquilo”
 The flights will likely be canceled, the
buses won’t run on a schedule or
sometimes at all, and you’ll probably
show up to school as a teacher and
there won’t be any class — for two
weeks. No importa. Tranquilo. It’s not
 important, don’t worry, chill-out. This
prevailing attitude in Colombia creates
a constant air of tranquility because
everything will work out, especially
with the overwhelming kindness of
every Colombian who will go out of
their way to help you when you’ve
missed a bus, don’t have a plane, or
need something to do when you have
no work for two weeks. And I’m
convinced this tranquilo lifestyle is
why all Colombian maintain the look of
eternal youth.
3. Turkey- Heart-warming hospitality
 The idea of hitchhiking made me
nervous but with my only ticket out of
Istanbul, 900 km away, and no working
forms of currency, I stuck out my
thumb. I was overwhelmed by Turkish
hospitality, I was always welcomed to
the homes of those who gave me rides,
be it to share giant meals of kebab or
be given a place to stay; and I could
never part ways without sharing the
richest Turkish coffee.If we happened
to end up at a restaurant, my hosts
always picked up the tab. Maybe it was
the luck of arrival during Ramadan, but
Turkish hospitality needs to be
adopted worldwide.
4. South Korea – Not Tipping
 For someone who was raised in the
United States and has worked in the
food service industry throughout
university, tipping is in my blood. I
want to tip everyone as a way of
showing my gratitude for their service,
and solidarity with them in their work.
But no sooner did I attempt to display
my gratitude in a charming cafe in
Seoul, then my tip was snatched
quickly by my host with a sharp glare.
In South Korea along with many other
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countries, employees in the food
service industry are given fair wages
and take pride in their work, and it is
insulting to attempt to tip them. A habit
and concept maybe the world would do
well to consider.
5. Colombia - Tinto Time
 For someone who was raised in the
United States and has worked in the
food service industry throughout
university, tipping is in my blood. I
want to tip everyone as a way of
showing my gratitude for their service,
and solidarity with them in their work.
But no sooner did I attempt to display
my gratitude in a charming cafe in
Seoul, then my tip was snatched
quickly by my host with a sharp glare.
In South Korea along with many other
countries, employees in the food
service industry are given fair wages
and take pride in their work, and it is
insulting to attempt to tip them. A habit
and concept maybe the world would do
well to consider.
6. China – Noodle Slurping
 After a long train ride, we were
starving and were drawn to a ramen
restaurant by its alluring aroma and
the promise of warmth. But as soon as
we entered, we were hit by the sound
of slurping. For such a polite Asian
culture, this seemed out of place and
rude. Clearly, this was a custom I had
yet to understand, but as soon as my
host explained it, I was excited to
partake. The slurping makes the food
more enjoyable, the meal more comical
and tells your host you loved it. The
world would enjoy meals more if we
allowed ourselves the polite Chinese
custom of slurping (and the childlike
delight of noisy, interactive eating).
7. Japan – Pushers on the Subway too much into a “fitbit”? Iceland has
solved this problem with the Christmas
 The Japanese subways are pristine
Eve tradition of giving a book. After
and quiet enough that I’ve heard
everyone unwraps the books, they
many pins drop, except when there
spend the evening reading together.
are tourists aboard and you can
Iceland has preserved the culture of
hear them from two train cars
books in this beautiful Christmas
away. But just like any other metro
custom which many countries would
system, Japan’s subway is crowded
do well to emulate!
during rush hours. But instead of
settling for the inefficiency that 10. Russia – Offering Vodka
personal space demands, Japan has
 It is the custom to welcome new
“pushers.” They are exactly what
friends with shots of vodka, and this is
they sound like — employees
even expected from older generations.
whose sole job during rush hour is
What better way to break the ice than
to push more people onto the train
with some stomach-warming shots of
cars. You thought there wasn’t
this Russian tradition? I think
space enough for you? Wrong.
friendships would form faster
There’s space for you AND ten
worldwide if we all adopted this idea,
complete strangers.
and that’s something we can all toast
8. Germany – Crossing the street
to, or, as they say in Russia, “Na
 The Japanese subways are pristine
zdorovye!”.
and quiet enough that I’ve heard
many pins drop, except when there
are tourists aboard and you can
hear them from two train cars
away. But just like any other metro
system, Japan’s subway is crowded
during rush hours. But instead of
settling for the inefficiency that
personal space demands, Japan has
“pushers.” They are exactly what
they sound like — employees
whose sole job during rush hour is
to push more people onto the train
cars. You thought there wasn’t
space enough for you? Wrong.
There’s space for you AND ten TEXT, TEXT TYPES, AND GENRES
complete strangers.
 According to Charles Darwin, the
9. Iceland – Christmas Eve books giving origin of language is
 We obsess over the eternal question of Onomatopoeia
Christmas gifts; do we spend tons of  Max Muller thinks that all human
money on new technology for our languages have a single common
loved ones or just stick with the origin
always-safe gift card? Will they read

ALI BERMUDEZ
  Noam Chomsky claims that should also be considered. Our use
humans have the innate of specific linguistic features that
understanding of how language reinforce our intention in a text
works helps us achieve our goal in
 Ferdinand de Saussure insists communication. This helps us in
that it is meaningless to ask a identifying the text type.
question of the origin of language
Genre and Text Types
Literacy Genres characterize texts on the
(the ability to read and
write) Intent- the
most
important
Text/Verbal point
Records conveyed
or

1. Genres
2. Text Types

communicated in every text. bases of external criteria, while

Genre
 Genre is a classification of a
communicative event in which the
communicators share the same set
of communicative purposes
(Hyland, 2008).
 Genre awareness is “the ability to
select and use an appropriate
genre based on number of factors,
including the purpose of
communication, the context, and
the people involved” (Millar,
2011)
 The internal factors such as the
linguistic features (vocabulary and
syntax or structure) used in a text
text types represent groupings of
texts that are similar in their
linguistic form, irrespective of
genre.
i.e. academic article on Asian
history
Genre: academic exposition
Text type: academic narrative
If a text is analyzed in terms of its
intended audience, purpose, and
activity type, then the text is
analyzed based on its genre. But, if
its linguistic (or grammatical)
features are examined, then, it is
examined based on its text type.

ALI BERMUDEZ

Robert B. Kaplan
 He is the Father of Constractive
Rhetoric
 compared the thought patterns of
his students who were from
different nationalities and arrived
at a hypothesis on thought
patterns
  Another example is antithesis
Robert Kaplan’s Thought Patterns
* With Kaplan’s thought patterns
was the birth of contrastive
rhetoric which holds that people
in different cultures organize their
ideas differently.
ALI BERMUDEZ
English (including the Germanic
languages such as German, Dutch,
Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish)
is portrayed by Kaplan graphically
as a downward arrow. The main
statement and supporting
statements follow in a hierarchical
arrangement, but this directness
may be viewed by other cultural
groups as abrupt or inappropriate.
The Semitic languages
(Arabic or Hebrew) are
viewed to have their
thoughts expressed in a series of
parallel ideas, both positive and
negative symbolized by
a zig-zag line.
Coordination is valued over
subordination. For example, in
synonymous parallelism, the first
part of the sentence is balanced by
the statement or idea presented in
the second part.
Example:
'His descendants will be
mighty in the land, and the
generation of the upright will be
blessed’.
parallelism in which the idea
expressed in the first part of the
sentence is contrasted in the
second part to give more emphasis
for the first part:
 'For the Lord knoweth the way of
the righteous, but the way of the
wicked shall perish’.
 ‘Those who go out weeping, bearing
the seed of sowing; shall come
home with shouts of joy, carrying
their sheaves’.
  The Oriental languages
(languages of Asia including the
Philippines) are indirect,
portrayed by Kaplan as spiral. A
topic is not addressed directly, but
viewed from various perspectives
working around the point.
 The Romance languages
(including French, Italian,
Romanian, and Spanish) are
symbolized by a a zig-zag line but
with the lines not being parallel to
each other.
 The Russian language is
represented by non-parallel zig-
zag lines, but with even more
digressions which can be better
indicated with a dashed or broken
line pattern.
CROSS CULTURAL EXAMPLES
English:
And he starts running. And he tips
him off over a cliff into the water.
And he lands.
the boy to the river. And then they
fell.
Hebrew:
Ve ha'ayil nivhal, ve hu hitxillaruts.
Ve hakelets rats axarav, ve hu higia
lemacok she mitaxat haya bitsa, ve
hu atsar, ve hayeled ve hakelev
naflu labitsa beyaxad.
- And the deer was startled, and he
began to run. And the dog ran after
him, and he reached the cliff that
had a swamp underneath, and he
stopped, and the boy and the dog
fell into the swamp together.
 Berman and Slobin (1994)
claim that the difference
between these excerpts is
to some extent determined
by the linguistic
possibilities inherent in
each of the languages.

German:
Der Hirsch nahm den lungen auf
sein Geweih und schmiB ihm den
Abhang hinunter genau ins
Wasser.

- The deer took the boy on his

antlers and hurled him down from
the cliff right into the water.

Spanish:
El ciervo Ie llevo hasta un sitio,
donde debajo habia un rio.
Entonces el ciervo tiro al perro y al
nino at rio. Y despues, cayeron.
- The deer took him until a place,
where below there was a river.
Then the deer threw the dog and

ALI BERMUDEZ