Learning, Teaching and Applying Euclidean Geom and Trig Units 1

UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
COLLEGE OF DISTANCE AND E-LEARNING
BACHELOR EDUCATION IN BASIC EDUCATION MATHEMATICS

BY DISTANCE
LEARNING, TEACHING AND APPLYING EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY AND

TRIGONOMETRY
WRITTEN BY:
EMMANUEL ASEMANI
DENNIS OFFEI KWAKYE
1
COURSE INTRODUCTION
This is the second mathematics course in the Junior High School (JHS) specialism, in Year
two Semester two (YR 2 SEM 2) which focuses on developing knowledge and conceptual
understanding of what student teachers should know about learning teaching and applying
Euclidean Geometry and Trigonometry. Euclidean geometry has many applications in real
life. It helps visualizing and thinking in three- dimensional terms and this helps one to
understand 3-D shapes encountered in everyday life. The study of geometry also helps to
build the skills of logic, analytical reasoning, deductive reasoning and problem- solving.
These benefits call for inclusive geometry lessons in which all learners are given the
opportunity to participate and work at their own pace in differentiated tasks.
This course is therefore designed help the teacher to demonstrate how they can boost
learners’ self-esteem and, as a consequence, enhance their learning potential. It is to
give students in-depth knowledge and understanding of the basic concepts of geometry
(NTS, 2c). Topics to be treated include: Euclidean Geometry Proofs – proofs for theorems
about congruent and similar triangles, Pythagoras theorem, Circle theorems, etc. Describe
Lines and Circles; Equation of a Line (Loci); Describe the Relationship between Lines
and Circles. Geometrical constructions. It also covers Trigonometric ratios and their
reciprocals, Trigonometric Identities, Inverse, Circular Functions of Angles of any
magnitude and their Graphs; Trigonometric formulae including multiple angles and half
angles; Maxima and minima of Trigonometric expressions; Solution of Trigonometric
Equations; Solution of Triangles; Three-Dimensional Problems.
The assessment procedure will include assignments, quizzes, project works with
presentation and end of semester examination (NTS, 3k, NTECF, p.28). The course will be
taught in 3-hour face-to-face sessions weekly, focusing on mathematical content on one the
hand and the strategies and learning experiences in doing mathematics on the other hand.
Other modes of instruction include Practical Activity, Independent study, and E-learning
opportunities. These will be combined to form an integrated instructional approach that
addresses the course learning outcomes. The course will be assessed using a variety of
assessments methods including coursework, assignments, quizzes, project works with
presentation, portfolio and end of semester examination to provide a comprehensive
outlook of student teachers competencies and skills.
In this course, the College of Distance and e-Learning of the University of
Education, Winneba are focused on:
• Geometrical Proofs
• Lines and Circles
• Circle theorems
• Geometrical constructions
• Trigonometry
• Sine and cosine rules (Applications)
2
STRUCTURE OF THE COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES AND INDICATORS
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES LEARNING INDICATORS
On successful completion of the course, Outline and address their

student- teachers will be able to: perception and misconceptions
1. Demonstrate secure content about concepts in Euclidean
knowledge in Euclidean Geometry and Trigonometry.
Geometry and Trigonometry Use age appropriate subject
and be able to teach these to their knowledge, pedagogical
pupils. knowledge and pedagogical
(NTS 2c, 3i, NTECF Pillar 1) content knowledge that can be used
to teach the Basic School
Curriculum in a broad, balanced,
relevant and creative manner.
Make connections between
mathematical concepts in the
Euclidean Geometry and
Trigonometry content domains and
apply them in teaching and solving
real-life problems.
Produce a brief report on their
understanding of Euclidean Geometry and
Trigonometry
2. Use appropriate differentiated, Design inquiry-based learning and
interactive instructional and teaching strategies that leads to
assessment strategies that development of strategic
encourage inquiry learning, competence in learning Euclidean
develop deductive Geometry and Trigonometry.
reasoning and the ability to deal with Integrate ICT in the learning and
abstract concepts; cater for the need of teaching of geometric and
all pupils in JHS, including those with trigonometric concepts in the
special education needs basic school classroom curriculum.
(NTS 3e, 3f, 3g, 3k, 3l, 3m, 3n, 3o, Solve mathematics problems using
3p NTECF pillar 4) manipulatives and/or technology
related strategies in a variety of
ways to support pupils with SEN in
order to achieve their potential.
Use interactive instructional
and assessment strategies in
their own learning and peer
assessment to prepare them for
STS.
Outline personal perception about
how individuals with special needs learn
concepts based on Euclidean Geometry
and Trigonometry
3. Demonstrate knowledge and Provide support for
application of the colleagues in the
subject specific literacies of the mathematics classroom.
subjects they teach and be able to
3
support pupils in acquiring these; Cooperate with colleagues in
also demonstrate the ability to use carrying out mathematics
language for academic purposes tasks.
(NTS 2c, 3i, NTECF Pillar 2) Engage in reflective thinking
about how mathematics was
taught in student-teacher’s basic
and high school days.
Discuss to demystify the notion
that Mathematics is male dominated
subject (gender issues)
4. Demonstrate understanding of human Outline and address Socio-
development and the developmental cultural issues emerging from
milestones of adolescence and be able the teaching and learning of
to cater for these in their teaching and Euclidean Geometry and
guiding pupils who are going through Trigonometry
critical physical, emotional and Identify strategies to deal with
cognitive development and make them how physical, emotional and
feel that their increasing maturity is cognitive development of the
being recognised and appreciated learners affect their learning of
Euclidean Geometry and
Trigonometry.
Outline the needs of adolescents
that influence their learning of Euclidean
Geometry and Trigonometry and how this
affects student teachers’ planning and
teaching of mathematics in the basic
school curriculum.
5. Understand, recognise, make visible Develop strategies to recognise,
and address make visible and address stigma,
stigma, bias and other forms of bias and other forms of
discrimination, bullying and other discrimination, bullying and other
exclusion related matters in subjects, (for exclusion related matters in
example over representation of boys in subjects.
mathematics) the curriculum, school and Pose problems that cater for
classrooms.
diversity, equity and
inclusivity
4
OUTLINE
COURSE CODE:
COURSE TITLE: LEARNING, TEACHING AND APPLYING EUCLIDEAN
GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY
LEVEL: 200
UNIT 1: GEOMETRICAL PROOFS: LEARNING, TEACHING AND
APPLYING
INTRODUCTION
Section 1: Misconceptions and barriers in teaching and learning of geometric proofs
of theorems about congruence and similarities of triangles
Section 2: Proofs of theorems about congruent and similar triangles
Section 3: Teaching Pythagoras theorem
Section 4: Applications Pythagoras theorem to real life
UNIT 2: LINES AND CIRCLES: TEACHING, LEARNING AND APPLYING

INTRODUCTION
Section 1: Teaching equation of a line
Section 2: Equation of a circle
Section 3: Relationship between lines and Circles & Intersection of a line and a circle
Section 4: The tangent and normal to a circle at a point
Section 5: Intersection of two circles
UNIT 3: CIRCLE THEOREMS: TEACHING, LEARNING AND APPLYING

INTRODUCTION
Section 1: Properties: angles in the same chord
Section 2: angles at the circumference of opposite segments
Section 3: angle between a chord and a line
Section 4: tangent to a diameter of a circle
Section 5: cyclic quadrilateral (including proofs)
5
UNIT 4: GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS: TEACHING, LEARNING
AND APPLYING
INTRODUCTION
Section 1: Construct a given line and Angle using ruler and a pair of compasses only
Section 2: Construct a given triangle using ruler and a pair of compasses only
Section 3: Construct a given quadrilateral using ruler and a pair of compasses only
Section 4: Teaching construction of regular and irregular polygons
Section 5: Construct a give Loci using ruler and a pair of compasses only
UNIT 5: TRIGONOMETRIC ANGLES: LEARNING AND APPLYING

INTRODUCTION
Section 1: Definitions of trigonometric angles, degree measure of angles and Reciprocal
Angles
Section 2: Radian measure of angles
Section 3: Trigonometric Functions and Graphs
Section 4: Trigonometric Identities; Inverse, Circular Functions of Angles of any
magnitude
Section 5: Trigonometric formulae including multiple angles and half angles
Section 6: Maxima and minima of Trigonometric expressions
UNIT 6 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

INTRODUCTION
Section 1: Trigonometric Equations and Oblique Triangles
Section 2: The Sine Law/Lami’s Theorem
Section 3: Area of a Triangle
Section 4: The Cosine Law
Section 5: Applications of Sine Rules and Cosine Rules to two- and three-
Dimensional Problems
6
UNIT 1: GEOMETRICAL PROOFS: LEARNING, TEACHING, AND
APPLYING DRAFT
INTRODUCTION
Dear Student-teacher,
Welcome to the unit of learning, teaching and applying geometrical proofs. You are
to read through thoroughly, and work along. Trial questions are available for further
activities. Links to various sites and pages are provided for your understanding and
practices.
Learning outcomes Learning indicators

On successful i. Outline and address their perception and
completion of the misconceptions about concepts in Euclidean
course, student-teacher Geometry and Trigonometry.
will be able to ii. Use age-appropriate subject knowledge, pedagogical
demonstrate secure knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge that
content knowledge in can be used to teach the Basic School Curriculum in a
Euclidean Geometry and broad, balanced, relevant and creative manner.
Trigonometry and be
iii. Make connections between mathematical
able to teach these to
concepts in the Euclidean Geometry and
their pupils. They will be
able to provide accurate Trigonometry content domains and apply them
proves of concepts. in teaching and solving real-life problems.
(NTS 2c, 3i, NTECF iv. Produce a brief report on their understanding of
Pillar 1) Euclidean Geometry, Trigonometry proves.
UNIT 1: GEOMETRICAL PROOFS: LEARNING, TEACHING AND

APPLYING
INTRODUCTION
Section 1: Misconceptions and barriers in teaching and learning of geometric proofs
of theorems about congruence and similarities of triangles
Section 2: Proofs of theorems about congruent and similar triangles
Section 3: Teaching Pythagoras theorem
Section 4: Applications Pythagoras theorem to real life
7
UNIT 1: SECTION 1: MISCONCEPTIONS AND BARRIERS IN TEACHING
AND LEARNING OF GEOMETRIC PROOFS OF THEOREMS ABOUT
CONGRUENCE AND SIMILARITIES OF TRIANGLES
Hello my student-teacher, Let’s begin with:
Misconceptions and barriers in teaching and learning of geometric proofs of theorems

about congruence and similarities of triangles.
Misconception could mean an idea or thoughts which is incorrect. It could refer to

incorrect concept (conception). According to WordWeb 9.01 software, barrier is any
condition that makes it difficult to make progress or to achieve an objective. It is
anything serving to maintain separation by obstructing vision or access.
TASK 1
In pairs (think-pair-share),
1. what is your opinion about misconception and barriers?

2. what are some of the possible student--teachers’ misconceptions about the
proofs of geometric concepts?
3. what are some of the possible student-teachers’ perceptions about the proofs
of geometric concepts?
Congruent triangles are two or more triangles which are similar in ways such as; in
angles, in sides, in shapes and in sizes.
8
TASK 2
Which of the following triangles are congruent?
A B
C
D E
FIG. 1.1
Possible responses of Task 2
❖ Triangles A and E are congruent. They are because if it is turned and placed
onto the other, it will be very similar in shape, size, side, and angles. Hence,
the two triangles are said to be congruent.
❖ Triangles B and E are also congruent. They are because if it is turned and
placed onto the other, it will be very similar in shape, size, side, and angles.
Hence, the two triangles are said to be congruent.
❖ But triangle E has no similar triangle. Hence, it is not congruent to any triangle
given.
❖ NOTE that congruent triangles are also similar in shape, sizes, sides and
angles.
TASK 3 (PROOF)
In groups of twos or threes, how would you assist a JHS pupils to identify those two
or more triangles are similar or congruent?
9
TASK 4
In pairs (think-pair-share)
Identify congruent or similar triangles
F G H
I K
J
N L
Q
R
P
FIG. 1.2
TASK 5
Dear student-teacher,
At this point, I see you to be a Creative Thinker and a Problem-Poser.
In groups of twos, draw fifteen (15) triangles. Give to the other group members to
identify triangles which are congruent those that are not congruent.
10
GROUP A GROUP B
FIG. 1.3
Exchange with your partner and solve.
INTERNET SEARCH
My dear student-teacher,
Use your computer or smartphones to search for the following information by using
the link provided below on Similar Triangles.
What are similar triangles?
Links
below
1. https://youtu.be/6IVyQy9F3kU
2. https://youtu.be/8h-BeLqfa3E
11
PROOFS OF CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
Congruent Triangles
WHAT ARE CONGRUENT TRIANGLES?
Congruent triangles are triangles that are exactly the same size and shape. There
are 4 conditions to prove congruency in triangles. Two triangles are congruent if they
have the same shape and the same size.
1. Side-Side-Side (SSS)
2. Right-angle-Hypothenuse-One other side (RHS)
3. Side-Angle-Side (SAS)
4. Angle-Side-Angle (ASA) or Angle-Angle-Side (AAS)
Congruent is used to describe shapes such as quadrilaterals or polygons which are

exactly the same shape and the same size.
Study critically the diagrams below
FIG. 1.4
Observation
Two possible congruence statements could be observed as:
1. Triangle ABC is congruent to triangle FED. That is, ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐹𝐸𝐷.

2. Triangle BCA is congruent to triangle EDF. That is, ∆𝐵𝐶𝐴 ≅ ∆𝐸𝐷𝐹.
It could be observed from the two triangles that:
12
3. ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐹
4. ∠𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐸
5. ∠𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐷
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐹𝐸
6. 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
7. 𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐷
8. ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐴 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐹
Identify, outline, and illustrate the congruence conditions such as:
- Angle-Side-Angle (ASA) Triangle Congruence Theorem

- Angle-Angle-Side (AAS) Triangle Congruence Theorem
- Side-Side-Side (SSS) Triangle Congruence Theorem
- Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Triangle Congruence Theorem
Angle-Side-Angle (ASA)
When two triangles have two angles and the included side the same, they are congruent
triangles. The included side is the side in between the two angles.
The second triangle may be a rotation or a mirror image of the first triangle (or both).
FIG. 1.5
NOTE
This can also be known as Angle-Angle-Side (AAS) as if two angles in a triangle are
known, the third angle can be worked out using the angle fact that the sum of interior
angles in a triangle is 180°.
13
Angle-Angle-Side (AAS) Triangle Congruence Theorem
FIG. 1.6
Dear student-teacher -teacher,
It could be observed that:
If Angle ∠𝑅 ≅ ∠𝑋,
Angle ∠𝑆 ≅ ∠𝑌 and
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝑌𝑍
Side 𝑆𝑇 ̅̅̅̅ then
∆𝑅𝑆𝑇 ≅ ∆𝑋𝑌𝑍
Hence, AAS Triangle Congruence Theorem proven.
NOTE
This can also be known as Angle-Side-Angle (ASA) as if two angles in a triangle are
known, the third angle can be worked out using the angle fact that the sum of interior
angles in a triangle is 180°.
Side-Side-Side (SSS) Triangle Congruence Theorem
When two triangles have all three sides the same, they are congruent triangles. The
second triangle may be a rotation or a mirror image of the first triangle (or both).
14
FIG. 1.7
It could observe that:
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐹𝐸
If Side 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ ,
Side ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐹𝐶 , and
̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
Side 𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐷 ,
then ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐹𝐸𝐷.
Hence, Side-Side-Side (SSS) Triangle Congruence Theorem proven.
Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Triangle Congruence Theorem
When two triangles have two sides and the included angle the same, they are congruent
triangles. The included angle is the angle in between the two sides. The second triangle
may be a rotation or a mirror image of the first triangle (or both).
15
FIG. 1.8
It could be observed:
If Side ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 = ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 ,
Angle ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷, and
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐷𝐹
Side 𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ , then
∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐷𝐸𝐹
Hence, Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Triangle Congruence Theorem proven.
Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Triangle Congruence Theorem
When two triangles have two sides and the included angle the same, they are congruent
triangles. The included angle is the angle in between the two sides.
FIG. 1.9
16
It could be observed that:
Side ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸
If Angle ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷,
Side ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐹 , then
∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐷𝐸𝐹
Right-angle, Hypothenuse and other Side (RHS)
When two triangles are right-angled triangles and have the hypotenuse and one of the
shorter sides the same, they are congruent triangles.
The third side would also be identical and this can be checked using Pythagoras’
theorem.
Activity 1
Dear student-teacher, kindly visit “PRACTICE CONGRUENT TRIANGLES

QUESTIONS” on the webpage https://thirdspacelearning.com/gcse-
maths/geometry-and-measure/congruent-triangles/. There are six (6) questions.
Attempt all.
Expected answers
1. RHS
2. SAS
3. ASA
4. SSS
5. SAS, Because
𝑨𝑩 = 𝑬𝑭
𝑨𝑪 = 𝑫𝑭
17
Angle 𝑪𝑨𝑩 = Angle 𝑫𝑬𝑭
6. SAS, Because
𝑨𝑩 = 𝑬𝑭
Angle 𝑪𝑨𝑩 = Angle 𝑫𝑬𝑭
Angle 𝑩𝑨𝑪 = Angle 𝑫𝑬𝑭
Activity 2
Dear student-teacher, kindly use your computer to visit this site

https://thirdspacelearning.com/gcse-maths/geometry-and-measure/congruent-
triangles/
In groups of twos and threes,
i. do Example 1: recognise congruent triangles. Discuss among yourselves.

ii. do Example 2: recognise congruent triangles. Discuss among yourselves.
iii. do Example 3: recognise congruent triangles. Discuss among yourselves.
iv. do Example 4: recognise congruent triangles. Discuss among yourselves.
SUMMARY:
• Common misconceptions: AAA – all three angles
FIG. 1.10
18
AAA – all three angles being equal is not a condition for triangle
congruence. These two triangles have identical angles, but the second
triangle is an enlargement of the first triangle. They are similar
triangles not congruent triangles.
• Remember – triangles can be congruent but rotations or mirror images.

The second triangle may be a rotation or a mirror image of the first shape (or
both). The triangle may still be congruent.
• Use the correct notation.
500
B C
FIG. 1.11
If we wanted to write about the 50° angle, we are not allowed to call it Angle
B. We would need to use the notation angle ABC (or angle CBA).
• For exam questions, check how many marks it is worth. Some exam
questions ask you to explain why two triangles are congruent and are only
worth one mark, here you only need to state the congruence condition (RHS,
SSS, SAS or ASA). If the exam question asks you to prove that two triangles
are congruent and are worth several marks. You will need to match up
the 3 pairs of equal sides/angles and state the congruence condition.
• Give details for proof questions (higher). Some questions asking to prove
that two triangles are congruent may need more explanations in the details. For
example, you may need to use an angle fact.
19
UNIT 1: SECTION 2
INTRODUCTION
Dear student-teacher, this section introduces you to few ideas about Similar
Triangles (Similarity), Equiangular Triangles and Congruency (Congruous) and
Proofs of Theorems about Similar Triangles. You are to kindly read and search more
on this.

• Demonstrate the understanding of • Identify and analyze the
proofs of theorems about congruent, characteristics and the properties of
similar triangles and equiangular proofs of theorems about congruent,
triangles. similar triangles and equiangular
triangles.
• Use a variety of activities or ways in
learning proofs of theorems about
congruent, similar triangles and
equiangular triangles.
Proofs of theorems about congruent
SUMMARY:
Similar triangles (Similarity)
• Two triangles are similar if they have the same shape.
Equiangular Triangles
• Two triangles are equiangular that is angles which correspond are equal.
Congruency (congruous)
• Congruency is a special case of similarity.

• That is, all congruent triangles are similar, but only some similar triangles are
congruent.
20
TRAIL QUESTIONS
1. Find the value of 𝑥.
FIG. 1.12
PROOFS OF THEOREMS ABOUT SIMILAR TRIANGLES
Basically, there are three types of similar triangles, namely
1. Angle-Angle-Angle (AAA) triangles of similarities

2. Side-Angle-Side (SAS) triangles of similarities and
3. Side-Side-Side (SSS) triangles of similarities
All these are explained in the SECTION 2.
Also, visit https://tutors.com/math-tutors/geometry-help/similar-triangles
Similar triangles are triangles that have the same shape, but their sizes may vary.
All equilateral triangles, squares of any side lengths are examples of similar objects.
In other words, if two triangles are similar, then their corresponding angles are
congruent and corresponding sides are in equal proportion.
21
UNIT 1: SECTION 3: TEACHING PYTHAGORAS THEOREM
INTRODUCTION
Dear student-teacher, this is one of the familiar topics in mathematics since basic
school level, Pythagoras Theorem. As you know, here, we are going to look at how
the great mathematician, Pythagoras (Greek philosopher and mathematician who
proved the Pythagorean theorem; considered to be the first true mathematician (circa
580-500 BC). We will be using much of the “right-angled triangle” in this section.
We are to note that,
• Pythagoras theorem is about the relationship between the sides of a right-angle

triangle.
• A right-angle triangle is a triangle with 90° as one of its interior angles be as

in the figure below.
FIG. 1.13
22
In the triangle below,
FIG. 1.14
Note that the Opposite and Adjacent of a right-angle triangle are interchangeable
depending on the angle of interest.
Hypotenuse
• This is the side that is directly opposite to the right angle (90°). It is the longest
side of the right-angled triangles.
Opposite
• This is the side that is directly opposite to the angle of interest. For example,
consider the figure below.
• In the figure above, if we are interested in angle 𝜶, then the opposite is |𝐵𝐶|
since it is directly opposite to angle 𝜶. Likewise, if we are interested in angle
𝜽 then to opposite is |𝐴𝐵| since it is directly opposite to angle 𝜽.
23
Adjacent
• This is the side of the right-angle triangle that contains the angle of interest. In
the figure if we are interested in angle 𝛼, the adjacent is |𝐴𝐵|. Likewise, if we
in interested in angle 𝜃, the adjacent is |𝐵𝐶|.
PYTHAGORAS THEOREM QUOTE
• The Pythagoras theorem states that, in a right triangle, the square of the length
of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the opposite and
adjacent. That is (𝐻𝑌𝑃𝑂𝑇𝐻𝐸𝑁𝑈𝑆𝐸)2 = (𝑂𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑆𝐼𝑇𝐸)2 + (𝐴𝐷𝐽𝐸𝐶𝐸𝑁𝑇)2
FIG. 1.15
NOTE: Before using the Pythagoras Theorem, one of the angles must be at
right-angle. That is, exactly 𝟗𝟎𝟎 and drawn to show in the diagram (triangle)
before using Pythagoras Theorem.
So, from the above, we can have:
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
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Trial Questions
𝑃
1.
Find the side ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑅
3𝑐𝑐𝑚
𝑅 5 𝑐𝑚 𝑄
FIG. 1.16
Expected answer: ̅̅̅̅

𝑃𝑅 = 4 𝑐𝑚
2.
(4 + 𝑥) 𝑐𝑚
5 𝑐𝑚
12 𝑐𝑚
FIG. 1.17
Find the value of 𝑥.
Expected answer: 𝑥 = 9 𝑐𝑚
Generating the Pythagorean Triples (Triplets)
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
25
FIG. 1.18
Dear student-teacher, in groups of twos and threes, pose problems for yourselves and
solve them.
Activities on Pythagoras Theorem
Watch this introductory YouTube https://youtu.be/fQtq9tPQZ7A
1. An Isosceles triangle has 9cm equal sides and a base of 6 cm. Find the
height leaving you answer in a surd form.
Expected answer: The height of the Isosceles triangle is 6√2 𝑐𝑚.
2. A ladder is 5m long. The foot of the ladder is 4m from the base of the wall.
How far is the wall from the top of the ladder to the ground?
Expected answer: The wall is 3𝑚 from the top of the ladder to the ground.
26
FIG. 1.19
3. From the diagram above, the point P is 7cm from the centre O of a circle
of radius 5cm. Find the length of the tangent from the point to K correct to
three decimal places.
Expected answer: 4.899𝑐𝑚
27
UNIT 2: LINES AND CIRCLES: TEACHING AND APPLYING
INTRODUCTION
Dear Student-teacher, welcome to this second unit which talks about lines and circles.
As you could recall, a line is a one-dimensional figure, which has length but no width.
Also, a line is made of a set of points which is extended in opposite directions
infinitely. It is determined by two points in a two-dimensional plane. The two points
which lie on the same line are said to be collinear points. A circle as well could be
seen as a set of all points equidistant from a given point. The point from which all the
points on a circle are equidistant is called the centre of the circle, and the distance from
that point to the circle is called the radius of the circle. A circle is named with a single
letter, its centre. The sections under unit 2 include:
Section 1: Teaching equation of a line

Section 2: Equation of a circle
Section 3: Relationship between lines and Circles & Intersection of a line and a circle
Section 4: The tangent and normal to a circle at a point
Section 5: Intersection of two circles
UNIT 2: SECTION 1: TEACHING EQUATION
INTRODUCTION
This section forms the basics of the whole unit, LINES AND CIRCLES. You will be
introduced to different forms of the equation of a line, how to find their equations and
identifying the various aspects.
• Demonstrate in-depth • Identify and analyze fundamental ideas

knowledge of the key underlying the principles of geometric
mathematical concepts and sequences and series.
content at the JHS level
• Outline strategies for making connections
(NTS, 2c).
between mathematical concepts in lines and
circles and to apply them in teaching and
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• Make connections between solving real-life problems, as well as,
various areas of geometry and similar concepts in JHS mathematics
apply geometry to real life curriculum.
situations. (NTS, 2c; 3j).
• Identify and demonstrate the need for
• Use manipulatives and other diversity, equity and inclusion in their
TLMs including ICT in a collaborative group work on concepts
variety of ways in teaching based on lines and circles.
geometric concepts. (NTS, 3j)
• Conduct investigations with emphases
on visualization, pattern recognitions,
conjecturing, etc. within lines and
circles, using manipulatives, ICT tools,
and other relevant resources.
Dear student-teacher, we know that there are infinite points in the coordinate plane.
Consider an arbitrary point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) on the 𝑋 − 𝑌 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 and a line L. How will we
confirm whether the point is lying on the line 𝐿? This is where the importance of
equation of a straight line comes into the picture in two-dimensional geometry.
Equation of a straight line contains terms in 𝑥 and 𝑦. If the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) satisfies the
equation of the line, then the point P lies on the line 𝐿.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF EQUATIONS OF A STRAIGHT LINE
We know that there are infinite points in the coordinate plane. Consider an arbitrary
point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) on the 𝑋𝑌 plane and a line 𝐿. How will we confirm whether the point is
lying on the line 𝐿? This is where the importance of equation of a straight line comes
into the picture in two-dimensional geometry.
Equation of a straight line contains terms in 𝑥 and 𝑦. If the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) satisfies the
equation of the line, then the point 𝑃 lies on the line 𝐿.
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1. Equations of horizontal and vertical lines
Equation of the lines which are horizontal or parallel to the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is 𝑦 =

𝑎, where 𝑎 is the 𝑦 – coordinate of the points on the line.
Similarly, equation of a straight line which is vertical or parallel to 𝑦 −

𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is 𝑥 = 𝑎, where a is the 𝑥-coordinate of the points on the line.
For example, the equation of the line which is parallel to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and contains the
point (2,3) is 𝑦 = 3.
Similarly, the equation of the line which is parallel to 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and contains the
point (3,4) is 𝑥 = 3.
FIG. 2.1
2. Point-slope form equation of line
Consider a non-vertical line 𝐿 whose slope is 𝑚, 𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦) be an arbitrary point

on the line and 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) be fixed point on the same line.
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FIG. 2.2
THE SLOPE OF A LINE
The slope of a line characterizes the general direction in which a line points. To find
the slope, you divide the difference of the y-coordinates of a point on a line by the
difference of the x-coordinates.
FIG. 2.3
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Example One
1
The slope of a line going through the point (1,2) and the point (4,3) is 3.
FIG. 2.4
We can see from figure… that:

𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 3 − 2 = 1
𝑅𝑢𝑛 = 4 − 1 = 3
1
Hence the slope = 3
Example 2 of the Slope of A line
−3
The slope of the line through the points (3, 4) and (5, 1) is 2 because every time that
the line goes down by 3(the change in y or the rise) the line moves to the right (the
run) by 2.
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Let us use this example to find a formula. Find the slope of a line passing through the
points(4,3)and(-2,-1).
We will use the letter m

for slope.
FIG. 2.5
FIG. 2.6
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Here is the official formula:
FIG. 2.7
So, in our last example...
But, notice something cool...
The order of the points does not matter! Let us switch them and see what we get:
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Let us try our new formula with a second example:
Find the slope of a line passing through
YOUR TURN:
Without graphing, find the slope of the line that passes through the points
One of the most important properties of a straight line is in how it angles away from
the horizontal. This concept is reflected in something called the "slope" of the line.
Let us take a look at the straight line y = ( 2/3 ) x – 4. Its graph looks like this:
FIG. 2.8
To find the slope, we will need two points from the line.
35
Pick two x's and solve for each corresponding y:
If, say, x = 3, then y = ( 2/3 )(3) – 4 = 2 – 4 = –2.
If, say, x = 9, then y = ( 2/3 )(9) – 4 = 6 – 4 = 2.
(By the way, we picked the x-values to be multiples of three because of the fraction.
It is not a rule that you have to do that, but it is a helpful technique.)
So the two points (3, –2) and (9, 2) are on the line y = ( 2/3 )x – 4.
To find the slope, you use the formula:
(Why "m" for "slope", rather than, say, "s"? The official answer is: Nobody knows.)
The subscripts merely indicate that you have a "first" point (whose coordinates are
subscripted with a "1") and a "second" point (whose coordinates are subscripted with
a "2"); that is, the subscripts indicate nothing more than the fact that you have two
points to work with. It is entirely up to you which point you label as "first" and which
you label as "second". For computing slopes with the slope formula, the important
thing is that you subtract the x's and y's in the same order. For our two points, if we
choose (3, –2) to be the "first" point, then we get the following:
The first y-value above, the –2, was taken from the point (3, –2); the second y-value,
the 2, came from the point (9, 2); the x-values 3 and 9 were taken from the two points
in the same order. If we had taken the coordinates from the points in the opposite
order, the result would have been exactly the same value:
As you can see, the order in which you list the points really does not matter, as long
as you subtract the x-values in the same order as you subtracted the y-values. Because
of this, the slope formula can be written as it is above, or alternatively it can be written
as:
Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All Rights Reserved
For emphasis: it does not matter which of the two formulas you use or which point
you pick to be "first" and which you pick to be "second". The only thing that matters
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is that you subtract your x-values in the same order as you had subtracted your y-
values.
Technically, the equivalence of the two slope formulas above can be proved by noting
that:
y1 – y2 = –y2 + y1 = –(y2 – y1)

x1 – x2 = –x2 + x1 = –(x2 – x1)
Doing the subtraction in the so-called "wrong" order serves only to create two "minus"
signs which cancel out.
The upshot: Do not worry too much about which point is the "first" point, because it
really does not matter.
Determining the slope from a line equation
Let us find the slope of a line equation:
• Find the slope of y = –2x + 3.
Graphing the line, it looks like this:
FIG. 2.9
Pick a couple of values for x, and find the corresponding values for y.
Picking x = –1, we get y = –2(–1) + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5.
Picking x = 2, we get y = –2(2) + 3 = –4 + 3 = –1.
Then the points (–1, 5) and (2, –1) are on the line y = –2x + 3.
The slope of the line is then calculated as:
37
Now YOU try it!
Look at the previous equations and their graphs.
For the first equation, y = ( 2/3 )x – 4, the slope was m = 2/3.
The line, as you moved from left to right along the x-axis, was heading up toward the
top of the drawing; technically, the line was "increasing".
For the second line, y = –2x + 3, the slope was m = –2.
The line, as you moved from left to right along the x-axis, was heading down toward
the bottom of the drawing; technically, the line was "decreasing".
This relationship is always true: Increasing lines have positive slopes, and decreasing
lines have negative slopes. Always!
This fact can help you check your calculations: if you calculate a slope as being
negative, but you can see from the graph that the line is increasing (so the slope must
be positive), you know you need to re-do your calculations.
Increasing lines have positive slopes; decreasing lines

have negative slopes. With this in mind, consider the
following horizontal line:
y=4
Its graph is shown to the right.
FIG. 2.10
Is the horizontal line going up; that is, is it an increasing line?
No, so its slope would not be positive.
Is the horizontal line going down; that is, is it a decreasing line?
No, so its slope would not be negative.
What number is neither positive nor negative? Zero!
So the slope of this horizontal line is zero. Let us do the calculations to confirm this
value.
Using the points (–3, 4) and (5, 4) on the line, the slope is:
38
This relationship is true for every horizontal line: a slope of zero means the line is
horizontal, and a horizontal line means you will get a slope of zero. (By the way, all
horizontal lines are of the form "y = some number", and the equation "y = some
number" always graphs as a horizontal line.)
Now consider the vertical line x = 4:
Is the vertical line going up on one end?
Well, kind of.
Is the vertical line going down on the other end?

FIG. 2.11
Well, kind of.
Is there any number that is both positive and

negative? No.
Verdict: vertical lines have NO SLOPE. In particular, the concept of slope simply does
not work for vertical lines. The slope does not exist!
Let us do the calculations. We will pick any two points (4, 5) and (4, –3) on the line;
the slope is:
(We cannot divide by zero, which is of course why this slope value is "undefined".)
This relationship is always true: a vertical line will have no slope, and "the slope is
undefined" means that the line is vertical. (By the way, all vertical lines are of the form
"x = some number", and "x = some number" means the line is vertical. Any time your
line involves an undefined slope, the line is vertical, and any time the line is vertical,
you will end up dividing by zero if you try to compute the slope.)
Note: It is very common to confuse these two lines and their slopes, but they are very
different. Just as "horizontal" is not at all the same as "vertical", so also "zero slope"
is not at all the same as "no slope". The number "zero" exists, so horizontal lines do
39
indeed have a slope. But vertical lines do not have any slope; "slope" just does not
have any meaning for vertical lines. It is very common for tests to contain questions
regarding horizontals and verticals. Do not mix them up!
Now YOU try it!
Slopes of Parallel and Perpendicular lines
Parallel lines and their slopes are easy. Since slope is a measure of the angle of a line
from the horizontal, and since parallel lines must have the same angle, then parallel
lines have the same slope, and lines with the same slope are parallel.
Perpendicular lines are a bit more complicated. If you visualize a line with positive
slope (so it is an increasing line), then the perpendicular line must have negative slope
(because it will be a decreasing line). So perpendicular slopes have opposite signs.
The other "opposite" thing with perpendicular slopes is that their values are
reciprocals; that is, you take the one slope value, and flip it upside down. Put this
together with the sign change, and you get that the slope of the perpendicular line is
the "negative reciprocal" of the slope of the original line, and two lines with slopes
that are negative reciprocals of each other are perpendicular to each other.
In numbers, if the one line's slope is m = 4/5, then the perpendicular line's slope will be
m = –5/4. If the one line's slope is m = –2, then the perpendicular line's slope will be m
= 1 /2 .
TRY OUT: State whether the lines through the given pairs of points are "parallel,
perpendicular, or neither".
• One line passes through the points (–1, –2) and (1, 2);
• Another line passes through the points (–2, 0) and (0, 4).
Are these lines parallel, perpendicular, or neither?

To answer this question, we need to find the slopes.
Since these two lines have identical slopes, then they are parallel.
• One line passes through the points (0, –4) and (–1, –7); another line passes
through the points (3, 0) and (–3, 2). Are these lines parallel,
perpendicular, or neither?
40
Find the values of the slopes. Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All
Rights Reserved
By flipping the "3" and then changing its sign, we obtain " –1/3". In other words,
these slopes are negative reciprocals, so the lines through the points are
perpendicular.
• One line passes through the points (–4, 2) and (0, 3); another line passes
through the points (–3, –2) and (3, 2). Are these lines parallel,
perpendicular, or neither?
Find the slopes.
These slope values are not the same, so the lines are not parallel. The slope
values are not negative reciprocals either, so the lines are not perpendicular.
Then the answer is "neither".
Note: When asked a question of this type ("are they parallel or perpendicular?"), do
not start drawing pictures. If the lines are close to being parallel or close to being
perpendicular (or if you draw the lines messily), you can very-easily get the wrong
answer from your picture. Besides, they are not asking if the lines look parallel or
perpendicular; they are asking if the lines actually are parallel or perpendicular. To be
sure of your answer, do the algebra.
Activity 3.4
1. Find the gradients of the lines joining the following pairs of points
a. (1, 1) and (4, 5)
1 1
b. (2 , 1)and (4 , −1)
2. Determine the slope of the line through the points (2, 4) and (-2, 2). If the point
(6, y) lies on this line, find the value of y.
Summary
In this section, you have learnt that
• To find the slope, you divide the difference of the y-coordinates of a point on
a line by the difference of the x-coordinates.
41
• To find the slope, you use the formula:
Suggested Answers for Activity 3.4

4
1. a. 3
b. 8
2. 𝑦=6
TRIAL QUESTION
I. If the equation of a certain straight line has a slope 𝑚 = 2 and passes through
the point (2, 3). Find the actual equation.
Expected answer: 𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 = 𝟎
II. Find the equation of the line which has:
a. slope 𝑚 = −3 and passes through the point (2, −1).
1
b. slope 𝑚 = 2 and passes through the point (0, 5).
2
c. slope 𝑚 = 5 and passes through the point (1, − 3).
3 1
d. slope 𝑚 = − 5 and passes through the point (− 7 , 4).
1 1 1
e. slope 𝑚 = 4 and passes through the point (2 , 3).
NOTE: The general equations of a line are mainly in the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑦 =

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐.
3. Two-point form equation of line

Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be the general point on the line L which passes through the points
𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ).
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FIG. 2.12
Dear student-teacher, you could see from the diagram above that the three points are
on a straight line. Hence, they are said to be collinear. Collinear points and points
which line on the same straight line.
NOTE: Two points which has a straight line drawn through cannot be said as being
collinear. In other words, three or more lines which line in the same straight lines are
rather said to be collinear.
Now from the diagram, slope of 𝑃𝐴 = slope of 𝐴𝐵.

𝑦−𝑦 𝑦 −𝑦
That is 𝑥−𝑥1 = 𝑥2−𝑥1.
1 2 1
𝑥−𝑥1
Therefore, 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) × 𝑥
2 −𝑥1
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4. Slope-intercept form equation of line
FIG. 2.13
Consider a line whose slope is 𝑚 which cuts the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 at a distance "𝑎" from the
origin. Then the distance a is called the 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of the line.
The point at which the line cuts 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 will be (0, 𝑎).
Then the equation of the line be
𝑦 − 𝑎 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 0)
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑎
Similarly, a straight-line having slope m cuts the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 at a distance b from the
origin will be at the point (𝑏, 0). The distance b is called 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of the line.
Equation of the line will be: 𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑏)
44
5. Intercept form
FIG. 2.14
Consider a line 𝐿 having 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡, 𝑎 and 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡, 𝑏, then the line

touches 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 at (𝑎, 0) and 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 at (0, 𝑏).
𝑏−0
By two-point form equation, 𝑦 − 0 = 0−𝑎 × (𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑏
𝑦= × (𝑥 − 𝑎)
−𝑎
𝑏
𝑦 = − × (𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑎
𝑏
𝑦 = (𝑎 − 𝑥)
𝑎
𝑏𝑎 𝑏𝑥
𝑦= −
𝑎 𝑎
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑏𝑎 − 𝑏𝑥, divide through by 𝑎𝑏
𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑎 𝑏𝑥
= −
𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏
𝑦 𝑥
=1−
𝑏 𝑎
45
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
𝑎 𝑏
Determination of the equation of a line when two points are given
Now you know how to find the slope, let us look at finding a whole equation.
What is the equation of this line?
Fig. 4.4
As already stated, anytime we need to get the equation of a line, we need two
things
a point a slope
So, what do we do as we are just given two points and no slope?
No problem, we will just use the two points to obtain the slope as indicated above:
Check it out:
Let us find the equation of the line that passes through the points
This one is a three-stepper...
STEP 1: Find the slope
46
STEP 2: Now, choose an arbitrary point on the line and call it (x, y). Use it with
any of the two given points to obtain the slope of the line again.
𝒚−𝟑
ie m = 𝒙−𝟏 .
STEP 3: Equate this new slope to the one in step 1
𝒚−𝟑 −𝟐
ie m = =
𝒙−𝟏 𝟑
Multiplying through and rearranging we have:
𝟑(𝒚 − 𝟑) = −𝟐(𝒙 − 𝟏)
𝟑𝒚 − 𝟗 = −𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐
𝟑𝒚 = −𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐 + 𝟗
𝟑𝒚 = −𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟏
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 − 𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎
−𝟐 𝟏𝟏
𝒚= 𝒙+
𝟑 𝟑
YOUR TURN:
Activity 1. Find the equation of the line passing through the points ( -4 , 5 ) and (
2 , -3 ).
Another method is the "point-slope" formula:
47
y − y1 = m(x − x1)
We choose any point on the line as being point "1", so let us just use point (2,3):
y − 3 = m(x − 2)
Use the formula from above for the slope "m":
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 4−3 1
Slope m = = =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 6−2 4
And we have:
1
1. y − 3 = (4)(x − 2)
That is an acceptable answer, but we could simplify it further:

𝑥 2
2. y−3=4−4
𝑥 1
3. y= − +3
4 2
𝑥 5
4. y= +
4 2
Which is now in the "Slope-Intercept (y = mx + b)" form.
Check It!
Let us confirm by testing with the second point (6, 4):
𝑥 5 6
5. y= + = + 2.5 = 1.5 + 2.5 = 4
4 2 4
Yes, when x = 6 then y = 4, so it works!
48
Another Example
What is the equation of this line?
Fig. 4.5
Start with the "point-slope" formula:
y − y1 = m(x − x1)
Put in these values:
• x1 = 1
• y1 = 6
• m = (2−6)/(3−1) = −4/2 = −2
And we get:
y − 6 = −2(x − 1)
We can change it to "Slope-Intercept (y = mx + b)" form:
6. y − 6 = −2x + 2
7. 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 8
2
8. Activity 2. The slope of a given line is 5 and the line passes through the point
(−3, 6). Deduce the equation of the line.
9. Activity 3. Find the slope of the line passing through the points A(2,5) and
B(−1, −3) and hence equation of the line.
49
The Big Exception
The previous method works nicely except for one particular case: a vertical line:
FIG. 2.15
A vertical line's gradient is undefined (because you cannot divide by 0):
𝑦𝐴−𝑦𝐵 4−1 3
M = = = = undefined
𝑥𝐴− 𝑥𝐵 2−2 0
But there is still a way of writing the equation: use x = instead of y =, like this:
10. x=2
Straight-line equations, or "linear" equations, graph as straight lines, and have simple
variable expressions with no exponents on them. If you see an equation with only x
and y, as opposed to, say x2 or y2, then you are dealing with a straight-line equation.
There are different types of "standard" formats for straight lines; the particular
"standard" format your book refers to may differ from that used in some other books.
(There is, ironically, no standard definition of "standard form".) The various
"standard" forms are often holdovers from a few centuries ago, when mathematicians
could not handle very complicated equations, so they tended to obsess about the simple
cases. Nowadays, you need not worry too much about the "standard" forms; this
section will only cover the more-helpful forms.
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Summary
• We learned in this section that the slope of a line passing through two given
points (𝑥, 𝑦) and (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is
• The slope of the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is zero and the slope of the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is undefined
Answers to the Activities
11. 3𝑦 + 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
36
12. 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 5
8
13. 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 5 , 5𝑦 − 8𝑥 + 7 = 0
TRIAL QUESTIONS
I. If an equation of line has the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 as 𝑎 = 3 and 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 at

𝑏 = 4, find the actual equation.
Solution
𝑥 𝑦
The intercept equation is 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1
𝑥 𝑦
Hence, 3 + 4 = 1
𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟏𝟐 (Expected answer)
II. If an equation of line has the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 as 𝑎 = −5 and 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 at
1
𝑏 = 2, find the actual.
2
III. If an equation of line has the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 as 𝑎 = − 3 and 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 at
1
𝑏 = − 2, find the actual.
1
IV. If an equation of line has the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 as 𝑎 = 4 and 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 at
𝑏 = −1, find the actual.
51
1
V. If an equation of line has the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 as 𝑎 = − and 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 at
3
2
𝑏 = − 5, find the actual.
Dear student-teacher, note that Common exercises will give you some pieces of
information about a line, and you will have to come up with the equation of the line.
How do you do that?
The Form for the Equation of a line
The most useful form of straight-line equations is the "slope-intercept" form:
y = mx + b.
In the slope-intercept form of a straight line, we have y, m, x, and b. So the only thing
we do not have so far is a value for is b (which gives us the y-intercept). Then all we
need to do is plug in what we are given for the slope and the x and y from this particular
point, and then solve for b.
This is called the slope-intercept form because "m" is the slope and "b" gives the y-
intercept. Slope-intercept form is the most preferred . It is in the form "y=", which
makes it easiest to plug into, either for graphing or doing word problems. Just plug in
your x-value; the equation is already solved for y. This also is the only format you can
plug into your (nowadays obligatory) graphing calculator; you have to have a "y="
format to use a graphing utility. However, the best part about the slope-intercept form
is that you can read off the slope and the intercept right from the equation. This is great
for graphing at? You plug in whatever they give you, and solve for whatever you need,
like this:
• Find the equation of the straight line that has slope m = 4

and passes through the point (–1, –6).
Okay, you have been given the value of the slope; in this case, m = 4. Similarly,
in giving a point on the line, they have given you an x-value and a y-value. For
this line: x = –1 and y = –6.
In the slope-intercept form of a straight line, we have y, m, x, and b. So the

only thing we do not have so far is a value for is b (which gives us the y-
intercept). Then all we need to do is plug in what we are given for the slope
and the x and y from this particular point, and then solve for b:
y = mx + b
(–6) = (4)(–1) + b
–6 = –4 + b
–2 = b
52
Then the line equation must be "y = 4x – 2".
What if we are not given the slope?
• Find the equation of the line that passes through the points (–2, 4) and (1,
2).
Well, if we have two points on a straight line, we can always find the slope;
that is what the slope formula is for.
Now we have the slope and two points. We know we can find the equation (by
solving first for "b") if we have a point and the slope. So we need to pick one
of the points (it does not matter which one), and use it to solve for b. Using the
point (–2, 4), we get:
y = mx + b
−2
4 = ( 3 ) (–2) + b
4
4 = 3+ b
4
4–3=b
12 4
–3=b
3
8
b=3
−2 8
...so y = ( ) x + 3.
3
On the other hand, if I use the point (1, 2), I get:
y = mx + b
−2
2 = ( 3 ) (1) + b
−2
2= +b
3
2
2+3=b
6 2
+ =b
3 3
53
8
b=+3
So it does not matter which point I choose. Either way, the answer is the same:
−𝟐 8
y=(𝟑)x+3
As you can see, once you have the slope, it does not matter which point you use in
order to find the line equation. The answer will work out the same either way.
The other format for straight-line equations is called the "point-slope" form. For this
one, you are given a point (x1, y1) and a slope m, and are required to plug it into this
formula:
y – y1 = m(x – x1)
Do not let the subscripts scare you. They are just intended to indicate the point they
give you. You have the generic "x" and generic "y" that are always in your equation,
and then you have the specific x and y from the point they gave you; the specific x and
y are what is subscripted in the formula. Here is how you use the point-slope formula:
• Find the equation of the straight line that has slope m = 4 and passes
through
the point (–1, –6).
This is the same line that we found on the previous page, so we already know
what the answer is (namely, y = 4x – 2). But let us see how the process works
with the point-slope formula.
We have been given m = 4, x1 = –1, and y1 = –6. We will plug these values
into the point-slope form, and solve for "y":
y – y1 = m(x – x1)
y – (–6) = (4)(x – (–1))
y + 6 = 4(x + 1)
y + 6 = 4x + 4
y = 4x + 4 – 6
y = 4x – 2 Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All Rights
Reserved
This matches the result we got when we plugged into the slope-intercept form. This
shows that it really does not matter which method you use (unless the text or teacher
specifies). You can get the same answer either way, so use whichever method works
more comfortably for you.
54
You can find the straight-line equation using the point-slope form if you are just given
a couple of points:
• Find the equation of the line that passes through the points (–2, 4) and (1,
2).
We have already answered this one, but let us look at the process. We should
−2 8
get the same result (namely, y = ( 3 ) x + 3 ).
Given two points, we can always find the slope:
Then we can use either point as our (x1, y1), along with this slope we have just
calculated, and plug in to the point-slope form. Using (–2, 4) as the (x1, y1), we
get:
y – y1 = m(x – x1)
y – (4) = ( – 2/3)(x – (–2))
y – 4 = ( – 2/3 )(x + 2)
y – 4 = ( – 2/3 ) x – 4/3
y = ( – 2/3 ) x – 4/3 + 4
y = ( – 2/3 ) x – 4/3 + 12/3
y = ( – 2/3 ) x + 8/3
This is the same answer we got when we plugged into the slope-intercept form. So,
unless your text or teacher specifies the method or format to use, you should use
whichever format suits your taste, because you will get the same answer either way.
There is one other consideration for straight-line equations: finding parallel and
perpendicular lines.
Here is the usual format for the question:
• Given the line 2x – 3y = 9 and the point (4, –1), find lines through the point
that are:
(a) parallel to the given line and
(b) perpendicular to it.
55
In other words, we have been given a reference line, 2x – 3y = 9, that we will
be comparing to, and some point somewhere else on the plane, namely, (4, –
1).
Then we want to find the line through (4, –1) that is parallel to (that has the
same slope as) 2x – 3y = 9.
On top of that, we then want to find the line through (4, –1) that is
perpendicular to (that has a slope that is the negative reciprocal of the slope of)
2x – 3y = 9.
Clearly, the first thing we need to do is solve "2x – 3y = 9" for "y", so that we
can find our reference slope: Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All
Rights Reserved
2x – 3y = 9
–3y = –2x + 9
y = ( 2/3)x – 3
So the reference slope from the reference line is m = 2/3.
Since a parallel line has an identical slope, then the parallel line through (4, –
1) will have slope m = 2/3. Now we have a point and a slope. So we will use
the point-slope form to find the line:
y – (–1) = ( 2/3 )(x – 4)

y + 1 = ( 2/3 ) x – 8/3
y = ( 2/3 ) x – 8/3 – 3/3
y = ( 2/3 ) x – 11/3
This is the parallel line that we were asked for.
For the perpendicular line, we have to find the perpendicular slope. The
reference slope is m = 2/3, and, for the perpendicular slope, we will flip this
slope and change the sign. Then the perpendicular slope is m = – 3/2. So now
we can do the point-slope form. Note that the only change from the calculations
we just did is that the slope is different now.
y – (–1) = ( – 3/2 )(x – 4)
y + 1 = ( – 3 /2 ) x + 6
y = ( – 3 /2 ) x + 5
Then the full solution to this exercise is:
parallel: y = ( 2/3 ) x – 11/3
56
perpendicular: y = ( – 3 /2 ) x + 5
Warning: If a question asks you whether two given lines are "parallel, perpendicular,
or neither", you must answer that question by finding their slopes, not by drawing a
picture! Pictures can only give you a rough idea of what is going on, but you cannot
tell "by looking" that lines with slopes of, say, m1 = 1.00 and m2 = 0.99 are NOT
parallel, because they will surely look parallel on their graphs. But since 1.00 does not
equal 0.99, the lines are not parallel. Find the slopes; do not just draw the pictures.
Slope intercept vs Point Slope Form
There are a few different ways to find the equation of a line from 2 points.
FIG. 2.16
The first half of this page will focus on writing the equation in slope intercept form
like the example below.
However, if you are comfortable using the point slope form of a line, then skip to the
second part of this page because writing the equation from 2 points is easier with point
slope form .
Example
Equation from 2 points using Slope Intercept Form
Find the equation of a line through the points (3,7) and (5,11)
Step 1
Calculate the slope from 2 points
57
Step 2
Substitute the slope for 'm' in the slope intercept form of the equation
y = mx +b
y = 2x +b
Step 3
Substitute either point into the equation. You can use either (3,7) or (5,11)
Step 4
Solve for b, which is the y-intercept of the line
Step 5
Substitute b, -1, into the equation from step 2
Problem 1
Find the equation of a line through the following 2 points: (4,5) and (8,7)
Solution
7−5 1
Slope =8−4 = 2
1
𝑦 − 5 = (𝑥 − 4)
2
58
1
𝑦= 𝑥+3
2
ACTIVITY (YOUR TURN)

1. What is the equation of the straight line that passes through the points (1, -4) and
(3, 2)?
A y=x-5
B y = 2x - 4
C y = 3x - 7
D y = 3x + 1
2. What is the equation of the straight line that passes through the points (-5, 2) and
(7, -1)?
A
B
C
D
3. What is the equation of the straight line that passes through the points (-2, 5) and
(3, -5)?
A y = -2x + 1
B y = -2x + 9
C y = 2x + 9
D y = 2x + 1
(8, 1)?
A
B
C
D
5. What is the slope of the straight line passing through the points (-2, 7) and (3, 10)?
C
D 3
59
6. What is the slope of the straight line passing through the points (3, -1) and (9, 2)?
(7, 6)?
A
B
C
D
8. What is the equation of the straight line that passes through the points (-3, -5) and
(5, -8)?
A
B
C
D
60
FIG. 2.17
9. What is the equation of the straight line passing through A and B?
61
10. what is the equation of a line passing through the point (3,7) and has the slope of
-2
A 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 13
B 𝑦 = −2𝑥 − 1
C 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1
D 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 13
What is the equation used for?
The equation of a line is used in two main ways.
1. As a compact way of defining a particular line. If we wanted to tell how to

draw a particular line by email, we could write "draw the line defined by y =
1.2(x-15) + 27 ". You could then plot this line exactly. We could also tell it to
you in English: "draw a line with slope 1.2 that passes through the point P(15,
27)"
2. To locate points on the line. If we wanted to find a point on the same line which
has an x-coordinate of say 20, we could insert 20 for x in the equation y=1.2(x-
15) + 27 and find that its y-coordinate is 33. Similarly, if we were given the y-
coordinate, we could solve it for x instead.
Answers to the Activities
1. C 2. A 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. D 7. B 8. C 9. D 10. D
What are the Intercepts of a Line?

Intercepts of a line are the points where the line crosses the axes. Thus, there are two
possible intercepts for a line on the Cartesian plane, the x-intercept and the y-intercept.
The x-intercept is where the graph crosses the x axis.
X-intercept
The word 'intercept' looks like the word 'intersect'. Think of it as where the graph
intersects the x-axis.
With that in mind, what value is y always going to be on the x-intercept? No matter
where you are on the x-axis, y’s value is 0, that is a constant. We will use that bit of
information to help us find the x-intercept.
62
y-intercept
If the x-intercept is where the graph crosses the x-axis where do you think the graph
crosses for the y-intercept? If you said the y-axis, you are absolutely right.
This time it is x’s value that is 0. Anywhere you would cross the y-axis, x’s value is
always 0. We will use this titbit to help us find the y-intercept.
The straight line on the graph below intercepts the two coordinate axes. The point
where the line crosses the x-axis is called the [x-intercept]. The [y-intercept] is the
point where the line crosses the y-axis.
FIG. 2.18
Notice that the y-intercept occurs where x = 0, and the x-intercept occurs where y = 0.
Below is an illustration of another presentation of a graph of a linear function which

highlights the x and y intercepts:
63
FIG. 2.19
In the above illustration, the x-intercept is the point (2, 0) and the y-intercept is the
point(0,3).
Keep in mind that the x- and y- intercepts are two separate points. There is only
one point that can be both an x- and y- intercept at the same time, do you know
what point that is?
If you said the origin, (0, 0), give yourself a pat on the back.
The intercepts of a line are the points where the line intercepts, or crosses, the
horizontal and vertical axes.
Linear equations can be written in many different ways. The following chart
represents a few of the more useful methods:
Form used for answers..
The form Ax + By = C
A,B,C cannot be fractions
Line has slope m and
The slope-intercept form y = mx + b
y-intercept b.
The point-slope form y-y1 = m(x-x1)
contains (x1, y1)
Line has x-intercept a and
The intercept form
y-intercept b.
Find an equation of the line with x-intercept 6 and y-intercept 3.

Solution: Use the intercept method from above with a = 6 and b = 3.
x/6 + y/3 = 1 multiply by 6 to eliminate the fractions x + 2y = 6
64
Find an equation of line with X intercept=5 and Y intercept =8
With that information, you know that two points on the line at (5,0) and (0,8).
Now you find the slope between those two points:
(8-0)/(0-5) = -8/5
Since slope is also -A/B, and an equation in standard form is Ax + By = C, you know
the first part of the equation is 8x + 5y = something.
To find C (the "something") plug in one of the points into what you have:
8(5) + 5(0) =45.
Therefore, your answer is 8𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 45.

Activities 1. Find the equation of the line with the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡, 5 and 𝑦 −
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡, −4 using the intercept form.
2. Find the equation of the line with 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡, –6 and 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡, −3
using the general form.
Summary
In this section we learnt that to find the equation of the line the following must be
applied
Form used for answers..
The form Ax + By = C
A,B,C cannot be fractions
The slope-intercept form y = mx + b
y-intercept b.
The point-slope form y-y1 = m(x-x1)
contains (x1, y1)
Line has x-intercept a and
The intercept form
y-intercept b.
Summary
In this lesson we learnt how to;
• Find the slope of a line passing through two given points

• Find the equation of the straight line that has slope and passing through
the point
• Find the equation of the line that passes through two points
65
Answer to the activities
1. 5𝑦 − 4𝑥 + 20 = 0
2. 2𝑦 + 𝑥 + 6 = 0
DETERMINATION OF THE SLOPE AND INTERCEPT FROM A GIVEN

EQUATION OF A LINE
Dear student-teacher, subsections are provided to give more elaborate discussions of

the section. The discussions are on how to determine the slope and intercept from the
equation of a line.
Finding the Slope of a Line from the Equation
This is going to be a lot like what we just did at the end of the last section.
So far, we have shown you how to find the slope from the graph and when you have
two points...
But what if you just have the equation?
If it is like this guy, then it is a snap!
So, what if it is in standard form like this?
Well, it is not too bad. We just do a little algebra and get it into
y = mx + b form.
To do this, we solve for y:
66
ACTIVITY 1. TRY IT:
Find the slope using algebra:
Here is another one:
Solve for y:
They just get a little messier:
67
Solve for y:
Activity 2 (YOUR TURN)
Find the slope using algebra:
Calculating Intercepts
We can use the characteristics of intercepts to quickly calculate them from the equation
of a line. Just see how easy it is, as we find the x- and y-intercepts for the
line.
To find the y-intercept, we substitute 0 for x in the equation, because we know that
every point on the y-axis has an x-coordinate of 0. Once we do that, we can solve to
find the value of y. When we make x = 0, the equation becomes, which works out to y
= 2. So when x = 0, y = 2. The coordinates of the y-intercept are (0, 2).
68
Example
Problem 3y + 2x = 6
3y + 2(0) = 6
3y = 6
Answer y = 2
Now we will follow the same steps to find the x-intercept. We will let y = 0 in the
equation, and solve for x. When y = 0, the equation for the line becomes
, and that works out to x = 3. When y = 0, x = 3. The coordinates of the x-intercept are
(3, 0).
Example
Problem
3y + 2x = 6
3(0) + 2x = 6
2x = 6
Answer x = 3
Activity 3
What is the y-intercept of a line with the equation ?
A)
B) (-4, 0)
C) (0, -4)
D) (5, -4)
69
Using Intercepts to Graph Lines
Knowing the intercepts of a line is a useful thing. For one thing, it makes it easy to
draw the graph of a line—we just have to plot the intercepts and then draw a line
through them. Let’s do it with the equation . We figured out that the
intercepts of the line this equation represents are (0, 2) and (3, 0). That’s all we need
to know:
FIG. 2.20
Intercepts and Problem-solving
Intercepts are also valuable tools for predicting or tracking a process. At each intercept,
one of the two quantities being plotted reaches zero. That means that the intercepts of
a line can be used to mark the beginning and the end of a process.
Imagine a student named Morgan who is buying a laptop for $1,080 to use for school.
Morgan is going to use the computer store’s finance plan to make this purchase—
she’ll pay $45 per month for 24 months.
70
She wants to know how much she will still owe after each month of the plan. She can
keep track of her debt by making a graph. The x-axis will be the number of months
and the y-axis will represent the amount of money she still owes on the finance plan.
Morgan knows two points in her pay-off schedule. The day she buys the computer,
she’ll be at 0 months passed and $1,080 owed. The day she pays it off completely,
she’ll be at 24 months passed and $0 owed. With these two points, she can draw a line,
running from the y-intercept at (0, 1080) to the x-intercept at (24, 0).
FIG. 2.21
Morgan can now use this graph to figure out how much money she still owes after any
number of months.
Let’s look at another situation involving intercepts, this time when we know only one
intercept and want to find the other. Joe is a lifeguard at the local swimming pool. It’s
the end of the summer, and the pool is being drained. Joe has to wait by the pool until
it’s completely empty, so no one falls in and drowns. How can poor Joe figure out how
long that’s going to take?
If Joe has taken an algebra course, he’s got it made. The pool contains 10,200 gallons
of water. It drains at a rate of 680 gallons per hour. Joe can use that information to
make a table of how much water will be left in the pool hour by hour.
71
x, Time y, Volume of Water
(gallons)
(hours)
0 10,200
1 9,520
2 8,840
3 8,160
4 7,480
Once he’s calculated a few data points, Joe can use a graph and intercepts as a short-
cut to find out how long it will be until the pool is dry. Joe’s starting point is the y-
intercept, where the pool is full at 10,200 gallons and the elapsed time is 0. Next, he
plots the volume of the pool at 1, 2, 3, and finally 4 hours.
Now all Joe needs to do is connect the points with a line, and then extend the line until
it meets the x-axis.
FIG. 2.22
72
The line intercepts the x-axis when x = 15. So now Joe knows—the pool will take 15
hours to drain completely. It’s going to be a long day.
Summary
We’ve now seen the usefulness of the intercepts of a line. When we know where a line
crosses the x- and y-axes, we can easily produce the graph or the equation for that line.
When we know one of the intercepts and the slope of a line, we can find the beginning
or predict the end of a process.
Answers to the activities
1. 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −3
−7
2. 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 2
3. 𝐶
In conclusion dear student-teacher, you have learnt about the different forms of
equations of a straight line. Kindly visit the site www.byjus.com and learn more.
73
UNIT 2: SECTION 2: EQUATION OF A CIRCLE
INTRODUCTION
Dear student-teacher, in this section, you are going to learn about the equation of a
circle (not Area of a circle). You will need to acquaint yourself in knowing at least
nine parts of a circle. You should be able to describe all these parts of the circle
perfectly. Thereafter, you need to know how to use the Radius and Centre of a circle
in finding the equation of circles.
LEARNING OUTCOMES LEARNING INDICATORS
Demonstrate in- depth knowledge of the Identify and analyse fundamental ideas
underlying the principles of geometric
key mathematical concepts and content
sequences and series;
at the JHS level(NTS, 2c) Outline strategies for making
connections between
mathematical concepts in
lines and circles and to apply them
•Make connections between various in teaching and solving real-life
problems, as well as, similar
areas of geometry and apply geometry to concepts in JHS mathematics
real life situations. (NTS, 2c; 3j) curriculum
Identify and demonstrate the need

for diversity, equity and inclusion in
their collaborative group work on
concepts based on lines and circles.
•Demonstrate value as well as respect for
Conduct investigations with emphases
equity and inclusion in the mathematics
on visualization, pattern recognitions,
classroom.
conjecturing, etc. within lines and
•Use manipulatives and other TLMs circles, using manipulatives, ICT tools,
including ICT in a variety of ways in and other relevant resources.
teaching geometric concepts. (NTS, 3j)
74
Some main parts of a circle
Dear student-teacher, you are to note that many objects that we come across in our
daily life are ‘round’ in shape such as a coin, bangles, bottle caps, the earth, wheels
etc. In layman terms, the round shape is often referred to as a circle. A closed plane
figure, which is formed by the set of all those points which are equidistant from a fixed
point in the same plane, is known as a circle. In other words, a circle can be described
as the locus of a point moving in a plane, in such a way that its distance from a fixed
point is always constant. The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the
constant distance between any point on the circle and its centre is called the radius.
FIG. 2.23
Note: the yellowish coloured area is called a QUADRANT. Don’t forget what a
NORMAL is.
i. A Tangent
A line touching the circle at one single point is known as the tangent to the
circle.
ii. A chord
A line segment joining two different points on the circumference of a circle
is called a chord of the circle. A circle can have any number of chords.
Diameter is the largest chord of a circle.
75
iii. An arc
A part of a circumference of the circle is known as an arc. An arc is a
continuous piece of the circle.
iv. A segment
Part of a circle bounded by a chord and an arc is known as a segment of
the circle. It has the major segment and minor segment.
v. A sector
A sector of a circle is the part bounded by two radii and an arc of a circle.
ACTIVITY
Dear student-teacher, kind identify the remaining parts and describe them in pairs.
Show them to your Course Tutor for assessment.
(a) Equation of a circle with a centre at the origin

Examine the diagram of the circle in fig 5.1 below. You will notice that the point P on
the circumference of the circle has coordinates (x, y). This OP starts from the origin
O; therefore, OP is a radius.
Y
P(X,
Y)
R
X
O (0,
0)
FIG. 2.24
Now we are going to develop an equation for this circle whose radius is r, with centre
at the origin O (0, 0).
Pay attention to |𝑂𝑃| = √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 = 𝑟 the definition of a circle, the distance OP must

be constant and equal to 𝑟, by the distance formula,
|𝑂𝑃|2 = (𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 ; that is
|𝑂𝑃| = √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 = 𝑟 … … . (𝑖). When we square both sides of the equation (i),
we shall obtain 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 …… (ii).
76
Equation (ii) gives us the standard equation of a circle with radius 𝑟, and center from
the origin, 𝑶(0,0).
You will notice that 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 2 have the same co-efficient. If their co-efficient were
different, then the equation will not be the equation of a circle.
Example 1
Write in standard form the equation of a circle of radius 3, whose centre is at the origin.
Solution
Let P(x, y) be a point on the circumference and origin (0,0) with r = 3.
Using the distance formula, the required equation will be (𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = 32 ,
which simplifies to 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9
The required equation is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 9 = 0
Example 2
Write in standard form the equation of a circle of radius 7, whose centre is 𝑂(0,0).
Solution
If we follow the procedure in example 1, then we can write out the required equation
as 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 49 = 0
(b) Equation of a circle with a centre not at the origin, i.e. centre at (h, k)
Let us study the diagram of the circle in Fig 5.2 below. You will notice that this time,
the centre of the circle is not at the origin as in Fig 5.1. Let the centre C, have
coordinate (ℎ, 𝑘) and the point P on the circumference with co-ordinates (𝑥, 𝑦).
FIG. 2.25
77
Y
P (X, Y)
C (H, K)Q(X, K)
X
O H
FIG. 2.26
From Fig 2.26, |𝐶𝑃|2 = 𝑟 2. By the use of the distance formula again, we shall have
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 ….. (iii)
Equation (iii) is the standard equation of a circle with radius r and with centre at
(h, k).
Example 3
Find an equation for the circle of radius 4 centered at (-5, 3).
Solution
From equation (iii) with ℎ = −5, 𝑘 = 3 and 𝑟 = 4 we obtain
(𝑥 + 5)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 42 . If desired, this equation can be written in an expanded
form by squaring the terms, then simplifying:
(𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 25) + (𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 9) − 16 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 18 = 0
78
Example 4
Find an equation for the circle with centre (1, -2) that passes through (4, 2).
Solution
The radius r of the circle is the distance between (4, 2) and (1, -2),
So 𝑟 = √(1 − 4)2 + (−2 − 2)2 = 5

We now know the centre and radius, so we can use equation (iii) to obtain the equation
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 25 which can also be written as
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 20 = 0
Example 5
1 3
Find the equation of the circle with radius 2 and centre (2 , 4)
Solution
1 3 1 2 3 2
From equation (iii) with ℎ = 2 , 𝑘 = and 𝑟 = 2 we obtain (𝑥 − 2) + (𝑦 − 4) =
4
22 . If desired, this equation can be written in an expanded form by squaring the terms,
then simplifying:
1 3 9
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + ) + (𝑦 2 − 𝑦 + ) − 4 = 0
4 2 16
3 1 9
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 + + −4=0
2 4 16
3 51
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 − =0
2 16
𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝒚𝟐 − 𝟏𝟔𝒙 − 𝟐𝟒𝒚 − 𝟓𝟏 = 𝟎
The General Equation of a circle

From fig 5.2 considering the equation (iii), (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 . We can expand
equation (iii) to obtain
𝑥 2 − 2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑘𝑦 + 𝑘 2 − 𝑟 2 = 0 or re-arranged as
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2ℎ𝑥 − 2𝑘𝑦 + ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 − 𝑟 2 = 0. Note that ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 − 𝑟 2 =
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡,
ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 − 𝑟 2 = 𝑐, therefore ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 − 𝑐 = 𝑟 2 , then we will have
𝑟 = √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 − 𝑐 ……… (iv)

Therefore the general equation of a circle is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2ℎ𝑥 − 2𝑘𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 … . . (𝑣),
where (h, k) is the the co-ordinates of the centre and 𝑐 = ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 − 𝑟 2 .
79
Also, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 …. (vi), where,
So, we have ℎ = −𝑔 and 𝑘 = −𝑓 ; from equation (vi), the centre of the circle is
(−𝑔, −𝑓) and 𝑟 = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐. Therefore, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2ℎ𝑥 − 2𝑘𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 … . . (𝑣)
OR 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 …. (vi) are the General equations of a
circle.
We can apply the completing the square method to express equation (vi) as follows;
(𝑥 − 𝑔)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑓)2 = 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 …. (vii)
You will notice that:
• The equation is of the second degree in 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦.
• The co-efficient of 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 2 are equal
• There is no terms as 𝑥𝑦
Degenerate cases of a circle

Note that, equations such as this (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 …. (viii)
Depending on the value of r, the following situations occur;
• (𝑘 > 0) The graph is a circle with centre (ℎ, 𝑘) and radius √𝑟.
• (𝑘 = 0) The only solution of the equation is 𝑥 = ℎ, 𝑦 = 𝑘, so the
graph is the simple point (ℎ, 𝑘).
• (𝑘 < 0) The equation has no real solutions and consequently no
graph.
Example 6
Describe the graphs of
(a) (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 = −9
(b) (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 = 0
Solution
(a) There are no real values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 that will make the left side of the
equation negative. Thus, the solution set of the equation is empty, and the
equation has no graph.
(b) The only values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 that will make the left side of the equation zero
(0) are 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = −4. Thus, the graph of the equation is the single point
(1, -4).
Activity 5.1
1. Write in standard form the equation of a circle of radius 6, whose centre is
𝑂(0,0).
2. Write in standard form the equation of a circle of radius 9, whose centre is at
the origin.
80
3. Find the equation of the circle with radius 3 and centre (3, 3)
1 3
4. Find the equation of the circle with radius 3 and centre (− 4 , 4)
5. Copy and complete the table
EQUATION OF A CIRCLE STANDARD FORM CENTRE RADIUS

(h, k) r
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2 = 9 .………………… (2, 5) 3
(𝑥 + 7)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 16 ………………….. (-7, -1) 4
…………………………… 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 25 = 0 ……… 5
(𝑥 − 4)2 + 𝑦 2 = 5 …………………. (4, 0) √5
Summary
You have learnt in this section that:
• The standard equation for a circle with radius r, and centre at the origin (0, 0)
is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2
• The standard equation for a circle with radius r, and centre at C(h, k) is
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
• Degenerate cases of a circle
Note that, equations such as this (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 …. (viii)
Depending on the value of r, the following situations occur;
• (𝑘 > 0) The graph is a circle with centre (ℎ, 𝑘) and radius √𝑟.
• (𝑘 = 0) The only solution of the equation is 𝑥 = ℎ, 𝑦 = 𝑘, so the
raph is the simple point (ℎ, 𝑘).
• (𝑘 < 0) The equation has no real solutions and consequently no
graph.
Suggested Answers to Activities

Activity
1. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 36 = 0
2. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 81 = 0
3. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 0
4. 8𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 12𝑦 − 67 = 0
5. Completed Answers
81
EQUATION OF A STANDARD FORM CENTRE RADIUS
CIRCLE
(h, k) r
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2 = 9 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎𝒚 + 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎 (2, 5) 3
(𝑥 + 7)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 16 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟏𝟒𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟑𝟒 = 𝟎 (-7, -1) 4
(𝒙 − 𝟎)𝟐 + (𝒚 − 𝟎)𝟐 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 25 = 0 (0, 0) 5

= 𝟓𝟐
(𝑥 − 4)2 + 𝑦 2 = 5 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎 (4, 0) √5
Dear student-teachers,
From the centre (ℎ, 𝑘), point on the circumference (𝑥, 𝑦) and radius 𝑟 which is a
constant distance from the centre to any part of the circle. Let’s name our centre as
𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) and the point on the circumference as 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦).
Now the length or distance in between 𝐶𝑃 which is 𝑟 is given as (𝐶𝑃)2 = 𝑟 2
But 𝑟 2 is the length of a line and found as
𝑟 2 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 , where 𝑟 is the radius and (ℎ, 𝑘) is the centre.
Hence, the unique STANDARD FORM OF EQUATION OF A CIRCLE is

𝑟 2 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 .
Equation of a circle when centre is NOTE at the origin (𝟎, 𝟎)
The standard form is 𝑟 2 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 .
TRIAL QUESTIONS
Find the equation of the circle with:
i. centre (3, −2) and radius 4.

ii. centre (2, −7) and radius 10.
iii. centre (4, 5) and radius 2.
1
iv. centre (2 , 0) and radius 6.
v. centre (−2, 1) and radius 1.
82
2
vi. centre (− , −4) and radius 3.
3
2
vii. centre (1, 5) and radius 4.
1
viii. centre (5, −3) and radius 8.
1
ix. centre (0,7) and radius 2.
9
x. centre (−4, −1) and radius 16.
xi. centre (√2, 1) and radius 2.

1
xii. centre (3 , √3) and radius 8.
xiii. centre (−2, √2) and radius √5.

√2
xiv. centre ( 2 , −5) and radius 1.
1
xv. centre ( , 1) and radius √2.
√3
NOTE
1. Could the radius of a circle be negative?

2. In groups of twos, discuss what you will do when a question has the radius to
be negative (Seek more clarification from your Course Tutor when done with
your discussions with examples).
Equation of a circle when centre is at the origin (𝟎, 𝟎)
If the centre is at the origin, then 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) = 𝐶(0,0).
Hence, given you 𝑟 2 = (𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
TRIAL
Find the equation of the circle with centre at the origin and radius:
i. √5
ii. 5
iii. 1
√2
iv. 4
83
v. 10
3
vi. 5
vii. {𝑥: 1 < 𝑥 < 3, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}

6
viii.
√8
ix. 25
1
x. 9
Transforming the standard form
𝑟 2 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 , with centre (−𝑔, −𝑓)
𝑟 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑔)2 + (𝑦 + 𝑓)2
𝑥 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 𝑔2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑓 2 = 𝑟 2
(𝑥 + 𝑔)2 + (𝑦 + 𝑓)2 = −𝑐 + 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2
Hence, centre = (−𝑔, −𝑓)
Radius, 𝑟 2 = −𝑐 + 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2
Therefore, 𝑟 = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
TRIALS
Finding the centre and radius when the equation is given
Student-teacher, in doing this, you need to compare the given with the general form
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
Find the centre and radius of the following equations of the circle:
i. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 6 = 0, answer: 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 (1, 1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 √8

ii. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 10𝑦 = −18, answer: 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 (3, 5) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 4
iii. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 14𝑦 − 47 = 0, answer:
𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 (2, −7) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 10
iv. 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 = 4𝑦 − 12𝑥 + 46, answer: 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 (−3, 2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 6
v. 1 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 = 0, answer:
1
𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 (1, − 2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 1
84
1 1 √37
vi. 3𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 2 + 6𝑥 + 3𝑦 2 , answer: 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 (− , ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠
3 2 6
• Find the equation of a circle given coordinates of ends of the diameter
A. ̅̅̅̅
Let us study the diagram of the circle in Fig 5 3 below carefully. It has 𝑄𝑅
as diameter with centre at C. you will notice that, now the centre of the
̅̅̅̅. Its coordinate will be (𝑎+𝑐 , 𝑏+𝑑). We have
circle, N is the midpoint of 𝑄𝑅 2 2
obtained the midpoint by dividing the sum of 𝑥 and 𝑦 coordinates of
Q(𝑎, 𝑏) and R(𝑐, 𝑑) respectively by two.
Y
Q (A, B)
R
N
R (C, D)
X
O
FIG. 2.27
Since the radius, r, is half the diameter, we shall have

1
𝑟 = 2 √(𝑎 − 𝑐)2 + (𝑏 − 𝑑)2 .. (i)
We have used the distance formula here. Have you noticed that? When we square both
sides of the equation (i)
1
𝑟 2 = 4 [(𝑎 − 𝑐)2 + (𝑏 − 𝑑)2 ] …… (ii)
We can state the standard equation of the circle with centre (h, k) and radius, r ?
Let us substitute our coordinates Q and Rand the value of 𝑟 2 into this standard
equation. If that then the equation of the circle will be
𝑎+𝑐 2 𝑏+𝑑 2 1
(𝑥 − ) + (𝑦 − ) = [(𝑎 − 𝑐)2 + (𝑏 − 𝑑)2 ]
2 2 4
Let us use the equation of the circle on the diameter to work some examples now.
85
Example 1
Find the equation of a circle that has a diameter with the endpoints given by the points
A (-1, 2) and B (3, 2).
Solution
The centre of the circle is the midpoint of the line segment making the diameter AB.
The midpoint formula is used to find the coordinates of the centre C of the circle.
−1 + 3 2 + 2
𝐶( , )
2 2
2 4
𝐶( , )
2 2
𝐶(1, 2)
The radius is half the distance between A and B.
1
𝑟2 = [(3 − (−1))2 + (2 − 2)2 ]
4
1
𝑟2 = [(4)2 + (0)2 ]
4
1
𝑟2 = × [16]
4
𝑟2 = 4
𝑟 = +√4
𝑟=2
So now, we substitute the coordinate of C and the radius in the standard equation of
the circle to obtain the equation:
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 22 ; expanding the brackets, we have;
(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) + (𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4) − 4 = 0 ; grouping squares and liked terms we
have; 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 1 + 4 − 4 = 0 ; therefore, the standard equation of the
circle obtained is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 1 = 0
Example 2
Find the equation of a circle if P (6, 4) and Q (-2, 7) are the endpoints of one of its
diameter.
86
Solution
Y
Q (-2, 7)
P (6, 4)
X
O
FIG. 2.28
The centre of the circle is the midpoint of the line segment making the diameter PQ.
The midpoint formula is used to find the coordinates of the centre C of the circle.
6−2 4+7
𝐶( , )
2 2
11
𝐶 (2, )
2
The radius is half the distance between P and Q.
1
𝑟2 = [(6 − (−2))2 + (4 − 7)2 ]
4
1
𝑟2 = [(8)2 + (−3)2 ]
4
1
𝑟2 = × [64 + 9]
4
1
𝑟2 = × 73
4
73
𝑟2 =
4
87
So now, we substitute the coordinate of C and the radius in the standard equation of
the circle to obtain the equation:
11 2 73 2
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − ) = (4) ; expanding the brackets, we have;
2
121 73 2
(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + (𝑦 2 − 11𝑦 + )−(4) = 0 ; grouping squares and liked
4
terms we have;
121 73 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 11𝑦 + 4 + − ( 4 ) = 0 ; Therefore, simplifying we shall have
4
the standard equation of the circle as:
16𝑥 2 + 16𝑦 2 − 64𝑥 − 176𝑦 − 4781 = 0
B. Alternative method to find the equation of a circle given the end points
of the diameter
P (X, Y)
A (X1, Y1) B (X2,

C
Y2)
FIG. 2.29
Let A, B, be the ends of a diameter of a circle, where A(x1, y1) and B (x2, y2)
Let P (x, y) be any point on the circle whose diameter is AB.
< 𝐴𝑃𝐵 = 900
(𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑃) × (𝑠𝑙𝑝𝑜𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑃) = −1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦 − 𝑦2
× = −1
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥 − 𝑥2
(𝑦 − 𝑦1 )(𝑦 − 𝑦2 ) = −(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦1 )(𝑦 − 𝑦2 ) = 0 which is required equation.
88
Example 3
Find the equation of a circle that has a diameter with the endpoints given by the points
A (-1, 3) and B (3, 2).
Solution
let P(x, y) be any point on the circle as shown below.
P (X, Y)
A (-1, 3) B (3, 2)
C
FIG. 2.30
By geometry if AB is the diameter then AP is perpendicular to PB.

Gradient of 𝐴𝑃 × gradient of 𝑃𝐵 = −1
𝑦−3 𝑦−2
× = −1
𝑥 − (−1) 𝑥 − 3
(𝑦 − 3)(𝑦 − 2) = −1[(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)] cross multiplication
(𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 + 6) = −1(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3) expanding
𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 + 6 = −𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 Simplifying we shall have the required equation as
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 3 = 0
THINKING: Follower the steps in this formula to solve examples 1 and 2
Activity 5.2
1. Find the equation of the circle with AB as diameter where A(1, -1) and B(4, 1)
2. Find the equation of a circle that has a diameter with the endpoints given by
the points A (2, 5) and B (-1, 8).
3. Find the equation of the circle with AB as diameter where
i. A (2, 1) and B (4, 7).
ii. A (-3, -1) and B (-5, -3).
iii. A (-5, 2) and B (2, -6).
89
Summary
i. If 𝑄(𝑎, 𝑏) and 𝑅(𝑐, 𝑑) are the end points of a diameter, then the equation
𝑎+𝑐 2 𝑏+𝑑 2 1
of the circle will be (𝑥 − ) + (𝑦 − ) = 4 [(𝑎 − 𝑐)2 + (𝑏 − 𝑑)2 ],
2 2
𝑎+𝑐 𝑏+𝑑
Here, the centre of the circle is given as 𝐶 ( 2 , 2 ) and the radius
1
𝑟 = √(𝑎 − 𝑐)2 + (𝑏 − 𝑑)2
2
ii. Alternative method to find the equation of a circle given the end points of
the diameter, Let A, B, be the ends of a diameter of a circle, where A(x1,
y1) and B (x2, y2). Let P (x, y) be any point on the circle whose diameter is
AB. < 𝐴𝑃𝐵 = 900
(𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑃) × (𝑠𝑙𝑝𝑜𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑃) = −1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦 − 𝑦2
× = −1
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥 − 𝑥2
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦1 )(𝑦 − 𝑦2 ) = 0 which is required equation.
Suggested Answers to Activity 5.2

1. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 0
2. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 − 13𝑦 + 38 = 0
3. i. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 15 = 0
ii. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 18 = 0
iv. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 22 = 0
Finding coordinates of the centre and the length of the radius from a given
Equation of a circle
A. Using the General equation

As learnt, the general forms of the equation of a circle are:
1. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 Centre= (a, b) and 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑐
2. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 Centre= (-g,-f) and 𝑟 2 = 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
Hence to determine the centre or radius of a circle, the given equation could be
compared with any of these general forms.
Example 1
Find the centre and radius of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 49 = 0.
90
Solution:
We can rewrite the equation in the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑦 − 49 = 0, comparing
the coefficients of the equations with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, implies that,
𝑐 = −42; 2𝑔 = 0, therefore 𝑔 = 0: 2𝑓 = 0, therefore 𝑓 = 0: and also comparing
(0, 0) with the Centre= (−𝑔, −𝑓) implies that the centre of the equation given is (0,
0), that is, 𝑔 = 0 and 𝑓 = 0,
To find the radius of the circle, we can use 𝑟 2 = 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐, implies that, 𝑟 2 = 02 +
02 − (−49), simplifying we shall get 𝑟 2 = 49; therefore 𝑟 = √49; 𝑟 = 7.
Therefore, the centre of the circle is (0, 0) and the radius is 7.
Example 2
Find the centre and radius of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 12 = 0.
Solution:
We shall compare 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 12 = 0 with the coefficients of the equation
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, implies that, 𝑐 = −12; 2𝑔 = −4, therefore 𝑔 =
−2: 2𝑓 = 6, therefore 𝑓 = 3: and also comparing (−2, 3) with the Centre=
(−𝑔, −𝑓) implies that the centre of the equation given is (2, −3), To find the radius
of the circle, we can use 𝑟 2 = 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐, implies that, 𝑟 2 = (−2)2 + (3)2 −
(−12), simplifying we shall get 𝑟 2 = 4 + 9 + 12; therefore 𝑟 = √25; 𝑟 = 5.
Therefore, the centre of the circle is (2, −3) and the radius is 5.
Example 3
Find the centre and radius of the circle 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 2 = 0.
Solution:
We shall divide through the equation 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 2 = 0 by 3, so that we
4 8 2
shall have; 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3 𝑥 + 3 𝑦 − 3 = 0;
4 8 2
compare 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3 𝑥 + 3 𝑦 − 3 = 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0. implies
2 4 2 8 4
that, 𝑐 = − 3; 2𝑔 = − 3, therefore 𝑔 = − 3: 2𝑓 = 3, therefore 𝑓 = 3: and also
2 4
comparing (− 3 , 3) with the Centre= (−𝑔, −𝑓) implies that the centre of the equation
2 4
given is (3 , − 3), To find the radius of the circle, we can use 𝑟 2 = 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐,
2 2 4 2 2 4 16 2
implies that, 𝑟 2 = (− 3) + (3) − (− 3), simplifying we shall get 𝑟 2 = 9 + + 3;
9
26 √26
therefore 𝑟 = √ 9 ; 𝑟 = .
3
91
2 4 √26
Therefore, the centre of the circle is ( , − ) and the radius is .
3 3 3
B. Using completing of squares

The centre and radius of a circle in a general form could be obtained by using “the
method of completing of squares” and hence compare the results with the centre-radius
form of the equation of a circle.
We shall use the method to determine the centre and radius of the examples above.
Example 1
Find the centre and radius of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 49 = 0.
Solution:
We know that one of the standard equations of a circle is (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 =
𝑟 2 …. (i) where (h, k) are the coordinates of the centre, and r the radius. The given
equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 49 = 0, can be expressed as (𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = 72 … (ii)
when we compare the components of equations (i) and (ii) we find that the centre (h,
k)=(0,0), which is the origin; we shall also notice that ℎ = 0, 𝑘 = 0 and 𝑟 = 7.
Hence the centre is (0, 0) and the radius is 7.
Example 2
Find the centre and radius of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 12 = 0.
Solution:
Here, we must first re-write the given equation in the standard form,
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 … (i). You know why we should do that when we are able
to express the given equation in the standard form, and then the centre and the radius
will be clearly seen.
We shall use completing the square method to express the given equation in the
standard form. We learnt how to solve quadratic equations using the completing the
squares method. I hope you will find its use here easy.
Let us write the given equation as follows:
(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + (−2)2 ) − (−2)2 + (𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + (3)2 ) − (3)2 − 12 = 0. The coefficient
of 𝑥 2 term is 1; therefore to complete the square, we take half the x coefficient and
1 2
square, getting [2 (−4)] = (−2)2 = 4.
92
To complete the squares for the y terms, we take half the coefficient of y and squares
1 2
getting [2 (6)] = 32 = 9. We then add these numbers to both sides of equation (ii),
as follows:
(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + (−2)2 ) + (𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + (3)2 ) = 12 + (−2)2 + (3)2
(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + (−2)2 ) + (𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + (3)2 ) = 12 + 4 + 9 we completed as
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 25, and comparing with (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 ;
ℎ = 2, 𝑘 = −3 and 𝑟 = √25 = 5 and we see that the centre is (2, -3) while the radius
is 5.
Example 3
Find the centre and radius of the circle 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 2 = 0.
Solution:
You will notice that the coefficient of 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 2 are 3 respectively. We shall divide
through the equation 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 2 = 0 by 3, When we do that the given
4 8 2
equation becomes: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3 𝑥 + 3 𝑦 − 3 = 0; using the completing the squares
method, Let us write the given equation as follows:
4 2 2 2 2 8 4 2 4 2 2
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + (− ) ) − (− ) + (𝑦 2 + 𝑦 + ( ) ) − ( ) − = 0. The coefficient
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
of 𝑥 2 term is 1; therefore to complete the square, we take half the 𝑥 coefficient and
1 4 2 2 2 4
square, getting [2 (− 3)] = (− 3) = 9.
To complete the squares for the y terms, we take half the coefficient of y and squares
1 8 2 4 2 16
getting [2 (3)] = (3) = . We then add these numbers to both sides of equation
9
(ii), as follows:
4 2 2 8 4 2 2 2 2 4 2
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + (− ) ) + (𝑦 2 + 𝑦 + ( ) ) = + (− ) + ( )
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 2 2 8 4 2 2 4 16
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + (− ) ) + (𝑦 2 + 𝑦 + ( ) ) = + +
3 3 3 3 3 9 9
2 2 4 2 26
we completed as (𝑥 − 3) + (𝑦 + 3) = , and comparing with
9
2 4 26 √26
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 ; ℎ = , 𝑘 = − and 𝑟 = √ =
3 3 9 3
2 4 √26
we see that the centre is (3 , − 3) while the radius is .
3
93
Example 4
The equation of a circle is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 𝑘 = 0, where 𝑘 is a constant. If the
circle has radius 2 units, find the value of k.
Solution:
Comparing given equation with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
2𝑔 = 2 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑔 = 1
2𝑓 = −6 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓 = −3 and 𝑐 = 𝑘
But radius of a circle, 𝑟 2 = 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐;
22 = 12 + (−3)2 − 𝑘
4 = 10 − 𝑘
𝑘 = 6.
Alternatively
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 𝑘 = 0; using the method of completing the squares, we shall
get equation to be; (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 12 ) − 12 + (𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + (−3)2 ) − (−3)2 + 𝑘 = 0
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 12 ) + (𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + (−3)2 ) = −𝑘 + 12 + (−3)2
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 12 ) + (𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + (−3)2 ) = 10 − 𝑘
(𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 10 − 𝑘, and comparing with
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 ; ℎ = −1, 𝑘 = 3 and 𝑟 = √10 − 𝑘
we see that the centre is (−1, 3), but the radius is 2 = √10 − 𝑘.
4 = 10 − 𝑘; ∴ 𝑘 = 6.
Activity 5.4
1. Find the centre and radius of the following circles using;
a. The general form method
b. The method of completing of squares.
i. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 100 = 0
ii. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 8 = 0
iii. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2 = 0
iv. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 5 = 0
v. 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 0
vi. 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 4
vii. (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 9
2. The equation of a circle is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 𝑚 = 0, where 𝑚 is a
constant. If the circle has radius 4 units, find the value of m and the centre of
the circle.
94
Summary:
When finding the centre and radius of any given equation of a circle, it is ideal to use
any of these two methods;
o The general form method
o The method of completing of squares.
Suggested Answers to Activity 5.4

1. i. centre (0, 0) and radius is 10
ii. centre (−4, 1) and radius is 5
1 3 3√2
iii. centre (− 2 , − 2) and radius is 2
iv. centre (−3, 0) and radius is √14
3 1 √5
v. centre (4 , − 2) and radius is 4
vi. centre (0, 0) and radius is 2
vii. centre (2, −3) and radius is 3
2. centre (−2, 4) and radius is 4
95
UNIT 2: SECTION 3: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LINES AND CIRCLES
AND INTERSECTION OF A LINE AND CIRCLE
Introduction
Dear Student-teacher,
This section is to introduce you to the relationship between lines and circles. We have
already discussed about a line and a circle. We carry on to their relationship.
WATCH
Dear student-teacher , kindly spend some few minutes to use your internet device,
either computer or the android phone to watch https://youtu.be/ljRUCEY4ypQ
this video on lines and circles. You need to type it into your internet browser.
ACTIVITY:
In groups of twos or pairs, discuss among yourselves what you observed or learnt
in the video. Good!!!
INTERSECTION OF A LINE AND CIRCLE
There are three ways a line and a circle can be associated. That is, the line cuts the
circle at two distinct points, the line is a tangent to the circle or the line misses the
circle. To work out which case you have, use algebra to work out how many points of
intersection there are.
• If the line cuts through the circle, there will be two points of intersection
• If the line is a tangent to the circle, there will be one point of intersection
• If the line misses the circle, there will be no point of intersection
96
Example
FIG. 2.31
The diagram above shows the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 18𝑥 + 20𝑦 + 81 = 0 and three
lines:
i. 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1, which cuts the circle at two points (places).

ii. 𝑥 = 1, which cuts touches the circle. Hence, it is a tangent to the circle
iii. 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3, which does not cut or touches the circle.
NOTE
In line one (i) above, the straight-line cuts or touches the circle at two different
points. So, it must have two points of intersections.
In line two (ii) above, the straight-line cuts or touches the circle at one point. So, it
must have one point of intersection.
In line three (iii), guess!!! What do you think would be the result? Discuss with your
right or left elbow partner.
PROVING
Line one 𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝟏
97
Using the Substitution method to prove.
Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 in the equation of the circle given after the diagram.
𝑥 2 + (𝑥 + 1)2 + 18𝑥 + 20(𝑥 + 1) + 81 = 0, solve for 𝑥
2𝑥 2 + 40𝑥 = 102 = 0, simplifying it.
𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 51 = 0
By factorization, 𝑥 = −3, 𝑥 = −17.
Now substituting each of these 𝑥 values into the 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 18𝑥 + 20𝑦 + 81 = 0,
When 𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = −2. Therefore, one point of intersection is (−3, −2).
When 𝑥 = −17, 𝑦 = −16. Therefore, another point of intersection is (−17, −16).
Hence, the two points of intersection of the straight line 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 and the circle
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 18𝑥 + 20𝑦 + 81 = 0 are (−3, −2) and (−17, −16).
Line two, 𝒙 = 𝟏
By the Substitution method
Substitute 𝑥 = 1 into 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 18𝑥 + 20𝑦 + 81 = 0 and find the single point of

intersection.
NB: We have been told or already seen that this straight-line cut or touches the circle
at only one point. Hence, it will have one point of intersection.
(1)2 + 𝑦 2 + 18(1) + 20𝑦 + 81 = 0
𝑦 2 + 20𝑦 + 100 = 0, solve this quadratic equation by factorization.
𝑦 = −10
Hence, the single point of intersection between straight-line 𝑥 = 1 and

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 18𝑥 + 20𝑦 + 81 = 0 is (1, −10). Therefore, the line is tangential to the
circle.
98
Line three, 𝒚 = −𝒙 + 𝟑
By the Substitution method
We substitute 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3 into 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 18𝑥 + 20𝑦 + 81 = 0
𝑥 2 + (−𝑥 + 3)2 + 18𝑥 + 20(−𝑥 + 3) + 81 = 0
𝑥 2 + (𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9) + 18𝑥 − 20𝑥 + 60 + 81 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 + 18𝑥 − 20𝑥 + 60 + 81 = 0
2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 150 = 0, we need to factorize it after simplifying
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 75 = 0
Dear student-teacher, I could see that you are not able to factorize completely fully.
So, we need to find the discriminant.
The discriminant which is deduced from 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is given as 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐.
NOTE
- If the discriminant is less than zero (negative), that is 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, then the
quadratic equation has no real roots (solutions).
- There are two more rules about discriminants. Kindly search and study them.
From 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 75 = 0, 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −4 and 𝑐 = 75
Now, 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−4)2 − 4(1)(75)
= 16 − 300
= −284
Since, the answer (the discriminant is less than zero (negative), 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0), that is
−284 < 0, then the quadratic equation has no real roots. Hence, it does not touch the
circle.
99
ACTITIVIES
Do them in pairs
1. Show that the straight line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1 intersects the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 −

7𝑦 + 9 = 0 and determine the points of intersection.
Expected answer: The line and the circle intersect at two places. The
𝟏 𝟕
points of intersection are (𝟓 , 𝟓) and (𝟑, 𝟕)
2. Show that the line 3𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 8 is tangential to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 −

6𝑦 = 0. Determine the point of intersection.
Expected answer: The line and the circle intersect at one place. The point
of intersection is (𝟒, 𝟎).
3. Show that the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 8 does not intersect the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 −
2𝑦 − 3 = 0. Hence, find the value of the discriminant.
Expected answer: 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒕 = −𝟗𝟔.
100
UNIT 2: SECTION 4: THE TANGENT AND NORMAL TO A CIRCLE AT A
POINT
INTRODUCTION: You are welcome warmly to yet another section of the unit. In
unit 2, we learnt that the equation of a straight line through the point (𝑥1, 𝑦1)may be
expressed in the form 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ). We learnt that "𝑚" is the gradient of the
line. We also learn how to find the length of a tangent from a given external point.
Can you remember how to obtain the value of 𝑚? I hope you do, since we need to
know it to make our work in this section very successful
Learning Indicators: By the end of the section you will be able to:
• Defined tangent and normal and state how they are related.
• Find the equation of a tangent to a circle at a point.
• Find the equation of a normal to a circle at a point.
• Find the length of a tangent from a given external point
A. Equation of a tangent and normal at a point on a circle
The tangent to a circle

A straight line that touches a circle at a point on the circle is called a tangent. The line
drawn from the centre of a circle to the point of contact of the tangent to the circle is
perpendicular to the tangent at any point on the circle. From the figure below, 𝐴𝑃 is
perpendicular to 𝑃𝐵 is equal to the negative reciprocal of the gradient of 𝐴𝑃. This
condition is used to find the equation of a tangent to a circle.
P (𝑥1, 𝑦1 )
A
B
FIG. 2.32
Example 1
Find the equation of the tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 15 at the point
(−1, 2).
Solution
101
We shall first find the centre of the circle using the equation. The equation of the circle
is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 15 = 0
Comparing this with the general equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑔 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 = 2
Therefore the centre of the circle is (−𝑔, −𝑓) i.e. (1, −2)
The gradient of the line joining the centre (1, −2) and the point of contact is (−1, 2)
2−(−2)
𝑚1 = = −2.
−1−1
1 1
Therefore the gradient of the tangent is 𝑚2 = − −2 = 2.
1
Hence the equation of the tangent with gradient 2, and passing through (−1, 2).
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚2 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
1
𝑦 − 2 = (𝑥 + 1)
2
2𝑦 − 4 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 5 = 0
Example 2
Find the equation of the tangents of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2 at (2, −3).
Solution
Let us sketch this circle as shown below.
O (0, 0)
P (2, 3)
𝑙1
FIG. 2.33
3−0 3
From the diagram, the gradient of OP, the radius is, 𝑚1 = − 2−0 = − 2. The gradient
−1 2
of the tangent, 𝐿1 therefore is, 𝑚2= 3 =3
−
2
102
Using the equation of the straight line 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚2 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ), we shall express the
2
equation of the tangent, 𝐿1 at 𝑃(2, −3) as 𝑦 + 3 = 3 (𝑥 − 2)
3𝑦 + 9 = 2𝑥 − 4 𝑜𝑟
Therefore the tangent of the circle at 𝑃(2, −3) is 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 13 = 0
Example 3
Find the equation of the tangents of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10 = 0 at the points where
𝑥 = 1.
Solution
At 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10 = 0 gives
12 + 𝑦 2 − 10 = 0
𝑦 2 = 9 which gives
𝑦 = ±3
Thus, we have two points, namely, 𝑃1 (1, 3) and 𝑃2 (1, −3) ; as shown in the diagram
below.
𝑙1
𝑃1 (1, 3)
O (0, 0)
𝑃2 (1, −3)
𝑙2
FIG. 2.34
3−0
From the diagram, the gradient of 𝑂𝑃1 , the radius is, 𝑚1 = 1−0 = 3. The gradient of
1
the tangent, 𝐿1 therefore is, 𝑚2= − .
3

1
equation of the tangent, 𝐿1 at 𝑃(1,3) as 𝑦 − 3 = − 3 (𝑥 − 1)
3𝑦 − 9 = −𝑥 + 1 𝑜𝑟
Therefore the tangent of the circle at 𝑃(1,3) is 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 10 = 0.
−3−0
Similarly, from the diagram, the gradient of 𝑂𝑃2 , the radius is, 𝑚1 = 1−0
= −3. The
1
gradient of the tangent, 𝐿2 therefore is, 𝑚2= 3.
103
1
equation of the tangent, 𝐿2 at 𝑃(1, −3) as 𝑦 + 3 = 3 (𝑥 − 1)
3𝑦 + 9 = 𝑥 − 1 𝑜𝑟
Therefore the tangent of the circle at 𝑃(1, −3) is 𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 10 = 0.
Therefore the equations of the tangents of the circle are 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 10 = 0 and
𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 10 = 0
B. The normal to a circle

The normal to a circle is perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact. The
gradient of the normal to a circle is equal to the gradient of the line joining the centre
to the point of contact. From the figure below, the gradient of the normal 𝐵𝑃 is equal
to the gradient of 𝐴𝐵
P (𝑥1, 𝑦1 )
FIG. 2.35
Example 1
Find the equation of the normal to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 15 at point
(−1, 2).
Solution
By comparing the given equation with the general equation, the centre of the circle is
(1, −2), the gradient of the line joining the centre (1, −2) and the point of contact
(−1, 2) is 𝑚1 = −2.
Therefore the gradient of the normal with gradient 𝑚2 = −2.
Hence the equation of the normal with gradient 𝑚2 = −2, passing through the point
(−1, 2) is 𝑦 − 2 = −2(𝑥 + 1)
𝑦 − 2 = −2𝑥 − 2
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0
104
Example 2
Find the equation of the normal at the point (−2, 3) the circle
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 27 = 0.
Solution
By comparing the given equation with the general equation, the centre of the circle is
(2, −1), the gradient of the line joining the centre (2, −1) and the point of contact
(−2, 3) is 𝑚1 = −1.
Therefore the gradient of the normal with gradient 𝑚2 = −1.
Hence the equation of the normal with gradient 𝑚2 = −1, passing through the point
(−2, 3) is 𝑦 − 3 = −1(𝑥 + 2)
𝑦 − 3 = −𝑥 − 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 1 = 0.
C. Finding the length of a tangent from a given external point.

Let us study the diagram in the fig. 6.10 below. We have the length of tangent at P to
a point B (i.e. PB) can be found using Pythagoras theorem.
i.e. 𝐶𝐵 2 = 𝐶𝑃2 + 𝑃𝐵 2
𝑃𝐵 = √𝐶𝐵2 − 𝐶𝑃2 , where 𝐶𝐵 is the distance between the centre 𝐶 and the given point
𝐵 and 𝐶𝑃 is the radius of the circle. i.e.
√ distance between the 2

The length of tangent = ( ) − (radius)2
centre and the point
FIG. 2.36
105
Example 1
Find the length of the tangent from (−5, 8) to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 3 = 0.
Solution
Comparing the given equation to the general equation
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0.
𝑔 = −2; 𝑓 = −3, and 𝑐 = 3
Therefore the centre of the circle is (−𝑔, −𝑓) = (2, 3).
The radius of the circle is 𝑟 = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
𝑟 = √(−2)2 + (−3)2 − 3 = √10

The distance between the centre (2, 3) and the point (−5, 8) is
𝑑 = √(−5 − 2)2 + (8 − 3)2 = √74
distance between the 2

Therefore the length of tangent = √( ) − (radius)2
= √74 − 10 = √64 = 8
Thus the length of the required tangent is 8.
Example 2
A tangent from the point 𝒑(3,0) touches the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 1 = 0 at
𝑞. Find |𝑝𝑞|.
Solution
We shall first find the centre from the given equation, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 1 = 0
i.e. centre= (−1,2)
radius, 𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (2)2 − 1 = √4 = 2
FIG. 2.37 P(3,0

)
106
Distance from the centre, 𝑐(−1,2) to the point 𝑝(3,0)
|𝑝𝑞| = √(3 + 1)2 + (0 − 2)2
= √16 + 4 = √20
Using Pythagoras’s theorem: |𝑝𝑞|2 + |𝑞𝑐|2 = |𝑝𝑐|2
|𝑝𝑞|2 + 22 = (√20)2
|𝑝𝑞|2 + 4 = 20
|𝑝𝑞|2 = 16
|𝑝𝑞| = 4 units
Activity 6.3
1. Find the equation of the tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 − 12𝑦 − 59 = 0 at
the point 𝑃(1, 3).
2. Find the equation of the tangents of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 169 = 0 at the points
where 𝑦 = 12.
3. Find the equation of the normal to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 100 = 0 at the point 𝑦 =
8.
4. The normal at the point where 𝑥 = 3 is 𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 0. What is the equation of the
circle if its centre is at the origin?
5. Find the length of the tangent from (5, 4) to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 + 8𝑦 +
5 = 0.
Summary
In this section, you have learnt that:
• The tangent to the circle of the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is defined as being the straight
line through P, at right angle to the normal at the point.
1
• If the gradient of the tangent is 𝑚, then the gradient of the normal is − 𝑚.
• The equation of the tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 at any point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )is
−𝑥
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ), where 𝑚 = 𝑦 1
1
• The equation of the normal to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 at any point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )is
−𝑥
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥−), where 𝑚 = 𝑦 1
1
• The centre of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is (−𝑔, −𝑓)
• The gradient of the line joining (−𝑔, −𝑓) to the point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is given by
−𝑓 − 𝑦1
−𝑔 − 𝑥1
• The equation of the tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 at the
point
𝑔+𝑥
𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑓+𝑦1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
1
107
• The length of the tangents to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 form
the external point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) can be obtained by substituting coordinates of the
point into the circle as follows:
distance between the 2

The length of tangent = √( ) − (radius)2
Suggested answers to Activities

1. 𝑥+𝑦−4=0
2. 5𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 169 = 0; −5𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 169 = 0
3. 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 0;
4. 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 37
5. tangent length = 2√7 units
108
UNIT 2: SECTION 5: INTERSECTION OF TWO CIRLCES
Two circles can indeed intersect. So, we are today going to find the how to solve for
the points of intersection of two circle. The two circles must be genuinely equations
of the circle.
TRIAL
1. Find the points of intersection of the circles given as (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 −

16 = 0 and (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 − 8 = 1.
Solution
Dear student-teacher, we need to write each of them in the general form of an
equation of a circle.
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 − 16 = 0
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 − 16 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 14 = 0 …………………………eqtn 1
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 − 16 = 0
2. Find the points of intersection of the circles given by their equations as

follows (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 9 and (𝑥 − 1)2 +
(𝑦 + 1)2 = 16
Expected Answer:
(−0.96, 2.49) and (4.37, 1.16)
INTERSECTION OF TWO CIRCLES
You may be asked to show that two circles are touching, and say whether they're
touching internally or externally.
To do this, you need to work out the radius and the centre of each circle.
109
If the sum of the radii and the distance between the centres are equal, then the circles
touch externally.
If the difference between the radii and the distance between the centres are equal,
then the circles touch internally.
DETERMINING WHETHER TWO CIRCLES TOUCH EACH OTHER
Two circles will touch if the distance between their centres, 𝑑, is equal to the sum of
their radii, or the difference between their radii.
FIG. 2.38
Two circles will intersect at two points when 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 < 𝑑 < 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
FIG. 2.39
110
The centre of one circle will lie on the other circle when 𝑑 = 𝑟2 or 𝑑 = 𝑟2 .
FIG. 2.40
Two circles are concentric when 𝑑 = 0
FIG. 2.41
Example
1. Do the circles (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 9 and (𝑥 − 5)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 =

4 touch and if so, in what way?
111
Solution
Centres
Circle 1 𝐶1 = (1,1) and Circle 2 𝐶2 = (5, 4)
Length between Circle 1 and Circle 2
𝐶1 𝐶2 = √42 + 32 = 5
Radii
Circle 1, 𝑟1 = 3 and Circle 2, 𝑟2 = 2
Now, the length between them
𝐶1 𝐶2 = 5 and 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 3 + 2 = 5.
Since 𝐶1 𝐶2 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2, the circles touch externally.
Diagram below
FIG. 2.42
112
Example 2
Do the circles (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2=5 and (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2 =

45 touch and if so, in what way?
Answer:
𝐶1 𝐶2 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1.
Hence, they touch internally.
FIG. 2.43
SUMMARY
• The formular 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 3𝑔𝑠 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is used to work out the centre of

the circle, and the radius.
• The (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 is used to write the equation of the circle when
you know the centre and radius.
113
UNIT 3: CIRCLE THEOREMS: Learning, Teaching and Applying
Introduction
This unit introduces student-teachers to the interesting topic of circle, Circle Theorem.
The unit will entail angles in the same chord, angles at the circumference of opposite
segments, angle between a chord and line, tangent to a diameter of a circle, cyclic
quadrilaterals. In these lessons, we review and summarize the properties of angles that
can be formed in a circle and their theorems.
LEARNING OUTCOMES LEARNING INDICATORS
• Demonstrate in-depth • Identify fundamental and

knowledge of concepts based analyse ideas underlying the
on circle theorems and the principles of circle theorems.
relationships among them as • Outline strategies for
they are found in the JHS making connections
mathematics curriculum between mathematical concepts in
(NTS,2c) circle theorems and to apply them in
teaching and solving real- life
problems, as well as, similar concepts
in JHS mathematics curriculum.
• Demonstrate value as well as Identify and demonstrate the need for

respect for equity and inclusion diversity, equity and inclusion in their
in the mathematics classroom. collaborative group work on concepts
based on lines and circles.
• •Use manipulatives and other
TLMs including ICT in a Conduct investigations with emphases
variety of ways in eaching on visualization, pattern recognitions,
geometric concepts. (NTS,3j) conjecturing, etc. within lines and
circles, using manipulatives, ICT tools,
and other relevant resources.
114
KEY PARTS OF A CIRCLE NEEDED FOR THIS THEOREM
• A chord is a straight line that meets the circumference in two places. The
longest chord in a circle is the diameter.
• The major segment is the larger segment of a circle when it is enclosed by a
chord and the major arc.
• The minor segment is the smaller part of a circle when it is cut by a chord
and the minor arc.
• An arc is a part of the circumference. The major arc is longer than the minor
arc.
Some of the known theorems are as follows:
• Inscribed angles subtended by the same arc are equal.

• Central angles subtended by arcs of the same length are equal.
• The central angle of a circle is twice any inscribed angle subtended by the
same arc.
• Angle inscribed in semicircle is 90°.
• An angle between a tangent and a chord through the point of contact is equal
to the angle in the alternate segment.
• The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary
• The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite
angle.
• A radius or diameter that is perpendicular to a chord divides the chord into
two equal parts and vice versa.
• A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of
tangency.
• When two segments are drawn tangent to a circle from the same point outside
the circle, the segments are equal in length.
115
SECTION 1: Angles in the same chord
Subtended angles
An angle within a circle is created by two chords meeting at a point on the
circumference of a circle.
INSCRIBED ANGLES SUBTENDED BY THE SAME ARC ARE EQUAL
The following diagram shows inscribed angles subtended by the same arc are equal.
116
FIG. 3.1
∠𝑥 = ∠𝑦 because they are subtended by the same arc 𝐴𝐸𝐶.
CENTRAL ANGLES SUBTENDED BY ARCS OF THE SAME LENGTH ARE

EQUAL
The following diagram shows central angles subtended by arcs of the same length
are equal.
FIG. 3.2
∠𝑥 = ∠𝑦 if arc 𝐴𝐵 = arc 𝐶𝐷
THE CENTRAL ANGLE IS TWICE THE INSCRIBED ANGLE
The following diagrams show the central angle of a circle is twice any inscribed
angle subtended by the same arc.
117
FIG. 3.3
ANGLE INSCRIBED IN SEMICIRCLE IS 𝟗𝟎°
The following diagram shows the angle inscribed in semicircle is 90 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠.
FIG. 3.4
𝑃𝑂𝑄 is the diameter. ∠𝑃𝐴𝑄 = ∠𝑃𝐵𝑄 = ∠𝑃𝐶𝑄 = 900 .
118
SECTION3: ANGLES BETWEEN A CHORD AND A LINE
ALTERNATE SEGMENT THEOREM
The diagram shows an angle between a tangent and a chord through the point of
contact is equal to the angle in the alternate segment.
FIG. 3.5
The alternate segment theorem tells us that ∠𝐶𝐸𝐴 = ∠𝐶𝐷𝐸
119
SECTION 4: TANGENT TO A DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE
Introduction
In this section, student-teachers would be exposed to tangents. In a circle, there are

many radii.
TANGENT TO A CIRCLE THEOREM
A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of tangency.
FIG. 3.6
TWO-TANGENT THEOREM
When two line-segments are drawn tangent to a circle from the same point outside
the circle, the segments are equal in length.
In the following diagram:

If AB and AC are two tangents to a circle centred at O, then:
• the tangents to the circle from the external point A are equal.
• OA bisects the ∠BAC between the two tangents.
• OA bisects the ∠BOC between the two radii to the points of contact.
• triangle AOB and triangle AOC are congruent right triangles.
120
FIG. 3.7
121
SECTION 5: CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL
ANGLES IN A CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL
In a cyclic quadrilateral, the opposite angles are supplementary i. e. they add up to

180.
FIG. 3.8
𝑎 + 𝑐 = 1800 , 𝑏 + 𝑑 = 1800
EXTERIOR ANGLE OF A CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL IS EQUAL TO THE

INTERIOR OPPOSITE ANGLE
The following diagram shows the exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to
the interior opposite angle.
FIG. 3.9
The exterior angle ∠𝐴𝐷𝐹 is equal to the corresponding interior angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶.
The exterior angle ∠𝐷𝐶𝐸 is equal to the corresponding interior angle ∠𝐷𝐴𝐵.
122
RADIUS PERPENDICULAR TO A CHORD BISECTS THE CHORD
A radius or diameter that is perpendicular to a chord divides the chord into two equal
parts and vice versa.
FIG. 3.10
In the above circle, if the radius 𝑂𝐵 is perpendicular to the chord 𝑃𝑄 then, 𝑃𝐴 =

𝐴𝑄.
VIDEOS
1. QUICK WATCH: https://youtu.be/BDqELk2xCPU
This video gives a review of the following circle theorems: arrow

theorem, bow theorem, cyclic quadrilateral, semi-circle, radius-tangent
theorem alternate segment theorem, chord center theorem, dual tangent
theorem.
2. QUICK WATCH: https://youtu.be/0vceg1BiKGA
This video gives a review of the following circle theorems: same

segment, subtended by arc, angle in semicircle, tangents equal length,
radius tangent, alternate segment, bisect chord, cyclic quadrilateral. It
also includes the proofs of the theorem.
123
SUMMARY
Dear student-teacher, I know you have really learnt a lot concerning the various
circle theorems! We looked at angles in the same chord, angles at the circumference
of opposite segments, angle between a chord and a line, tangent to a diameter of a
circle, cyclic quadrilaterals, among others.
ACTIVITIES
FIG. 3.11
In the diagram above, 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are points on the circumference of a circle,

centre 𝑂. Angle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 430 .
a. Find the size of angle 𝐴𝑂𝐶.

b. Give reasons
Expected answer:
a. 810
b. The angle at the centre is double the angle at the
circumference.
124
1.
FIG. 3.12
𝐵 and 𝐷 are points on the circumference of a circle, centre O. 𝐴𝐵𝐶 is the

tangent to the circle at 𝐵
(a) Find the size of angle 𝑥
b. Give a reason for your answer
Expected answer
a. 620
b. Tangents meet the radius at 900
125
2.
FIG. 3.13
𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 are points on the circumference of a circle. Angle 𝐵𝐷𝐶 is 380
and one of the angles at the intersection of the chords 𝐵𝐷 and 𝐴𝐶 is 860 as
indicated.
a. Find the size of the angle 𝐵𝐴𝐶.
b. Give a reason for your answer.
Expected answer
a. 380
b. Angles in the same segment are equal
126
3.
FIG. 3.14
𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅 are points on the circumference of a circle, centre 𝑂. 𝑃𝑄 passes
through 𝑂. Angle 𝑅𝑃𝑄 = 670 . Find the size of angle 𝑃𝑄𝑅.
Expected answer: 230
FIG. 3.15
127
𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 are points on the circumference of a circle. Angle 𝐷𝐴𝐵 is 370 .
Find the size of angle 𝐵𝐶𝐷.
Expected answer:
1430
4.
FIG. 3.16
𝑄 and 𝑃 are points on the circumference of a circle, centre 𝑂. Find the size of
angle 𝑥.
Expected answer
260
5.
FIG. 3.17
𝐶 and 𝐵 are points on the circumference of a circle, centre 𝑂. 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐵𝐷 are
tangents to the circle. Find the size of angle 𝐶𝑂𝐷.
Expected answer
760
128
UNIT 4: GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS: TEACHING, LEARNING
AND APPLYING
INTRODUCTION
This is the fifth lesson on the topic Euclidean Geometry and Trigonometry in Year
two Semester 2. The prerequisite for this lesson is Knowledge and understanding of
concepts acquired by studying Geometry and Handling Data, which was taught in Year
one Semester two, as well as, topics covered in SHS core mathematics curriculum. To
help student teachers develop conceptual understanding of concepts in this lesson,
some fundamental concepts in geometric constructions (studied at the SHS) will be
reviewed. This will enable student teachers to audit their content knowledge and
experiences to establish and address their learning needs, perceptions and
misconceptions in geometric constructions and to support them continue to keep in
focus about their journey of becoming mathematics teachers at the JHS level. The
areas to be covered include Teaching construction of regular polygons and Teaching
construction of irregular polygons. The lesson begins with starters or mental
mathematics games, reinforcement games and activities about knowledge of
sequences. The main lesson focuses on reviewing student teachers’ conceptual
understanding of the properties of regular and irregular polygons and to build on what
they know in order to prepare them to use and develop further the necessary
mathematical thinking to handle future mathematics classroom with respect to
geometric constructions and their applications.
Student teachers have knowledge on shapes and space and their properties from Basic
School mathematics, JHS mathematics and geometry in SHS Core mathematics. They
have gone through some aspects of geometric construction and loci. They have also
been introduced to some foundational concepts of geometry in the course titled
“Learning, Teaching, and Applying Geometry and Handling”
Section 1: Construct a given line and Angle using ruler and a pair of compasses only
Section 2: Construct a given triangle using ruler and a pair of compasses only
Section 3: Construct a given quadrilateral using ruler and a pair of compasses only
Section 4: Teaching construction of regular and irregular polygons
Section 5: Construct a give Loci using ruler and a pair of compasses only
129
UNIT 4: SECTION 1: CONSTRUCT A GIVEN LINE AND ANGLE USING
RULER AND A PAIR OF COMPASSES ONLY
INTRODUCTION
Dear students we going study how to use the pair of compasses and the rule to construct
and draw some geometric figures. In this section, we will restrict ourselves to plane
figures. All that is left now is pick your pencils, pair of compasses and a rule so that
we can start together. My simple advice for you for this section in particular is that for
construction, cognitive moves directly with psychomotor, so as you read through the
steps, you draw alongside.
On successful completion of the Identify and analyse strategies for

course, student- teachers will be able to: solving problems in geometry
1. Demonstrate in-depth knowledge
Orchestrate well-planned
concepts JHS level (NTS, 2c) instructional activities in a hands-on
2. Make connections between various areas learning mode to develop concepts
of geometry and apply geometry to real life based on geometric construction.
situations. (NTS,2c; 3j)
3. Demonstrate value as well as respect for Identify and demonstrate the need
equity and inclusion in the mathematics for diversity, equity and inclusion
in their collaborative group work on
classroom geometrical construction
4. Use manipulatives and other TLMs Conduct investigations with
including ICT in a emphases on visualization, pattern
variety of ways in recognitions, conjecturing, etc.
teaching geometrical concepts. (NTS,3j) geometrical construction, using
manipulatives, ICT tools, and other
relevant resources.
Define concurrency and use it to find the incencentre, circumcenter, orthocenter and
centroid of a triangle
130
FIG. 4.1
A few points to remember when doing the types of geometric constructions covered
in these lessons:
• Do not use a protractor
• Use a sharp pencil
• Do not erase the construction lines. (They will show the examiner how the
lines or shapes were constructed).
CONSTRUCTING A GIVEN LINE
Construct line AB = 6.5cm

Steps:
1. Draw a straight line with your ruler.
2. Measure 6.5 cm on your rule with the compass
3. Pick a point on the line and construct an arc
4. With the same radius stand on the arc you constructed and construct another
arc
5. Label the line AB
FIG. 4.2
That is line AB = 6.5 cm
FIG. 4.3
131
Bisecting a given line
Bisecting a given line means dividing the line into two equal parts. The line bisector
is perpendicular to the given line so they are also called perpendicular bisectors. They
are also sometimes called mediators.
Steps:
1. Draw the given line AB
2. Use you compass to step at A, open more than half of the line and construct
and arc above and below the line
3. Using the same radius that you have opened step on B and construct and arc
above and below the line to meet the arcs that you constructed.
4. Draw a straight line through the points where the lines intersect to give the
perpendicular bisector.
FIG. 4.4
That is line AB has been bisected as below
FIG. 4.5
Constructing a perpendicular from at a given point on a straight line
Steps:
1. Construct the given line AB and mark the given point P
2. Step on point P with your compass, open your compass to a radius that
goes below the line and construct two arcs to intersect the line at X and Y
3. Step on X, open a convenient radius more than the half the distance XY
and construct an arc.
132
4. Step on Y, with the same radius construct an arc to intersect with the arc
first arc you constructed.
5. Draw a straight line through the points P and the intersecting arc to get
the perpendicular line at P.
FIG. 4.6
We have successfully constructed a perpendicular line to line AB at point P as in the

figure below.
FIG. 4.7
Constructing a perpendicular from a given point on a given straight line
Steps:
1. Construct the given line AB and mark the given point P
2. Step on point P with your compass, open your compass to a radius that
goes below the line and construct two arcs to intersect the line at X and Y
3. Step on X, open a convenient radius more than the half the distance XY
and construct an arc below the line.
4. Step on Y, with the same radius construct an arc to intersect with the arc
5. Draw a straight line through the points P and the intersecting arc to get
the perpendicular line at P.
133
FIG. 4.8
We have successfully constructed a perpendicular line from point P to line AB as in

the figure below.
FIG. 4.9
Constructing a parallel line to a given lint at a given distance or point.
Steps:
1. Construct the given line AB
2. Open your compass to the given distance or point, step on three points on
the line and construct three arc.
3. Draw a straight line on top of the three arcs to get the required parallel
line.
FIG. 4.10
134
Thus we have successfully constructed the al line parallel to AB as in the figure
below
FIG. 4.11
CONSTRUCTION OF ANGLES
Bisecting an angle (i.e. dividing an angle into two equal parts

Steps:
1. Construct the given angle ABC
2. Step on point B open your compass to a convenient radius and construct
an arc to cut the line AB at m and CB and n.
3. Step on m, open a convenient radius more than the half the distance mn
and construct an arc.
4. Step on n, with the same radius construct an arc to intersect with the arc
5. Draw a straight line through the points B and the intersecting arc to bisect
angle ABC
FIG. 4.12
Thus we have successfully bisected angle ABC as in the figure below
FIG. 4.13
135
Constructing of Angles
HINT: In constructing angles, you only need to know how to construct 60° and 90°.
Any other angle such as 15°, 22⅟2°, 30°, 45°, 75°, 105°, 120°, 135°, and 150° are
constructed by bisecting and adding angles to 60°, and 90°. Dear student, I hope you
could recall that these angles were learned in year one semester two.
You need to know how to construct angle 60°, the rest of the angles can be generated
Angles 60°
Steps:
1. Construct the given line AB
2. Step on the point you want to construct the angle say A and draw a semi-
circle using a convenient radius
3. With the same radius step at the point where the semi-circle cut the line
and construct and arc on the semi-circle
4. Draw a straight line with your ruler from point A through the point where
the arc intersects the semi-circle to get angle 60°
FIG. 4.14
We have successfully constructed 60° at A. Angle CAB below is 60°
FIG. 4.15
Angles 120°
Note that 120° = 60°+60°. That is we need to construct two 60°.
Steps:
1. Follow Step 11.7 to construct angle 60°
2. Then with the same radius used to construct the 60°, step on the 60° arc
and construct another arc on the semi-circle
136
the second arc intersect the semi-circle to get angle 120°
FIG. 4.16
We have successfully constructed 120° at A. Angle DAB below is 120°
FIG. 4.17
HINT: 120° is constructed by constructing 60° twice on the same semi-circle
ANGLES 30°
Note that half of 60° is 30°. That is we need to bisect 60° (i.e. divide 60° into two).
Steps:
1. Follow Step 11.7 to construct angle 60°
2. Step at the 60° arc, open to a convenient radius and construct an arc
3. With the same radius step at the point where the semi-circle meet the line
and construct another arc to intersect with the previous arc.
the arcs intersect get angle 30°
FIG. 4.18
We have successfully constructed 30° at A. Angle EAB below is 120°
137
FIG. 4.19
HINT: 30° is constructed by bisecting 60°
ACTIVITY 4.1
Construct the following angles, 15°, 22⅟2°, 45°,90°, 75°, 105°, 135°, and 150°
Summary
HINT
• You need to know how to construct angle 90°, the rest of the angles can be
generated
• Note that 45° is half of 90°, therefore we have to bisect 90° to get 45°
1 1
• Note that 22 2° is half of 45°, therefore we have to bisect 45° to get 22 2°
• Note that 90°+45° = 135°therefore we have to add 45° to 90°
1 1 1
• Note that 45° + 22 2° = 67 2° therefore we have to add 22 2° to 45°
• To construct angles 75° and 105° we need to construct angle 90°, 60° and
120° at the same point.
• Note that 60° +15° = 75° therefore we have to add15° to 60°
• Note that 90° + 15° = 105° therefore we have to add 15° to 90°
138
Unit 4: Section 2: Construct a given triangle using ruler and a pair of compasses
only
INTRODUCTION
On successful completion of the course, Identify and analyse strategies for

student- teachers will be able to: solving problems in geometry
1. Demonstrate in-depth knowledge
concepts JHS level (NTS, 2c) instructional activities in a hands-
2. Make connections between various on learning mode to develop
areas of geometry and apply concepts based on geometric
geometry to real life situations. construction
(NTS, 2c; 3j)
3. Demonstrate value as well as
respect for equity and inclusion in Identify and demonstrate the need
for diversity, equity and inclusion
the mathematics classroom. in their collaborative group work on
geometrical construction
4. Use manipulatives and other TLMs Conduct investigations with

including ICT in a variety of ways emphases on visualization, pattern
in teaching geometrical concepts. recognitions, conjecturing, etc.
(NTS, 3j) geometrical construction, using
manipulatives, ICT tools, and other
relevant resources.
,
Constructing Triangles
A triangle can be constructed if;
A. The length of all the three sides are given

B. The length of two sides and one interior angle is given
C. The length of one side and two interior angles are given
139
A. Constructing a triangle given the length of all the three sides.
CONSTRUCTION OF SSS - SIDE, SIDE, SIDE TRIANGLE
1) Draw a reference line, if one is not given, and place a starting dot (A).
2) Copy segment c. With compass, measure the span of segment c. It is usually
easier to start with the longest segment. (Place a small arc to show that you measured
the segment.)
3) Place compass point on A and transfer this span with a small arc crossing the
reference line. (Label B.)
4) Copy segment b. With compass, measure span of segment b.
5) Place compass point on A and transfer the span of b making an arc above the
reference line.
6) Copy segment a. With compass, measure span of segment a.
7) Place compass point on B and transfer the span of a making an arc above the
reference line, intersecting with previous arc. (Label C.)
8) Connect points A, B and C for ΔABC.
FIG. 4.20
ACTIVITY 4.2: Construct triangle ABC so that |AB|= 7cm, |BC|= 8cm and |AC|=
6cm.
Solution
1. Construct line |AB| = 7cm
2. To construct |BC|= 8cm, open you compass to 8cm, step at point B and
construct an arc
3. To construct |AC|=6cm, open you compass to 6cm, step at point A and
construct an arc to intersect the first arc that you constructed and label it C.
4. Draw a straight line from point A and B to the point of C.
140
FIG. 4.21
Thus we have successfully constructed triangle ABC.
FIG. 4.22
B. Constructing a triangle given the length of two sides and one interior angle.
• Construction of SAS - Side, Angle, Side Triangle

1) Draw a reference line, if one is not given, and place a starting dot (A). We will be
copying our angle's vertex at this point.
2) Copy segment c. With compass, measure the span of segment c.
4) Copy angle A. Place compass at vertex of the given angle. Swing an arc crossing
both sides of the angle. Keep this compass span.
5) Without changing compass span, place compass point at A on the reference line
and draw this arc sufficiently large and crossing the reference line.
6) Return to the given angle and measure span across the arc with the compass.
7) Without changing compass span, transfer this span to your arc on the reference
line, and draw a ray from A through the point of intersection.
8) Copy segment b. With compass, measure the span of segment b and mark it off on
the new ray created in your construction. (Label C.) Draw ΔABC.
141
FIG. 4.23
Activity 4.3
Construct triangle ABC so that |AB|= 6cm, |BC|= 4cm and ∠BAC= 75°.
Solution
1. Construct line |AB|= 6cm

2. Construct angle ∠BAC= 75° (Steps 11.17). Note that the angle is at point A.
3. To construct line |BC|= 4cm, open you compass to a radius of 4cm step at B
and construct and arc on the 75° line and call it C.
4. Join point B to C to complete triangle ABC.
FIG. 4.24
142
Thus we have successfully constructed triangle ABC.
FIG. 4.25
D. Constructing a triangle given the length of one side and two interior
angles.
Construction of ASA - Angle, Side, Angle Triangle
1) Draw a reference line, if one is not given, and place a starting dot (A). We will be
copying our angle A's vertex at this point.
2) Copy angle A. Place compass at vertex of the given angle A. Swing an arc
crossing both sides of the angle. Keep this compass span.
3) Without changing compass span, place compass point at A on the reference line
and draw this arc sufficiently large and crossing the reference line.
4) Return to given angle A and measure span across the arc with the compass.
5) Without changing compass span, transfer this span to your arc on the reference
line, and draw a ray connecting A to the point of intersection.
6) Copy segment c. With compass, measure the span of segment c.
8) Copy angle B. Repeat directions above for copying angle B at point B.
9) Label the point of intersection of the two angle rays as C. Draw ΔABC.
143
FIG. 4.26
ACTIVITY 4.3 Construct triangle ABC so that |BC|= 5cm, ∠ABC= 30° and ∠BCA=
105°
Solution
1. Construct line |BC| = 5cm

2. Construct ∠ABC= 30° (Steps 11.9). Note that the angle is at point B
3. Construct ∠BCA= 105° (Steps 11.17). Note that the angle is a point C. make
sure that you extent the lines for angle 30° and 105° to meet at point A.
FIG. 4.27
Therefore, we have successfully constructed triangle ABC.
144
FIG. 4.28
Construction of equilateral triangle
We first look at the construction of an equilateral triangle with straightedge and

compass. It is the simplest regular polygon in the plane. It consists of three sides.
1. We begin by drawing an arbitrary point A.
FIG. 4.29
2. We then open our compass to a fixed distance and make a small mark
to the right of our point a. This is where our point b will eventually.
145
FIG. 4.30
3. Without lifting the compass point from the paper, we move the pencil
end up and toward the middle and make another mark. This will be
where point c will eventually go.
FIG. 4.31
4. We now label our point b anywhere on the mark. (Why can we mark
it anywhere on the line and still maintain a certain length?).
146
FIG. 4.32
5. Now place the point of the compass on point B and make a mark up
and to the middle crossing the place where point C will go.
FIG. 4.33
6. Mark the intersection as point C.
147
FIG. 4.34
7. Using the straightedge, draw the first side of the triangle from A to B.
FIG. 4.34
8. Again, using the straightedge, draw the second side of the triangle
from B to C.
148
FIG. 4.35
9. Draw the final side. We are now finished with the construction of the
equilateral triangle.
FIG. 4.36
149
Hence, your Equilateral Triangle
TRY QUESTION:
1. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct. a quadrilateral PQRS,
|PQ|= 8CM, |PS| = 6CM, |QR| = 10CM, ∠QPS = 60° and ∠PSR = 135°
2. Use a ruler and a pair of compasses only for the following construction.
construct triangle ABC in which |AB|=10CM, |BC|=6CM and angle
ABC=45°
150
UNIT 4: SECTION 3: CONSTRUCT A GIVEN QUADRILATERAL USING
RULER AND A PAIR OF COMPASSES ONLY
INTRODUCTION

1. Demonstrate in-
depth knowledge concepts JHS level (NTS, instructional activities in a
2c) hands-on learning mode to
develop concepts based on
• Make connections between various areas geometric construction
of
geometry and
apply geometry to real life situations. (NTS, Identify and demonstrate the need
2c; 3j) in their collaborative group work
on geometrical construction
Demonstrate value as well as respect for
equity and inclusion in the mathematics Conduct investigations with
classroom emphases on visualization, pattern
recognitions, conjecturing, etc.
geometrical construction, using
manipulatives, ICT tools, and
Use manipulatives and other TLMs including other relevant resources.
ICT in a ,
variety of ways in
teaching geometrical concepts. (NTS,
3j)
Constructing quadrilaterals
I. Construction of quadrilaterals when four sides and one diagonal are given:
• Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 4.8 cm, BC = 4.3 cm,
CD = 3.6 cm, AD = 4.2 cm and diagonal AC = 6 cm.
• Step 1: Draw AB = 4.8 cm.
• Step 2: With A as center and radius equal to 6 cm, draw an arc.
• Step 3: With B as center and radius equal to 4.3 cm, draw another arc,
cutting the previous arc at C.
• Step4: Join BC.
• Step 5: With A as center and radius equal to 4.2 cm, draw an arc.
151
• Step 6: With C as center and radius equal to 3.6 cm, draw another arc,
cutting the previous arc at D.
• Step 7: Join AD and CD.
• Then, ABCD is the required quadrilateral.
FIG. 4.37
II. Construction of quadrilaterals when three sides and two diagonals are given:
• Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 4 cm BC = 3.8 cm, AD = 3
cm, diagonal AC = 5 cm and diagonal BD = 4.6 cm.
• Step 1: Draw AB = 4 cm.
• Step 2: With A as centre and radius equal to 5 cm, draw an arc.
• Step 3: With B as centre and radius equal to 3.8 cm, draw another arc, cutting
the previous arc at C.
• Step 4: Join BC.
• Step 5: With A as centre and radius equal to 3 cm, draw an arc.
• Step 6: With B as centre and radius equal to 4.6 cm draw another arc, cutting
the previous arc at D.
152
FIG. 4.38
III. Construction of quadrilaterals when three sides and two included angles are
given:
• Step 2: Make ∠ABX = 80°.
• Step 3: With B as center and radius equal to 4 cm, draw an arc, cutting BX at C.
• Step 4: Make ∠BAY = 120°.
• Step 5: With A as center and 5 cm as radius, draw an arc, cutting AY at D. Step
6: Join CD.
153
FIG. 4.39
IV. Construction of quadrilaterals when two adjacent sides and three angles are
given:
Step 1: Draw PQ = 4.5 cm.
Step 2: Make ∠PQX = 120°.
Step 3: With Q as center and radius 3.8 cm, draw an arc, cutting QX at R. Join QR.
Step 4: Make ∠QRY = 100°.
Step 5: ∠QPZ = 60° so that PZ and RY intersect each other at the point S.
Then, PQRS is the required quadrilateral.
FIG. 4.40
154
V. Construction of quadrilaterals when four sides and one angle are given:
• Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 3.8 cm, BC = 3.4cm, CD = 4.5
cm, AD = 5cm and ∠B = 80°.
• Step 2: Make ∠ABX = 80°.
• Step 3: From B, set off BC = 3.4 cm.
• Step 4: With A as centre and radius equal to 5 cm draw an arc.
• Step 5: With C as centre and radius equal to 4.5 cm, draw another arc, cutting
the previous arc at D.
• Then ABCD is the required quadrilateral.
FIG. 4.41
155
Activity 4. 4
Write out the procedure to construct the quadrilateral ABCD below
FIG. 4.42
156
UNIT 4: SECTION 4: TEACHING CONSTRUCTION OF REGULAR
POLYGONS
INTRODUCTION

1. Demonstrate in-
depth knowledge concepts JHS level (NTS, instructional activities in a
of
geometry and
ICT in a ,
variety of ways in
3j)
CONSTRUCTION OF EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE

• We take the ruler and set the compass width to the length of a given side a.
• Then, put the compass’ needle in the point A and make an arc.
• Make sure that the arc intersects with the previously drawn ray. The point of
intersection of the arc and ray is our second vertex, B.
• Without changing the width of the compass, we repeat the previous step. The
only difference is that we put the compass’ needle on the point B and make the
arc that intersects with the first one.
157
• We can see that arcs intersect in two points, giving us two last
vertices, C and C′. We now have two triangles, △ABC and △ABC′.
• Triangles are congruent because of the SSS theorem, so we say we only have
one solution.
FIG. 4.42
Construct a triangle if we know the radius of the circumscribed circle

• First we make a circle c(O,r) and one diameter AA′¯.
• Then we make a circle c(A′,|OA′|).
• Points of intersection of circles c(O,r) and c(A′,|OA′|) are B and C, two
remaining vertices of our triangle.
158
FIG. 4.43
The use of Geometer’s Sketchpad
There is a teaching tool use for constructing in mathematics. It is called Geometer’s

Sketchpad. The geometer's sketchpad is a commercial interactive geometry software
program for exploring Euclidean geometry, algebra, calculus, and other areas of
mathematics.
Let us now use the Geometer’s Sketchpad to construct the EQUILATERAL

TRIANGLE.
1. We begin by drawing an arbitrarily long segment. This will be one of

the sides of our triangle.
FIG. 4.44
2. We will label the points A for the left point and B for the right point.
159
FIG. 4.45
3. We now construct a circle using point B as the center and point A as

the edge.
FIG. 4.46
4. Next, we make another circle using point A as the center and point B
as the edge.
160
FIG. 4.47
5. We construct their intersection and label it as point C.
FIG. 4.48
161
6. We construct segment AC.
FIG. 4.49
7. We construct segment BC.
FIG. 4.50
162
8. If we hide our circles, we now have our equilateral triangle.
FIG. 4.51
Construction of Quadrilaterals where:
(i) 4 sides and 1 diagonal is given.
(ii) 3 sides and including two angles are given
(iii) 2 sides and three angles are given
(i) When 4 Sides and One Diagonal are Given
Let us say you are required to construct a quadrilateral 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 where the
measurements are:
• 𝑃𝑄 = 5 𝑐𝑚
• 𝑄𝑅 = 3 𝑐𝑚
• 𝑅𝑆 = 5 𝑐𝑚
• 𝑃𝑆 = 4 𝑐𝑚
• Diagonal 𝑆𝑄 = 6 𝑐𝑚
163
For the construction of quadrilaterals with some of the measurements given, we first
draw a rough figure of the quadrilateral with the given dimensions, as shown below.
FIG. 4.52
Now starting with the construction, the steps are:
• Draw a line segment of length 5 𝑐𝑚 and mark the ends as 𝑆 and 𝑅.
FIG. 4.53
• Set your compass to the radius of 3 𝑐𝑚 and make an arc from the point 𝑅
above the line segment.
• Set the compass to the radius of 6 𝑐𝑚 and make an arc from the point 𝑆 on
the previous arc.
• Mark the point as 𝑄 where the two arc cross each other. Join the points 𝑆 and
𝑄 as well as 𝑅 and 𝑄.
164
FIG. 4.54
• Set the compass to the radius of 5 𝑐𝑚 and make an arc from the point 𝑄.
• Set the compass to the radius of 4 𝑐𝑚 and make an arc from the point 𝑆 on
the previous arc.
FIG. 4.55
165
• Mark the point as 𝑃 where the two arc cross each other.
• Join the points 𝑃 and 𝑄 as well as 𝑃 and 𝑆.
FIG. 4.56
You obtain the quadrilateral 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 of the required measurements.
(II) WHEN 3 SIDES AND INCLUDING 2 ANGLES ARE GIVEN
Let us say you are required to construct a quadrilateral 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 where the
measurements are:
• 𝑄𝑅 = 6 𝑐𝑚
• 𝑅𝑆 = 5 𝑐𝑚
• 𝑃𝑆 = 4 𝑐𝑚
• ∠𝑆 = 100 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
• ∠𝑅 = 120 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
For the construction of quadrilaterals with some of the measurements given, we first
draw a rough figure of the quadrilateral with the given dimensions, as shown below.
166
FIG. 4.57
Now starting with the construction, the steps are:
Step 1: Draw a line segment of length 5 𝑐𝑚 and mark the ends as 𝑆 and 𝑅.
FIG. 4.58
Step 2: using a protractor, draw a line from the point 𝑅 making 120 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 and
another line from the point 𝑆 making 100 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 with the line segment 𝑆𝑅.
167
FIG. 4.59
Step 3: Set your compass to the radius of 4 𝑐𝑚 and make an arc from the point 𝑆 on
the 100 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 line. Mark the point as 𝑃 where the arc intersects the line.
Step 4: Similarly, set the compass to the radius of 6 𝑐𝑚 and make an arc from point
𝑅 on the 120 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 line. Mark the point as 𝑄 where the arc intersects the line.
FIG. 4.60
168
Step 5: Join the points P and Q.
FIG. 4.61
You obtain the quadrilateral PQRS of the required measurements.
(III) WHEN 2 SIDES AND THREE ANGLES ARE GIVEN
Let us say you are required to construct a quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 where the
measurements are:
• 𝐴𝐵 = 5 𝑐𝑚
• 𝐵𝐶 = 3 𝑐𝑚
• ∠𝐴 = 120 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
• ∠𝐵 = 110 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
• ∠𝐶 = 90 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
The steps for the construction of the quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 are:
Step 1: Draw a line segment of length 5 𝑐𝑚 and mark the ends as 𝐴 and 𝐵.
FIG. 4.62
169
Step 2: Using a protractor, draw a line from the point 𝐴 making 120 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 with
the line segment 𝐴𝐵.
FIG. 4.63
Step 3: Using the protractor, draw a line from point 𝐵 making 110 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 with
the line segment 𝐵𝐴.
170
FIG. 4.64
Step 4: Set your compass to the radius of 3 𝑐𝑚 and make an arc from point 𝐵 on the
110 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 line. Mark the point as 𝐶 where the arc intersects the line.
FIG. 4.65
Step 5: Using the protractor, draw a line from point 𝐶 making 90 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 with the
line segment 𝐶𝐵. Mark the point as 𝐷 where the arc intersects the 120 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒.
171
FIG. 4.66
You obtain the quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 of the required measurements. Since the sum of
the interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360 degrees, you can check the measure of
∠𝐷 which should be equal to 40 degrees (360 – [120 + 110 + 90]).
CONSTRUCTION OF SQUARE
• We will start by creating a line and a point A. Then we take the length of the
side a in the width of the compass and make an arc that intersects with the line
we drew first. The intersection is point B, our second vertex.
• Now we need to construct a line that’s perpendicular to the AB, with
the B being the point of intersection to create the angle ∡ABC=90∘.
• Now we have a perpendicular line, and we know the vertex C will be on it.
• Take the length of the side a in the width of the compass and make an arc that
intersects with the perpendicular line – the intersection is our vertex C.
• What’s left is constructing the vertex D. We do that by creating two arcs of the
circles c(A,a) and c(C,a). Their intersection is the final vertex, vertex D.
172
FIG. 4.67
CONSTRUCTION OF PENTAGON
Constructing a square if we know the radius of it’s circumcircle
• First we draw a point O and a circle c(O,r).
• Pick a starting point A anywhere on the circle. Now let’s draw a diameter
from A through O. Let the point of intersection of a diameter and a circle be
the point C.
• The line AB is one diagonal of the square we want to construct. How to get the
other one? We know that diagonals in square are perpendicular, so we create a
perpendicular line to the diameter AC.
• Make sure that the point of intersection is the point O. Now, the points of
intersection of perpendicular and a circle c(O,r) are points B and C, our two
last vertices.
FIG. 4.68
173
CONSTRUCTION OF HEXAGON
• Make a ray with B being its endpoint and then construct point A so that |AB|=a. We
want to create a bisector of |AB|. Take the compass and make sure the width of
compass is the length of side a (IMPORTANT!). Put the needle on B and make two
arcs of the circle c(B,a).
• Repeat the step for arcs of c(A,a). The arcs intersect in points K and L. Join them
to get the midpoint between A and B, point M.
• Again, keep the compass radius the length of a, put the compass’ needle on M and
make an arc that intersects with bisector line, making the point N.
• Now, adjust the compass to the length of AN. Put the needle in A and make an arc
that intersects with the ray we made at the beginning, that will give us a point P.
• The distance from M to P is very important distance – it will give us the rest of the
vertices. Make the compass’ radius equal to the distance between M and P. Put the
needle on B and make an arc that intersects with one of the arcs we made to get
midpoint.
• Make the second arc that intersects with the bisector line. The intersects will be
points E and D respectively. To get the vertex C we will put the needle
in A and repeat the process.
FIG. 4.69
174
Activity 4.5
Construct a regular pentagon, taken the radius of the circumscribed circle
Solution
• Construct the circle c(O,r) and two perpendicular diameters, AA′¯ and PP′¯ .
Now lets construct the bisector of segment OP¯, the intersection will be
point M. In the width of compass take the length between A and M, and put a
compass needle on M to create an arc that intersects with PP′¯. The
intersection is N.
• The distance from A to N is the length of the side a of regular pentagon. Now
that we know the length of a, we need to construct vertices. Let D be our first
vertex.
• Firstly, we open the compass to the length of a and put the needle of compass
on A. Now make an arc that intersects with the circle c(O,r|) giving us the
vertex B. Without changing the width of compass, we put the needle
on B and do the same process to get vertex A, and so on. This process will
give us the remaining 4 vertices.
FIG. 4.70
CONSTRUCTION OF HEPTAGON
Construct a regular pentagon if we know the radius of the circumscribed circle
• We can break regular hexagon into 6 equilateral triangles with the side a. The
vertex O is the center of inscribed and circumscribed circles,
and |AO|=|BO|=|CO|=|DO|=|EO|=|FO|. First we construct △ABO following
the proces we used in constructing equilateral triangle. Let’s draw c(O,|AO|).
Since O is the center of circumscribed circle, we know that hexagon’s vertices
will be on the circle.
175
• Now we just take the length of a into the width of a compass and make 4 arcs
on the circle.
• Without changing the width of compass we put the needle of compass on the B,
make and arc that intersects with the circle c(O,|AO|) giving us the vertex C.
Then we put the needle on C and do the same process to get vertex D, and so
on.
• This process will give us the last 4 vertices. It doesn’t matter if we start from A,
and do it clockwise or from B like we did here, the result will be the same.
FIG. 4.71
CONSTRUCTION OF REGULAR OCTAGON

How to construct a regular octagon if we know radius of circumscribed circle
• First we construct a square within the given circle with its diagonals following
the process described above.
• Then we construct angle bisectors of ∡AOB,∡BOC,∡COD and ∡DOA.
Bisectors intersect with the circumscribed circles giving us 4 new
points, E,F,G and H.
• Those points are the remaining vertices of an octagon.
176
FIG. 4.72
CONSTRUCTION OF REGULAR DECAGON

How to construct a regular decagon if we know radius of circumscribed circle
• First, we construct a regular pentagon within the given circle following the
process described in construction of pentagon.
• Then we connect each vertex to the center of circumscribed circle to divide
pentagon into 5 congruent triangles.
• The next step is constructing construct angle bisectors
of ∡AOB,∡BOC,∡COD,∡DOE and ∡EOA.
• Bisectors intersect with the circumscribed circles giving us 5 new
points, F,G,H,I and J. Those points are the remaining vertices of an decagon.
177
FIG. 4.73
CONSTRUCTION OF REGULAR DODECAGON
Activity 4.6: Construct a regular dodecagon given a radius of circumscribed

circle
Solution:
Steps:
• Just like we did in the last two examples, we can construct regular dodecagon
out of a regular hexagon.
• Angle bisectors of central angles of a hexagon give us remaining vertices of
dodecagon.
178
FIG. 4.74
179
Unit 4: Section 5: Section 5: Construct a give Loci using ruler and a pair of
compasses only
INTRODUCTION

1. Demonstrate in-
depth knowledge concepts JHS level(NTS, instructional activities in a
of
geometry and
ICT in a ,
variety of ways in
3j)
180
What is a locus?
A locus is a path that a point traces as it moves bounded by certain conditions. Note
that word Loci is the plural for locus. Note how the following loci are constructed.
The Locus of point equidistance from a fixed point

This locus is a circle. Note that the locus is the circumference of the circle and it is
equidistant (equal in distance) at any point with the centre (fix point). The distance is
the radius of the circle.
FIG. 4.75
The Locus of point equidistant from two fixed point

The locus L equidistant from two fixed points P and Q is the perpendicular bisected
of the line PQ.
FIG. 4.76
The Locus of a point equidistant from three fixed points

The locus of a point equidistant for three fixed point PQR is a circle that
circumscribe triangle PQR.
181
`
FIG. 4.77
To construct a circumscribe triangle, bisect two sides of the triangle i.e. PQ and PR.
Identify the points O where the two bisectors intersect, step at point O, open any point
P, Q or R and construct the circle (Locus (L)).
The Locus of a point equidistant from two intersecting lines

The locus L which is equidistant from point line PQ and QR is the line that bisects
the angle formed between these lines. That is angle PQR. Note that angle Q is
bisected since it is the point that is common with PQ and QR.
FIG. 4.78
The Locus of a point equidistant from three intersecting lines

The locus of a point equidistant from tree intersection lines PQ,PR and QR is a circle
that is inscribe in triangle PQR.
182
FIG. 4.79
How to construct an inscribe circle
1. Draw the given triangle PQR

2. Bisect any two angles. In this case angle PQR and angle RPQ to intersect at
the point O which is the centre of the circle
3. Draw a perpendicular to any side at O. In this case, the perpendicular is line
OX
With centre O and radius OX, draw a circle which will touch the three sides of the
triangle as shown in the figure above.
Construction problems are straight forward and easy to solve. All you need is to
follow the instructions given and identify the point to construct angles and loci.
Follow the examples below and take not of how each problem is solved.
Activity 4.7
1. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct quadrilateral PQRS

such the |PQ| = 9cm, |QR| = 5cm, angle PQR = 120° and |PS| =|PR|=|QR|
a. Construct the locus

i. l1, of points equidistant from Q and R
ii. l2, of points equidistant from P and Q
b. i. Locate, O, the point of intersection of l1and l2
ii. With O as the centre, construct a circle that passes through P, Q and R.
c. Measure;
i. angle QRS
ii. The radius of the circle.
Solution
183
FIG. 4.80
c. i. angle QRS = 97°

c. ii. The radius of the circle=7.5cm
Procedure;
1. Construct line |PQ|= 9cm and construct angle PQR = 120° at Q.

2. To construct line |QR|=5cm open your compass to a radius of 5cm, step at Q
and construct an arc on the 120° line, and label it R
3. Since |PS| =|PR|=|QR|, open your compass to radius |PR|, step at R and
construct an arc.
4. With the same radius step at P and construct an arc to meet the first arc at S
5. Joint P and R to S to complete the quadrilateral
6. Construct locus l1 by bisecting PQ andl2 by bisecting QR. Label the point
where l1and l2 intersect O
7. Step at O, open your compass to point P and construct the circle.
2. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only construct ᐃABC such that
|AB|=10cm, |BC|= 7cm and ∠ABC = 135°. Construct the locus l of points
equidistant form A, B and C. Measure |AC|
Solution
Procedure;
1. Construct line |AB|= 10cm and construct angle ABC = 135° at B.
2. Construct |BC|= 7cm and join C to A
184
3. The locus l equidistant from points A, B and C is a circumscribe circle.
4. Construct l by bisecting line |AB| and |BC|. Use the point of intersection by
the perpendicular bisectors as the centre of the circle, open to point A and
construct the locus l.
FIG. 4.81
Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct
i. Triangle XYZ with radius |XY|= 8cm, ∠XYZ = 30° and ∠ZXY = 120°
ii. Locus l1 of points equidistant from X and Z
iii. Locus l2 of points equidistant from YX and XZ
iv. Locate O the point of intersection of l2 and YZ
v. Construct a locus l3 of points 2.5cm from O
vi. Locate A, B the points of intersection of l1 and l3 and measure |AB|
185
Solution
Procedure;
1. Construct line |XY|= 10cm. Construct angle XYZ = 30° at Y and angle ZXY
= 120° at X to form triangle XYZ
2. Construct locus l1 of points equidistant from X and Z which is a
perpendicular bisector of line XZ
3. Construct locus l2 of points equidistant from YX and XZ which is a bisector
of angle ZXY (since X is common in both lines bisect angle X
4. Construct a circle with radius 2.5cm at point O which is locus l3 of points
2.5cm from O
5. Use a ruler to measure |AB|, |AB|= 2cm
FIG. 4.82
3. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct
i. A quadrilateral PQRS, |PQ|= 8cm, |PS| = 6cm, |QR| = 10cm, ∠QPS =

60° and ∠PSR = 135°
ii. The locus k of points of point equidistant from QR and RS
iii. Draw a perpendicular line from Q to meet line k
iv. Locate O, that point of intersection of k and s
Solution
Procedure;
1. Construct line |PQ|= 8cm. Construct ∠QPS = 60° at P
2. To construct line |PS| = 6cm, open your compass to 6cm, step on point P and
construct an arc on the 60° line to get Point S
3. Construct ∠PSR = 135° at point S
4. To construct line |QR| = 10cm, open your compass to a radius of 10cm, step
at Q and construct an arc to meet the 135° line at R.
5. Join point Q to R to complete the quadrilateral.
186
FIG. 4.83
Using ruler and a pair of compasses only
a. Construct
i. Triangle ABC such that |AB|=8cm ∠BAC=105° and ∠ABC=30°
ii. the locus L1 of points equidistant form A and B
iii. The locus L2 of points equidistant from B and C
b. Locate P, the point of intersection of L1 and L2
c. Using PC as a radius draw a circle
d. Measure
i. |BC|
ii. The radius of the circle
Solution
187
FIG. 4.84
d. i. |BC|=10.8cm
ii. Radius of the circle is 5.6cm
Hint: Locus L1 of points equidistant from A and B is the line that bisects AB
and locus L2 of point equidistant from B and C is the line that bisects BC.
Activity 4.8
1. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only

i. Construct ABC such the |AB|=8cm, angle ∠BAC=60° and angle ∠ABC=75°
ii. Locate the point, O inside ABC equidistant from A, B and C
iii. Construct the circle with centre O, which passes through A
b. Measure
i. |OA|
ii. angle ACB
2. a. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only,

i. construct a parallelogram ABCD with |AB|=8cm, ∠BAC=45° and ∠ABC=60°
ii. locate a point P inside ᐃABC such that |PA|=|PB| and |PC|==4cm
b. Measure |PD|
3.Using a pair of compasses and ruler only,

a. Construct a trapezium ABCD with AB parallel to DC, |AB|=10.2cm,
|BC|=5.6cm,|CD|=5.8cm and angle ABC=60 Measure |AD|
b. Construct a perpendicular from D to meet AB at N. Measure |DN|
188
Find the area of the trapezium
4.a. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only. Construct:

(i) A quadrilateral PQRS such that |PQ|=|SP|=6 cm, |QR|=11 cm, 𝑆𝑃̂ 𝑄 =
135° and PS||QR.
(ii) A perpendicular from S to meet QR at M
Summary
• Geometric construction is done by using a ruler and a pair of compasses only.

• Bisecting a line or an angle means dividing it into two equal parts
• A locus is a path that a point traces as it moves bounded by certain
conditions.
• The Locus lof points equidistance from a fixed-point P is a circle with
centre P
• The Locus lof points equidistant from two fixed point A and B is the
perpendicular bisector of line AB
• The Locus lof points equidistant from three fixed points A, B and C is the
circumscribe circle of triangle ABC
• The Locus l of a point equidistant from two intersecting lines AB and BC

is the line that bisect angle ABC at B
• The Locus l of points equidistant from three intersecting lines AB, BC

and AC is the inscribe circle of triangle ABC
189
190
Reference
Althshiller-Court, N. (2007). College Geometry: An Introduction to the Modern
Geometry of the Triangle and the Circle (Dover Books on
Mathematics).Mineola, New York: Dover Publication Inc.
https://www.pdfdrive.com/college-geometry-an-introduction-to-the-
modern-geometry-of-the-triangle-and-the- circle-dover-books-on-
mathematics-d184030729.html
Backhouse, J. K., Houldsworth, S. P. T. & Horril, P. J. F. (2005). Pure mathematics 1.
(Seventh edition). London Longman.
Hesse, C. A. (2012). Core mathematics for senior high schools. Accra: Akrong
Publications Ltd.
Maor, E. (2007). The Pythagorean Theorem-a 4,000-Year History. United Kingdom:
Princeton University Press Published by Princeton University Press, 41
William Street. https://www.pdfdrive.com/the-pythagorean- theorem-a-
4000-year-history-d187567906.html
Martin, J. et. al. (1994). Mathematics for teacher training in Ghana: Tutor notes.
Accra: Unimax Publishers.
Martin, J. et. al. (1994). Mathematics for teacher training in Ghana: Students
activities.Accra: Unimax Publishers.
Ministry of Education (2015). Core mathematics modules for SEIP. Accra: Ministry
of Education.
Ministry of Education. (2010). Teaching syllabus for core mathematics (Senior High
School). Accra: Ministry of Education, Science and Sports.
Nyala, A., Oppong, R. A., Asemani, E. (2016). Geometry 1. UEW-IDeL, Winneba
Okpoti, C. A., -Ansah, N. A., Oppong, R. A., Armah, G., Asemani, E. (2018).
Trigonometry. UEW-IDeL, Winneba
Prasolov, V. (2001). PROBLEMS IN PLANE AND SOLID
GEOMETRY (Plane Geometry): https://www.pdfdrive.com/problems-in-
plane-and-solid-geometry-v1-plane-geometry-e276219.html
Prince Edward Island Mathematics Curriculum Guide
.https://www.pdfdrive.com/mathematics-curriculum-grade-5-
d41794879.html
SCHAUM'S OUTLINE OF Theory and Problems of TRIGONOMETRY, Third
Edition https://www.pdfdrive.com/schaums-outline-of-theory-and-
problems-of trigonometry-third-edition- e181516.html
Sterling, M. J. (2005). Trigonometry Workbook for Dummies. Indianapolis,
Indiana: Wiley publishing Inc. https://www.pdfdrive.com/trigonometry-
workbook-for-dummies-d17340819.html
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UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA

COLLEGE OF DISTANCE AND E-LEARNING

BACHELOR EDUCATION IN BASIC EDUCATION MATHEMATICS

LEARNING, TEACHING AND APPLYING EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY AND

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES LEARNING INDICATORS

On successful completion of the course, Outline and address their

UNIT 2: LINES AND CIRCLES: TEACHING, LEARNING AND APPLYING

UNIT 3: CIRCLE THEOREMS: TEACHING, LEARNING AND APPLYING

UNIT 5: TRIGONOMETRIC ANGLES: LEARNING AND APPLYING

UNIT 6 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

Learning outcomes Learning indicators

UNIT 1: GEOMETRICAL PROOFS: LEARNING, TEACHING AND

Hello my student-teacher, Let’s begin with:

Misconceptions and barriers in teaching and learning of geometric proofs of theorems

Misconception could mean an idea or thoughts which is incorrect. It could refer to

1. what is your opinion about misconception and barriers?

Which of the following triangles are congruent?

Possible responses of Task 2

Identify congruent or similar triangles

At this point, I see you to be a Creative Thinker and a Problem-Poser.

Exchange with your partner and solve.

What are similar triangles?

WHAT ARE CONGRUENT TRIANGLES?

Congruent is used to describe shapes such as quadrilaterals or polygons which are

Study critically the diagrams below

Two possible congruence statements could be observed as:

1. Triangle ABC is congruent to triangle FED. That is, ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐹𝐸𝐷.

It could be observed from the two triangles that:

Identify, outline, and illustrate the congruence conditions such as:

- Angle-Side-Angle (ASA) Triangle Congruence Theorem

Dear student-teacher -teacher,

It could be observed that:

Hence, AAS Triangle Congruence Theorem proven.

Side-Side-Side (SSS) Triangle Congruence Theorem

It could observe that:

then ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐹𝐸𝐷.

Hence, Side-Side-Side (SSS) Triangle Congruence Theorem proven.

Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Triangle Congruence Theorem

Angle ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷, and

Hence, Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Triangle Congruence Theorem proven.

Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Triangle Congruence Theorem

It could be observed that:

Right-angle, Hypothenuse and other Side (RHS)

Dear student-teacher, kindly visit “PRACTICE CONGRUENT TRIANGLES

Dear student-teacher, kindly use your computer to visit this site

In groups of twos and threes,

i. do Example 1: recognise congruent triangles. Discuss among yourselves.

• Common misconceptions: AAA – all three angles

• Remember – triangles can be congruent but rotations or mirror images.

Learning outcomes Learning indicators

Proofs of theorems about congruent

Similar triangles (Similarity)

• Two triangles are similar if they have the same shape.

• Congruency is a special case of similarity.

1. Find the value of 𝑥.

PROOFS OF THEOREMS ABOUT SIMILAR TRIANGLES

Basically, there are three types of similar triangles, namely

1. Angle-Angle-Angle (AAA) triangles of similarities