Draw the block diagram of communication system and explain each block in

detail.

These are the fundamental components of a communication system:

1. Information Source: The origin or starting point of the message or data

to be transmitted. It could be a person, a computer, a sensor, or any
source of information.
2. Transmitter: This device or entity encodes and sends the information
from the source into a format suitable for transmission. It converts the
information into signals that can travel through the chosen
communication channel.
3. Channel: The medium or pathway through which the encoded
information is transmitted. It could be a physical medium like a wire,
fiber optic cable, or wireless spectrum.
4. Noise: Unwanted disturbances or interference that can corrupt the
transmitted signal as it travels through the channel. Noise can be caused
by various factors, such as electromagnetic interference or background
radiation.
5. Receiver: The device or system at the receiving end of the
communication channel. It decodes the transmitted signal back into the
original information, attempting to minimize the effects of noise.
6. Destination: The final endpoint where the decoded information is
delivered or used. It could be a person, a machine, a computer, or any
entity intended to receive and utilize the information for a specific
purpose.

Classify different switching system. Explain step by step switching. What is a

rotary dial teleplone.

1. Manual switching
In a Manual switching system, the operator has full control of a
connection. He/She enables the signaling systems, performs switching,
and releases a connection after a conversation.
2. Automatic switching
 It is a switching system in which all the operations required to execute
the three phases of Information transfer transactions are automatically
executed in response to signals from a user end-instrument.
3. Electromechanical Switching
Electromechanical switching systems are a combination of mechanical
and electrical switching types. The electrical circuits and the mechanical
relays are deployed in them.
4. Strowger/Step by Step Switching
The Step-by-step switching system is also called the Strowger switching
system after its inventor A B Strowger. The control functions in a
Strowger system are performed by circuits associated with the switching
elements in the system.
Types: ● Uni-Selector ● Two motion Selector

 Uni-Selector:
 A Uni-Selector, short for "Unit Selector," is a type of rotary switch used
in early telephone exchanges.
 It typically has a rotating shaft that can be manually or electrically
controlled to select one of several possible connections or circuits.
 Uni-Selectors were crucial for routing calls and connecting callers in early
telephone systems, especially in manual switchboards.
 Two-Motion Selector:
 A Two-Motion Selector is a type of electromechanical switch used for
more advanced switching tasks.
 It involves two separate motions or movements to select a specific
connection or circuit.
 This type of selector was employed in more complex telephone
exchanges and switching systems to handle a larger number of
connections and routing options.

 Step-by-step switching
Step-by-Step Switching, also known as Strowger switching or rotary dial
switching, was an early electromechanical technology employed in
telephone exchanges to establish voice call connections. It operated
through a series of steps: first, a user dialed a number using a rotary dial
 on their telephone, generating electrical pulses corresponding to the
dialed digits. The caller's telephone line was then connected to the
central office, where a line finder switch was activated upon call
initiation. This switch sought out an available first selector switch, which,
in turn, connected to the appropriate group of local lines based on the
dialed number. Afterward, a second selector switch would be activated
and connect to the individual line within the selected group, thus
establishing a direct electrical connection to the called party's line. Once
the connection was established, callers could engage in conversation,
and when the call ended, hanging up the phone released the selectors
and switches for the next call. While Step-by-Step Switching introduced
automation and efficiency to early telephone networks, it was eventually
phased out in favor of digital switching systems that offered greater
capacity and versatility in modern telecommunications.

 Rotary dial telephone

A rotary dial telephone, commonly known as a rotary phone, is a vintage
telecommunications device that was widely used in the mid-20th
century. It is characterized by its distinctive circular dial, which is used
for dialing phone numbers. To make a call, the user inserts their finger
into the corresponding hole for each digit of the desired phone number
and then rotates the dial clockwise until it reaches a mechanical stop. As
the dial is turned, it generates a series of electrical pulses, with the
number of pulses corresponding to the dialed digit. These pulses are
transmitted over the telephone line to the central office, where they are
interpreted to establish the call. Rotary phones often featured a built-in
ringing bell, and calls were answered by lifting the handset off the
cradle. While rotary dial phones are now largely obsolete, they hold a
nostalgic charm and serve as a reminder of the bygone era of analog
telecommunications.
 Advantages and Disadvantages: Rotary dial phones were robust and
reliable, and many people remember the satisfying "clicking" sound as
they dialed numbers. However, they could be slower to use compared to
modern touch-tone phones, which led to the introduction of touch-tone
technology in the mid-20th century.
 Today, rotary dial phones are largely obsolete, replaced by digital and
push-button telephones. However, they are often considered nostalgic
relics and can still be found in antique shops or as collectibles.

Describe the principle line of sight (LOS). Explain the frequency distribution,
fading effect and noise in communication.

 Line of Sight (LOS) is a fundamental concept in telecommunications and

optics. It refers to the unobstructed, straight-line path that light or
electromagnetic waves, such as radio or microwaves, travel between a
transmitter and a receiver. In LOS communication systems, both the
sender and receiver must have a direct, clear line of sight to each other
for effective signal transmission. Obstacles like buildings, terrain, or
atmospheric conditions can disrupt LOS communication, making it
crucial for applications like satellite links, wireless point-to-point
connections, and optical systems. Maintaining a clear LOS ensures
efficient and reliable data transmission over a direct path without
interference, enabling various technologies to function optimally.
 Frequency Distribution:

Frequency distribution in communication refers to how often different values

or data points occur within a dataset. It's a statistical concept that helps
analyze and understand the distribution of data.

In communication, it can be applied to aspects like signal strength, where you

might observe how often certain signal strengths occur in a network. This
information is useful for optimizing network performance and reliability.

 Fading Effect:

The fading effect in communication refers to the variation in signal strength or

quality over a transmission path due to factors like distance, obstacles, and
interference.

It can cause signal attenuation or loss, resulting in reduced communication

quality. Fading is particularly relevant in wireless communication, where
signals may fluctuate as a receiver moves or environmental conditions change.
  Noise:

Noise in communication refers to unwanted or random interference that

distorts or disrupts the original signal during transmission.

It can be caused by various factors like electrical interference, crosstalk, or

natural phenomena. Reducing noise is crucial for maintaining signal integrity
and ensuring accurate data transmission in communication systems. Noise can
be minimized through techniques such as signal processing and error
correction.

What is combination switching. Explain sky wave and space wave

communication.

Combination switching is a telecommunications switching technique that

combines the principles of both circuit switching and packet switching. In this
approach, connections are established in a circuit-switched manner for voice
or real-time data, ensuring a dedicated and constant path, while non-real-time
data is transmitted using packet-switched methods, allowing efficient use of
network resources. Combination switching aims to optimize network efficiency
by adapting to the specific requirements of different types of traffic, offering
the benefits of both circuit-switched and packet-switched systems in a single
network infrastructure.

Sky Wave Communication:

Sky wave communication involves the transmission of radio signals that

interact with the Earth's ionosphere layer and are reflected back to Earth's
surface, allowing long-distance communication. A prime example of sky wave
communication is international shortwave radio broadcasting. Broadcasters
transmit radio signals at high frequencies (HF) into the ionosphere, where they
can bounce off the ionized layers and return to the Earth's surface at distant
locations. This phenomenon allows listeners around the world to tune in to
broadcasts from other countries. For instance, the BBC World Service uses sky
wave propagation to reach a global audience, broadcasting news, information,
and entertainment to people in different regions via ionospheric reflection.
Space Wave Communication:

Space wave communication, also known as line-of-sight communication, relies

on the direct propagation of radio waves from a transmitting antenna to a
receiving antenna without the need for reflection. A classic example is
terrestrial microwave communication, where microwave signals are
transmitted via line-of-sight paths between microwave towers. These towers
are strategically placed to relay high-capacity data and voice signals over short
to medium distances. For instance, in point-to-point communication between
two buildings or cell towers in a cellular network, space wave communication
ensures clear, uninterrupted transmission. In urban areas, where buildings and
other structures can obstruct direct paths, tower placement and antenna
heights are crucial to maintaining line of sight for effective space wave
communication.

Explain GOS and blocking probability.

Grade of Service (GOS):

Grade of Service (GOS) is a telecommunications metric that quantifies the

quality of service or the probability of a call or communication request
experiencing a certain level of service degradation due to network congestion.
GOS is commonly used in telecommunication networks to assess how
effectively network resources are utilized. It is typically expressed as a fraction
or percentage and can be thought of as the probability that a user will not
receive the desired level of service.

For example, if a GOS of 0.03 (or 3%) is specified for a telephone network, it
means that only 3% of the calls should experience service degradation or
blocking, while the remaining 97% should go through without issues. GOS is an
essential parameter for network design, capacity planning, and traffic
engineering to ensure that the network can handle the expected traffic load
while meeting quality requirements

Blocking Probability:
Blocking probability is a specific aspect of Grade of Service that quantifies the
likelihood that a communication request (e.g., a call attempt in a telephone
network) will be blocked or denied due to network congestion or unavailability
of resources. It is expressed as a probability between 0 and 1, or as a
percentage.

For instance, if the blocking probability in a call center is 0.05 (or 5%), it means
that 5% of incoming calls will be blocked or receive a busy signal because all
available agents are busy serving other calls. Blocking probability is essential in
designing and dimensioning telecommunication networks and services to
ensure that a certain percentage of users or requests can be accommodated,
while the network doesn't become overloaded to the point where call quality
significantly deteriorates or service is denied entirely. It is a critical factor in
ensuring a balance between network capacity and the quality of service
delivered to users.

define signaling technique in applied telecommunication

Signaling techniques in applied telecommunications refer to the methods and

protocols used to transmit control information and instructions between
devices or systems within a telecommunications network. These techniques
are crucial for establishing, maintaining, and managing communication
connections, as well as for facilitating various network services and features.
Here are some key aspects of signaling techniques in telecommunications:

Call Setup and Teardown: Signaling is used to establish and terminate

communication sessions, such as phone calls or data connections. When you
make a call or initiate a data transfer, signaling protocols are responsible for
setting up the connection and tearing it down when the communication is
complete.
Network Management: Signaling is essential for the management and
monitoring of network resources. It helps network operators control and
optimize the allocation of resources like bandwidth, routes, and circuits.

Error Handling and Recovery: Signaling protocols often include mechanisms for
detecting and handling errors that may occur during data transmission. This
can include error correction, retransmission requests, and other techniques to
ensure data integrity.

Feature Activation: Telecommunication networks offer various features and

services to users, such as call forwarding, voicemail, and call waiting. Signaling
is used to activate, deactivate, or configure these features as per user
preferences.

Authentication and Security: Signaling protocols play a vital role in ensuring the
security and authentication of users and devices within the network. This helps
prevent unauthorized access and protect sensitive information.

Interoperability: Telecommunication networks often consist of different types

of equipment and technologies from various vendors. Signaling protocols
ensure that these diverse components can communicate and work together
effectively.

Quality of Service (QoS): Signaling can be used to negotiate and maintain the
quality of service for different types of communications, such as prioritizing
voice traffic over data traffic for improved call quality.
Routing and Switching: Signaling helps routers and switches determine the
optimal path for data packets to follow through the network, directing them
efficiently to their destination.

Protocol Standards: Various signaling protocols are standardized to ensure

compatibility and interoperability between different telecommunication
systems and devices. Examples include Signaling System 7 (SS7), Session
Initiation Protocol (SIP), and various Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
protocols.

In summary, signaling techniques are a fundamental part of

telecommunications, enabling devices and systems to communicate,
coordinate, and manage network resources and services effectively. These
techniques ensure that the vast and complex world of telecommunications
functions smoothly and reliably for both voice and data communications.

explain the basic cellular system with its necessary diagram in tabular form

A basic cellular system is a fundamental concept in wireless

telecommunications, organized into a network of interconnected cells, each
served by its own base station (BS). These cells are geographic areas that vary
in size, with smaller cells in densely populated urban areas and larger cells in
more rural regions. The key points of a basic cellular system include frequency
reuse, where the same set of radio frequencies is reused in cells sufficiently far
apart to avoid interference, thus optimizing spectrum utilization. The cellular
network also employs a control channel for signaling and control purposes,
such as call setup and handoff coordination, and a traffic channel for actual
voice or data communication between mobile devices (e.g., phones, tablets)
and the base station. Handoffs ensure seamless communication as devices
move between cells, while switching centers facilitate call routing and
connectivity between different cells. Different cellular frequency bands and
generations (e.g., 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G) represent advancements in technology,
offering varying data rates and capabilities. This cellular architecture efficiently
accommodates a large number of users and ensures reliable wireless
communication.

Cell 1 Cell 2 Cell 3

Base Station Base Station Base Station

(BS) (BS) (BS)

| | |

| | |

Mobile Device Mobile Device Mobile Device

(User 1) (User 2) (User 3)

also describe the trunking and efficiencies of mobile radio environment in berif

n a mobile radio environment, trunking refers to a technique used to improve

the efficiency of radio communication systems, especially in scenarios where
multiple users or groups of users share a limited number of radio channels.
Trunking systems are commonly used in public safety, transportation, and
business communication networks. Here's a brief explanation of trunking and
its efficiencies:

Trunking:

Resource Sharing: In a trunked system, a pool of communication channels is

shared among a larger number of users or talk groups. Unlike conventional
radio systems where each channel is dedicated to a specific user or group,
trunking dynamically allocates channels based on demand.

Dynamic Channel Allocation: Trunking systems use a control channel to

manage and assign available voice or data channels dynamically. When a user
initiates a call, the system assigns an available channel for the duration of that
call, releasing it when the call ends. This dynamic allocation optimizes channel
utilization.

Efficiencies in Mobile Radio Environments:

Spectrum Efficiency: Trunking significantly improves spectrum efficiency by

reducing the chances of channels sitting idle. Channels are assigned on-
demand, ensuring that they are utilized efficiently and not wasted when not in
use.

Increased Capacity: By sharing a pool of channels, trunking systems can

accommodate a larger number of users or talk groups simultaneously. This is
especially important in busy urban areas or during emergencies when many
users need access to the network.

Reduced User Wait Times: With dynamic channel allocation, users do not have
to wait for a dedicated channel to become available. This reduces call setup
times and ensures more responsive communication.

Flexibility: Trunking systems are flexible and can adapt to changing

communication needs. Additional channels can be added as required, and
users can be grouped or prioritized based on their roles or importance.

Improved Management: Trunked systems offer centralized management and

monitoring capabilities. Network administrators can track channel usage,
prioritize emergency calls, and manage system resources efficiently.

Interoperability: Trunking systems can facilitate interoperability by allowing

multiple agencies or organizations to share a common communication
platform while maintaining separate talk groups and channels.

In summary, trunking is a critical efficiency-enhancing technique in mobile

radio environments. It optimizes spectrum usage, increases capacity, reduces
user wait times, and provides the flexibility needed to adapt to dynamic
communication needs. This makes trunking systems well-suited for various
applications where efficient and reliable communication is essential.
explain FFTH network and define OLT,ONT AND CPE
A Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) network is a high-speed broadband internet and
telecommunications infrastructure that uses optical fiber cables to deliver
internet, television, and phone services directly to residential homes or small
businesses. FTTH is known for its capacity to provide ultra-fast internet speeds,
low latency, and high reliability. Here are key components and terms
associated with FTTH:

Optical Line Terminal (OLT):

The OLT is a key component in an FTTH network and is typically located in a

central office or data center.

It serves as the interface between the service provider's core network and the
optical distribution network that connects to individual customer premises.

The OLT is responsible for aggregating and managing the traffic from multiple
Optical Network Terminals (ONTs) and coordinating data transmission.

Optical Network Terminal (ONT):

The ONT is located at the customer's premises (home or business).

It acts as the interface between the optical fiber from the service provider's
network and the customer's internal network equipment (e.g., router,
computer, phone).

The ONT may provide various services, including converting optical signals to
electrical signals, routing data to the customer's devices, and providing Voice
over IP (VoIP) for phone services.

ONTs are typically provided by the service provider and may vary in features
and capabilities depending on the specific service package.

Customer Premises Equipment (CPE):

CPE refers to the networking equipment located at the customer's premises,
which connects to the ONT and enables the distribution of services throughout
the home or business.

In an FTTH context, CPE may include routers, switches, wireless access points,
and devices such as computers, smartphones, and smart TVs.

Routers and switches are commonly used to create local area networks (LANs)
within the customer's premises, allowing multiple devices to connect to the
ONT and access the high-speed internet service.

In summary, an FTTH network utilizes optical fiber technology to deliver high-

speed broadband services directly to homes and businesses. The OLT serves as
the central component in the service provider's network, while the ONT is
installed at the customer's location to interface with the optical fiber and
distribute services. The CPE consists of networking equipment and devices
within the customer's premises that connect to the ONT, enabling users to
access and utilize the high-speed internet, television, and phone services
provided by the FTTH network.

User

explain GSM architecture with its necessary diagram in tabular form

ChatGPT

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is a widely used cellular

network technology. Its architecture consists of several key components and
functions, each playing a crucial role in providing mobile telecommunication
services. Here's an explanation of GSM architecture in tabular form:

Component Description

Mobile Station (MS) - Also known as the mobile device, it includes the
mobile phone or device used by the subscriber.
Base Transceiver Station (BTS) - A radio transmitter/receiver that
communicates directly with the MS within its coverage area. It manages the
radio link and handles call handoffs.

Base Station Controller (BSC) - Controls multiple BTSs and manages their
resources, including handovers between cells.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC) - Core component responsible for call

switching, call setup, and network management.

Home Location Register (HLR) - A database that stores subscriber

information, including phone numbers, authentication keys, and service
profiles.

Visitor Location Register (VLR) - Stores temporary subscriber information

while they are within the coverage area of a particular MSC.

Authentication Center (AUC) - Provides authentication and encryption

parameters to ensure secure communication between the MS and the
network.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR) - Maintains a list of valid and invalid

mobile equipment on the network, helping to prevent theft or fraud.

Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC) - Connects the GSM network to

other networks, such as the PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) or
other mobile networks.

Short Message Service Center (SMSC) - Handles the storage, routing, and
forwarding of SMS (Short Message Service) messages.

GSM Network Diagram GSM Network Diagram

In this diagram:

Mobile Stations (MS) represent mobile devices used by subscribers.

Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) are responsible for the radio communication
with mobile devices.
Base Station Controllers (BSC) manage and control multiple BTSs.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC) is the core switching entity for voice and data
calls.

Home Location Register (HLR) stores subscriber data and service profiles.

Visitor Location Register (VLR) keeps track of active subscribers within a

specific MSC's coverage area.

Authentication Center (AUC) provides security by authenticating mobile

devices.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR) helps prevent mobile equipment theft or

misuse.

Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC) connects the GSM network to other
networks.

Short Message Service Center (SMSC) handles SMS messaging services.

The GSM architecture ensures that mobile devices can seamlessly

communicate with each other and with other networks, enabling voice calls,
text messaging, and data services while maintaining security and efficient
network management.

User

diagram of GSM architecture into one table

ChatGPT

Creating a detailed diagram of the entire GSM architecture within a single

table can be quite complex due to the interconnected nature of the
components. However, I can provide a simplified table that summarizes the
key components of the GSM architecture and their relationships:

Component Description

Mobile Station (MS) The mobile device used by subscribers. Includes the
phone or device.

Base Transceiver Station (BTS) Radio transceiver that communicates directly

with the MS within its coverage area.

Base Station Controller (BSC) Manages and controls multiple BTSs, including
handovers.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC) Core component responsible for call switching
and network management.

Home Location Register (HLR) Database storing subscriber information,

authentication keys, and service profiles.

Visitor Location Register (VLR) Stores temporary subscriber info within a

specific MSC's coverage area.

Authentication Center (AUC) Provides authentication and encryption

parameters for secure communication.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR) Maintains a list of valid and invalid

mobile equipment.

Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC) Connects the GSM network to

other networks, like PSTN or other mobile networks.

Short Message Service Center (SMSC) Handles storage, routing, and forwarding
of SMS messages.

This table provides a simplified overview of the key components and their roles
in the GSM architecture. In practice, the GSM network includes more detailed
interactions and interfaces among these components to provide mobile
services effectively.
The GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) architecture is a
complex network of interconnected components designed to facilitate mobile
telecommunications. At its core, it consists of several key elements: the Mobile
Station (MS), representing the mobile device used by subscribers; the Base
Transceiver Station (BTS), responsible for radio communication with mobile
devices within its coverage area; the Base Station Controller (BSC), which
manages and controls multiple BTSs and handles call handovers; the Mobile
Switching Center (MSC), a central switching entity responsible for call routing
and network management; the Home Location Register (HLR), a database
storing subscriber information, authentication keys, and service profiles; the
Visitor Location Register (VLR), which tracks active subscribers within a specific
MSC's coverage area; the Authentication Center (AUC), providing security
through subscriber authentication and encryption parameters; the Equipment
Identity Register (EIR), maintaining a record of valid and invalid mobile
equipment to prevent theft or misuse; the Gateway Mobile Switching Center
(GMSC), linking the GSM network to other networks such as the PSTN (Public
Switched Telephone Network); and the Short Message Service Center (SMSC),
handling SMS messaging services. These components work together to enable
voice calls, text messaging, and data services while ensuring secure
communication and efficient network management in the GSM system.

User

in simple and sweet explanation in simple understandable language

ChatGPT

Sure, in simpler terms:

Mobile Station (MS): Your mobile phone or device.

Base Transceiver Station (BTS): A tower that talks to your phone and others in
its area.

Base Station Controller (BSC): Manages multiple towers, like a traffic cop for
them.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The big brain of the system, it connects calls
and manages the network.

Home Location Register (HLR): Stores info about you, like your number and
services.

Visitor Location Register (VLR): Keeps track of where you are for calls.

Authentication Center (AUC): Ensures secure communication.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR): Helps prevent phone theft.

Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC): Connects to other networks, like

landlines.

Short Message Service Center (SMSC): Handles text messages.

These parts work together to make your mobile phone calls, texts, and data
services possible in the GSM system.
Crossbar switching 1

Crossbar switching is a type of electromechanical or electronic switching

system used in telecommunications and early telephone exchanges to
establish connections between users or devices. It was a significant
advancement over earlier manual switchboard systems and contributed to the
automation of telephone networks.

The principle of crossbar switching involves creating a matrix or grid of

switches that can be manipulated to establish connections between input and
output lines. This technique allows for the automated routing of calls or data in
telecommunications systems. Here's an explanation of the principles and
configuration of a crossbar switch:

Principles of Crossbar Switching:

Matrix Configuration: Crossbar switches are organized in a matrix-like

structure. They consist of two sets of lines: horizontal (input) lines and vertical
(output) lines. The intersections where these lines cross represent potential
connection points.

Electromechanical or Electronic Control: Crossbar switches can be either

electromechanical (using mechanical components like magnets and actuators)
or electronic (using semiconductor switches or relays). The choice depends on
the era and technology.

Call or Data Setup: When a call is initiated or data needs to be transmitted

from a source to a destination, an electrical signal is sent to the crossbar
switch.

Path Establishment: The switch's control mechanism, whether mechanical or

electronic, is activated to physically or electronically connect the horizontal
input line associated with the source to the vertical output line associated with
the destination. This establishes the communication path.
Connection Release: After the call or data transmission is complete, the switch
disconnects the path, freeing up the input and output lines for other
connections.

Crossbar Switch Configuration:

The configuration of a crossbar switch is based on the matrix design and the
number of input and output lines. Here's a simplified explanation of how a
crossbar switch is set up:

Input Lines (Horizontal Bars): These represent the sources or calling parties.
Each input line corresponds to a potential user or device. For example, if there
are 10 input lines, there can be up to 10 simultaneous callers.

Output Lines (Vertical Bars): These represent the destinations or called parties.
Each output line corresponds to a potential recipient or device. If there are 10
output lines, there can be up to 10 potential recipients.

Switching Elements: At each intersection point between an input line and an

output line, there is a switching element. In mechanical crossbar switches, this
might involve physical bars or levers, while electronic crossbar switches use
semiconductor devices like transistors or relays.

Control Mechanism: A control system, whether mechanical or electronic,

activates the appropriate switching elements to connect the desired input line
to the desired output line when a call or data transfer is initiated.

The key advantage of crossbar switches is their ability to establish direct, non-
blocking connections between any input and output lines within the matrix.
This feature makes them efficient for telecommunications networks, especially
when compared to manual switchboard systems that required human
operators to physically plug and unplug connections.
Centralized spc Distributed spc
A type of database contain single A type of database that contains two
database located in a single location or more database file located at
different location in th network
Managing, updating and taking in As there are multiple database file in a
backup of data is easier because there distributed database, it requires time
is only one database to synchronize data
Requires time for accessing data Speed in accessing the data is higher
because multiple user access the because the data is retrieved from the
database file nearest database file.
If the database fails the users do not If one database fails the user can till
have access to a database access another database file
Has more data consistency and it Can have data replications, there can
provides the complete view to user ne some data inconsistency
Highly vulnerable and hence not Less vulnerable and hence not robust
robust against DDOS attack against DDOS attack

In –channel
Trunks are held up during signaling
Interference between wise and
control signals may occurs
Signaling is relatively slow
Speech circuit continuity is assured
when signaling is received
It is difficult to change or add signals
Separate signaling equipment is
required in each trunk hence
expensive
Can be misused by customer. Since if
each to mimic voice signaling
Common-channel
Trunks are not required after
signaling
No interference since the wise and
control channel are separate
Signaling is much faster
State of speech circuit is not
automatically assured
There is heribility to add or change
signals
Only one set of signaling equipment is
required form large group of trunk
circuits hence economical
Control channel is in-accessible to
users