GAS TURBINE ENGINE (APP 102) Note 1 ILPC 09/2022

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF JET ENGINES:

Hero’s aeolipile (About 120 BC)

Hero, a scientist who lived in Alexandria, Egypt about 120 BC produced the first
steam boiler, known as the "aeolipile". Steam generated in a boiler was directed
into a hollow sphere mounted above the boiler on an axle. Bent nozzles protruded
from the periphery of the sphere in such a way that steam escaping from the nozzle
produced a reaction force that rotated the sphere.

The principle is much the same as that of Garden Sprinkler, which rotate by virtue
of the reaction of water as it leaves the nozzles.

Sir Frank Whittle (1907 - 1996)

An Englishman, Frank Whittle was the first to register and submitted his patent
application for a turbojet engine in January 1930 when he was still a cadet at the
Royal Air Force. The first run of the experimental engine was in April 1937. It
wasn't until 1939 that the Air Ministry awarded Power Jets Ltd a contract to design
the flight engine. On May 15, 1941 the W1Whittle engine made its first flight
mounted to the Gloster Model E28/39 aircraft. The engine was made up of a
centrifugal flow compressor and an axial flow turbine. Frank Whittle is considered
to be the father of the jet engine.
Dr. Hans Von Ohain (1911-1998)
A German, Hans von Ohain who started developing a jet engine during his
doctorate studies in Gottingen university in Germany in 1930s. By 1935, he had
developed a test engine to demonstrate his ideas. He got his patent in 1936 and also
got the necessary support from Ernst Heinkel, an aircraft manufacturer. The He-S3
turbojet engine uses liquid fuel. Ernst Heinkel Company adapted his idea and flew
the engine in a He-178 aircraft on August 27, 1939. Ohain’s jet engine was the first
to fly in 1939 while that of Whittle flew in 1941. This engine used a centrifugal
flow compressor.
Power Plant:
Is a prime mover or engine of any type in complete form plus accessories, silenced
nozzle, propeller, and associated subsystem and in some cases, surrounding
cowling.
Airplane propulsion

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For a wing to create lift, it must divert air downwards. This principle is exactly
how an aircraft propulsion system works, except that to create thrust it must push
air backwards. Just as your household fan pushes air backwards, so does a
propeller and a jet engine. Fortunately, your house fan does not have enough thrust
to propel itself.
Also like wings, aircraft propulsion systems are applications of Newton’s laws.
Remember Newton’s third law states that “for every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction.” In an aircraft propulsion system, the action is acceleration of air
or exhaust gases and the reaction is the forward force, or thrust produced.
Propulsive Force
It is the forward-directed force produced by the reaction from a rearward
acceleration of a mass of fluid or by rotating airfoil in an airstream.
The purpose of aircraft engine
To provide thrust to push an aircraft through the air and overcome the force of
drag. It also generates electrical power, provides vacuum source for some flight
instruments, and in most single-engine aircrafts, provides a source of heat for the
pilot and passengers.
Two basic methods of producing thrust to propel an aircraft are:
Aerodynamic action and Jet reaction.
Aerodynamic action: It produces thrust when an engine turns a propeller or a
rotating airfoil that produces the thrust along a horizontal plane. Therefore, it
produces a small acceleration (small change in velocity) to a large mass of air.
Jet reaction: It produces thrust by heating a mass of air inside the engine and
discharging it at a high velocity through a specially shaped nozzle. The amount of
thrust is determined by mass of the air and by the amount it is accelerated. Jet
engine produces a large acceleration (large change in velocity) to a small mass of
air.
Jet reaction also known as Jet propulsion is a practical application of Sir Isaac
Newton’s third law of motion which states that ’for every force acting on a body
there is an equal and opposite reaction’.
GAS TURBINE ENGINES

The term ‘gas turbine’ is popularly known as ‘jet’ engines. It is an engine that
derives its power from a rotating turbine that is in turn driven by a flow of gas

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passing through it. The gas is a product of the combustion of air-fuel mixture, and
in most gas turbines forms a jet of gas, which provides the propulsive force.

The gas turbine is widely used in aircraft. It is also used for the generation of
electrical power, ships/marine propulsion, oil and gas industry. Attempts are also
being made to develop it as an engine for automobile use. Electric power
generation using natural gas as fuel.

All gas turbine engines have the following basic separate structures known as the
main components of a Gas turbine engine: Intake, Compressor, Combustion
chamber (Combustor), Turbine and Exhaust.

AIR INTAKE
An Air Intake is a fluid flow duct whose task is to process the flow of air (airflow)
in a way that ensures the engine functions properly to generate thrust.
The path of the air through a gas turbine engine varies according to the design of
the engine. These various changes are affected by means of the size and shape of
the ducts through which the air passes on its way through the engine.
Air Intake is designed to conduct incoming air to the compressor with minimum
energy loss resulting from drag or ram pressure loss, that is, the flow of air into the
compressor should be free of turbulence to achieve maximum operating efficiency.
The amount of air passing through an engine is dependent upon three factors:
 Compressor speed (RPM)
 Forward speed of the aircraft
 Density of the ambient (surrounding) air
The need for an air intake in a gas turbine engine
 To ensure that the engine compressor has optimal air flow at any speed or
attitude.
 To ensure that the air entering the compressor enters at a subsonic speed
irrespective of the aircraft velocity.
 To ensure that there is minimum pressure losses resulting from ram pressure
or drag pressure loss.
Bernoulli’s principle

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In 1738, the Swiss Physicist Daniel Bernoulli explained the relationship between
potential energy and kinetic energy the airflow over an airfoil (aerofoil). Potential
energy relates to its pressure and kinetic energy relates to its velocity. The sum of
the potential energy and kinetic energy in the air flow is equal to its total energy.
Bernoulli’s principle explained that if the total energy in the airflow over an
aerofoil remains constant, any increase in its velocity will decrease its pressure.
The total energy remains unaltered unless the fluid is made to do work or has work
done on it.
Air Ducts: Air ducts in a gas turbine engine are used to change the velocity and
pressure of the mass air flow.
i. Convergent ducts – Is a passage whose cross-sectional area decreases in
the direction of airflow.
ii. Divergent duct - – Is a passage whose cross-sectional area increases in
the direction of airflow.
Incompressible flow
When air flows through a converging duct at subsonic speed, below the speed of
sound that is, Mach number is less than 1 (M<1), the airflow acts as an
incompressible flow, its velocity increases and pressure decreases. The last portion
of the converging duct is a constriction or venturi (throat) where the airflow
velocity increases, pressure decreases while its density is also constant.
As the air flows through the diverging portion its velocity decreases and pressure
increases. Density does not change that is, it remains constant throughout an
incompressible flow.
Compressible flow
When air flows through a converging duct at supersonic speed, the airflow acts as
compressible flow, its velocity decreases and pressure increases. The last portion
of the converging duct is a constriction or venturi (throat) where the airflow
velocity decreases, pressure increases and the speed of sound Mach number is 1
(M=1), the flow is said to be sonic.
As the air flows through the diverging portion its velocity increases, pressure
decreases and the speed of sound, Mach number is greater than 1 (M>1). Density is
not constant that is it changes from point to point throughout compressible flow.
Types of Air Intake:

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 1. Pitot type Air Intake
A Pitot type intake is divergent and it produces the maximum amount of ram
compression. It is the simplest and ideal shape of an intake duct for subsonic or
low supersonic speeds. It enables air to be scooped directly into the face of the
compressor without altering the direction of flow. This type of air intake is used on
all multi-engine transport aircraft with engines attached to the rear fuselage; (MD-
80 series) or slung under the wings in pods; VC 10, B 707, B737, B747, Airbus
A300, HA-300 (Egypt), etc. Divergent airflows are also found on Stator vanes of
an axial flow compressor and Diffuser of centrifugal flow compressor.

As an aircraft approaches the transonic range, the aerodynamic efficiency of a pitot

type intake decreases due to the shock wave. A choked nozzle will occur as the air
reaches Mach 1; hence it is forming a shock-wave in the intake. If an inlet is
choked then the velocity decreases and pressure increases. Pitot type intake is not
suitable for higher supersonic speed. It is usually fixed.

2. Bell-Mouth Wet Duct (Convergent Air Intake)

It is a convergent air intake used to direct air into the inlet of a gas turbine engine.
It is short in length with rounded shoulders that offer little air resistance. It is
designed for obtaining high aerodynamic efficiency when stationary or in slow
flight. It is used on some slow moving aircraft, helicopters, and on engines being
run in ground test stands. Convergent airflows are also found on Nozzle Guide
Vane (NGV) of a turbine, Choked nozzle and Propelling nozzle.
3. Supersonic Air Intake - It has a fixed or variable geometry.
a. Convergent – Divergent shape
Convergent-divergent ducts are usually variable and found on the intake duct for
supersonic aircraft. Examples, F-16 aircraft, Rocket, Missile, etc. It is used to slow
the incoming airflow to subsonic speed before it reaches the compressor.

b. Cone or Ramp shape

It is similar to pitot type but will generate shock wave to aid the inlet compression
process at supersonic speed, that is, it slows the flow of air from supersonic speed
to subsonic speed before it enters the compressor.
c. Diverterless supersonic inlet

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It consist of a “bump” and a forward swept inlet cowl, which work together to
divert boundary layer airflow away from the aircraft’s engine. It is used by some
modern combat aircraft.
Ram effect

Ram effect is conversion of kinetic energy to pressure energy at the face of the
compressor. The greater the ram effect the greater the efficiency of the propulsion
system. Ram effect due to aircraft forward speed of an aircraft will cause the
efficiency of the engine to increase while the thrust of the engine remains constant.
It also improves compression ratio thereby improving thrust without using extra
fuel.

Ram Recovery or Pressure Recovery

Ram Recovery or Pressure Recovery is a rise in pressure above existing outside
atmospheric pressure, thereby resulting in an increase in mass airflow and Jet
velocity both of which increases the thrust. It is a measure of intake efficiency. It
increases the thrust as a result of converting the kinetic energy into useful pressure
energy. With the aircraft stationary and engines running, intake pressure is
negative. As the aircraft begins its take off run the pressure recovers to above
ambient (ram recovery).
COMPRESSION SECTION
Three main functions of the compression section:
 It increase the pressure and density of the air, so that fuel will burn
efficiently particularly at high altitudes where there is very little air
 It delivers the compressed air to the combustion chamber and act like a one-
way valve that prevents the combustion gases from blowing out the front of
the engine
 It supply bleed air for various purposes in the engine
Conditions to ensure maximum efficiency of compressor

 Provide a predetermined pressure rise

 Compression must be achieved with least possible pressure loss.

 It must be aerodynamically stable through the normal operating range.

 Tip speed of the compressor should not approach too closely the speed of
sound

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Two types of compressor: Centrifugal flow compressor and Axial flow
compressor
Centrifugal Flow Compressor
As air flows into the eye (centre) of the impeller, centrifugal force causes it to
accelerate and flow outwards, that is pushing the air out radially, and a pressure
rise occurs through the impeller due to the addition of kinetic energy by the
rotation of the impeller, where it is then redirected into the combustion chamber.
Centrifugal flow compressors are of strong construction, but require a large frontal
area to achieve a useful pressure rise. It is mostly used on turboprop and turbo-
shaft engines.

The three component parts of a centrifugal compressor:

Impeller, Diffuser and Manifold

Impeller: A forged disk made from aluminium alloy or titanium alloy with radial
vanes on one or both sides which forms divergent duct. It is heat treated and
smoothened for minimum airflow restriction and turbulence. The impeller;
i. Changes the direction of airflow from axial to radial.
ii. Accelerates the mass air flow
iii. Impact a pressure increase radially.
Diffuser: Is a stationary divergent duct to further increase the pressure by
converting velocity (kinetic) energy to pressure energy with an added temperature
rise. The diffuser is provided with a number of vanes forming series of divergent
passages into the manifold. The diffuser;
i. Straightens and direct the airflow to the manifold at a correct designed
angle.
ii. Delivers the airflow to the manifold at a velocity and pressure
satisfactory for use in the combustion chamber.
iii. Diffuser to impeller clearance must be large enough to prevent
aerodynamic buffeting (irregular oscillation).

In practice, approximately 50% of pressure increase occurs in impeller and 50% in

the diffuser.
Compressor Manifold: It is also known as the casing. It houses the Impeller and
the Diffuser. It is made of aluminium alloy.
Types of centrifugal flow compressor:
i. Single entry-single stage
ii. Single entry-double stage

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 iii. Double entry- single stage
Single Entry
 Takes full effect of ram pressure thus, minimize the chance of surging at
altitude.
 The most efficient.
Double Entry
 There is preheating of the air entering the rear face of the impeller
 However, the double entry compressor handles a greater mass flow but less
efficient compared to single entry of the same size.
Advantages of centrifugal-flow compressors:
• High pressure rise per stage
• Good efficiencies over wide rotational speed range
• Ruggedly built
• Simplicity of manufacture, thus low cost
• Low weight
• Not affected by icing connotation
• Surge is not critical
• Low starting power requirements
Disadvantages of centrifugal-flow compressors:
• Large frontal area for given airflow resulting in high drag
• More than two stages is not practicable because of energy losses between the
stages.
• Relatively low total compression ratio
•High specific fuel consumption
•Severe directional changes in air flow

Axial Flow Compressor: It consists of several rows of rotating (rotor) blades of

aerofoil section with rows of stationary (stator) vanes also of aerofoil sections.
The two component parts of axial flow compressors are: Stator vanes and Rotor
blades
Stator vanes: They are fitted to the compressor casing and are interposed between
rotor blades. They are stationary aerofoil sections, and form divergent ducts thus
increasing pressure, increasing temperature and decreasing velocity of the airflow.
They are shrouded at the tips to relieve the stresses at the roots caused by vibration
that is, to minimize the vibrational effect of airflow variations. The first row of
stator is known as Inlet Guide Vane (IGV), it induces air into the compressor

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while the latter stages of stator vanes corrects any deflection of air and presents it
to the next stage. The last row of stator is known as Outlet Guide Vane (OGV),
it is of wider chord so as to remove whirl (swirl) and straightens the airflow to
enter the combustion chamber at a uniform axial velocity.
Rotor blades: Early stages are made of aluminium alloy and are held on the disc
or drum by solid roots. The later stage blades are made of steel or titanium because
of the temperature increase within the compressor. All rotor blades are twisted
from root to tip to equal the amount of work along the length of the blade, that is,
to maintain uniform axial velocity. They are aerofoil in shape and form divergent
passages therefore they must have airflow presented at the correct angle of attack.
They increase air pressure, increase temperature and due to their rotation the air
velocity is increased. The final row of stator vanes further increase pressure and
straightens the airflow before it enters the combustion chamber.
Four methods of securing rotor blades to the disc:
i. Solid root ii. Fir-tree root iii. Dove-tail root iv. Bulb
root
Axial flow compressor ‘Stage’: One stage of an axial flow compressor consists of
a row of rotor blades followed by a row of stator vanes.
Two methods of Axial flow compressor construction:
i. Drum constructed ii. Disc constructed
Drum constructed: The drum type construction consists of one or two piece
forging on which is secured the rotor blades. The outside diameter of compressor
housing is constant, and the drum on which blades are mounted increases in
diameter towards the rear of the compressor.
Disc constructed: The disc type construction is by attaching the rotor blades to
separate discs, which are then splined to the rotor shaft, and are separated by
integral or individual spacer rings. The disc on which blades are mounted are all
the same in diameter, but the outside of the compressor case decreases towards rear
of compressor.

Compressor pressure ratio (CPR): Is the ratio between outlet pressure to inlet
pressure of the compressor. E.g If the inlet pressure is 14.7psi and the outlet
pressure is 103 psi, then the CR would be 103/14.7 = 7:1 Higher compressor
pressure ratios will produce higher combustion pressure giving higher propelling
nozzle velocity and more thrust for the same fuel burnt.
Spool: Spool is a combination of a compressor and turbine that drives it using a
connecting drive shaft.
Types of axial flow compressor: Single spool, Twin spool (co-axial or split) and
Triple spool

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Advantages of axial flow compressors
• High peak efficiencies from ram air created by straight design.
• Small frontal area for given airflow resulting in low drag
• Maintains straight airflow, allowing high ram efficiency.
• Low specific fuel consumption
• Higher compressor pressure ratio as from 7:1 upwards
Disadvantages of axial-flow compressors are:
• Difficulty of manufacture and high cost

• Relatively high weight

• High starting power requirements (this been partially overcome by multi spool
compressors)
• Low pressure rise per stage
• Critical to Surge
COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE
Compressor stall:

Compressor stall is a local disruption of the airflow in the compressor of a gas

turbine engine. It occurs when there is an imbalance between the airflow supply
and the airflow demand, which is a pressure ratio incompatible with engine rpm. It
results to sudden slowing or breakaway of air from the surface of the blade, behind
the leading edge and forms eddies. The compressor blades failing to move the air
at the designed flow rate that is, low air inlet velocity and air does not meet
compressor blades at its correct angle. Compressor stall occurs when there is
unusual high compressor speed, chocking of the exhaust and excess fuel to the
engine. Compressor stall is most likely to be experienced when starting or
accelerating the engine. Compressor stall can also be initiated by maneuvers whilst
flying, or by flying in a very turbulent air.

In compressor stall the airflow disturbance is in tangential direction.

Compressor surge:

Compressor surge is a stall that results in complete disruption of the airflow

through the compressor of a gas turbine engine. It is a total breakaway of air from
all stages of the compressor. Axial compressors will surge when forward flow
through all the stages of the compressor can no longer be maintained, due to an
increase in pressure across the stages, and a momentary low reversal occurs that is,
a point where blade stall becomes so severe that the blades can no longer support
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the adverse pressure gradient, the airflow instantaneously breaks down. To
minimize the tendency of a compressor to surge, the compressor can be “unloaded”
during certain operating conditions by reducing the compressor pressure ratio
across the compressor for any given airflow. Compressor surge could also be as a
result of over-fuelling but Acceleration Control Unit (ACU) automatically limits
the rate of increase of fuel flow until sufficient air is passed to the engine.
Compressor surge is indicated by a rise in turbine gas temperature, vibration or
“coughing” of the compressor and reversal of flow may cause the combustion
chambers to be starved of air, so that flame out occurs.

In compressor surge the airflow disturbance is in axial direction.

COMPRESSOR AIRFLOW CONTROL SYSTEMS

Inlet guide vanes: They are rings of guide vanes before the first stage rotor blades
at the front of the compressor. They direct the airflow into the first stage rotor
blades at the proper angle and impart a swirling motion to the air entering the
compressor. This pre-swirl, in the direction of engine rotation, improves the
aerodynamic characteristics of the compressor by reducing drag on the first stage
rotor blades, thus preventing surge and stall when operating off design rpm. It is
not always possible to operate the engine at design rpm (92 - 99%), especially
during starting and idle rpm. Therefore, airflow control systems or anti-surge
devices are used to maintain correct angle of attack of the airflow on to the rotor
blades. IGV may be fixed or adjustable (variable). It is used on axial flow
compressor.

Method of controlling compressor airflow (Anti Surge Devices):

(1) Variable Inlet Guide Vane (VlGV)

(2) Variable Stator Vane (VSV)
(3) Bleed Valve
(4) Multi-spool compressors
Variable Inlet Guide Vane (VlGV):
They are located before the first Rotor stage. They are automatically adjusted to
redirect the airflow into the compressor as the compressor speed falls. Guide vanes
move to the maximum whirl position, restrict the flow of air to an amount that the
rear stages can pass to the engine without choking. An actuator and suitable
linkage alter the angle of the inlet guide vane mechanically. The actuator is

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sensitive to engine rpm and inlet temperature and operates hydraulically by fuel
pressure
These are usually found on larger older engines.
Variable Stator Vane (VSV):

Some engine designs incorporate a number of variable stators that works in

conjunction with variable inlet guide vanes. They change the angle of each row of
stator vanes to maintain correct angle of attack when the engine is operating off
design RPM. Often found on larger modern engines.

Bleed Valve:

When the engine slows down, its compression ratio will decrease and the volume
of air in the rear of the compressor will be greater. This excess volume causes
choking in the rear of the compressor. Therefore, the velocity of air at the front
stages of the compressor is increased, thus decreasing the angle of attack, and
preventing choking of the rear stages of the compressor. They are used in
conjunction with variable intake guide vanes.

At low rpm, the bleed valves opens to allow excess air from the front stages to be
dumped overboard, thus preventing choking of the rear stages of the compressor.

At maximum rpm, the bleed valves closes to allow more passage of air enter the
engine which lowers the TGT or EGT.

Multi-spool compressors:

This is splitting of compressor into two or three sections, each driven by its own
shaft and turbine, thus operating independently of others. The engine is designed
so that, upon closing the throttle, the speed of the low pressure spool falls off more
rapidly than the high pressure spools, thus reducing greatly the chance of
compressor stall.

Advantages of multi-spool compressors:

i. High compression ratio; lower specific fuel consumption; more power
ii. Easier starting because the starter motor turns only the Lp-compressor
iii. Quick surge free acceleration

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