PROGRAMME (laboratory classes):

1. Introduction: shear box test and oedometer 2013-10-15

2. Introduction: triaxial test 2013-10-29
3. Practical exercises 2013-11-12, 2013-11-26, 2013-12-10
4. Introduction: in situ tests 2014-01-07
5. Final test 2014-01-21
Author: Magdalena Kowalska, PhD, CEng.
Department of Geotechnics and Roads. Silesian University of Technology. Poland

COMPRESSION
AND SWELLING
IN OEDOMETER
CEN ISO/TS 17892-5
Geotechnical investigation and testing
– Laboratory testing of soil
– Incremental loading oedometer test.
2
PURPOSE
The main parameters which can be derived from the
oedometer test carried out on undisturbed samples
are:
1. compressibility parameters;
2. coefficient of consolidation;
3. apparent preconsolidation pressure or yield stress;
4. coefficient of secondary compression;
5. swelling parameters.

3
OEDOMETER
deformation gauge
loading cap

porous plate
metal ring

water

soil specimen
porous plate
cell body
4
 TYPICAL OEDOMETER

http://geotechnika.zut.edu.pl/labor/scis/scis4.jpg,, http://www.labs4u
http://www.labs4u-construction.co.uk/wp-
content/uploads/2011/11/3-consolidation-frames-on-stand.jpg
stand.jpg
 TYPICAL OEDOMETER

http://matest.com/imgprodotti/S265%20BENCH%20FOR%201%20OEDOMETER.jpg
K0 OEDOMETER

7
CRS OEDOMETER

8
PROCEDURE
w0, %

ρ, g/cm3

ρd, g/cm3
h0
h0, mm

ρs
e0 = -1 assume: ρs = 2,65 g/cm3
ρd
9
PROCEDURE

∆h

e.g.: 6 – 12,5 – 25 – 50 – 100 – 200 – 400 – 800 – 1600 kPa

25 – 50
50 – 100 – 200 kPa 10
 INITIAL PRESSURE
SOIL
INITIAL PRESSURE
CONSISTENCY
Stiff (tpl) Equal to σ’0 or the next higher recommended
pressure above σ’0 if σ’0 is less than σ’s
Firm (pl) Somewhat less than σ’0, preferably using the
(IC = 0.5 – 0.75) next lower recommended pressure
Soft (mpl) Appreciably less than σ’0, usually 25 kPa or
(IC = 0.25 – 0.5) less
Very soft (bmpl) Very low, typically 6 or 12 kPa. Initial
(IC < 0.25) consolidation under small load will give aded
strength to prevent squeezing out under next
load increment.
σ’0 – in situ stress ; σ’s – swelling pressure 11
LARGEST PRESSURE
The largest vertical stress should be well in excess of the
maximum vertical stress likely to occur in-situ.

For overconsolidated clay, where the apparent

preconsolidation pressure σ’p is to be determined, loading
should extend to at least two load increments above σ’p.

12
READING INTERVALS
0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 s., …
1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30 min., …
1, 2, 4, 8, 24 h … + at the start, middle and end of each
test day

13
CONSOLIDATION
CURVES

14
GENERAL REMARKS
1. Stress path corresponds to one-dimensional straining.
2. Drainage is one-dimensional and axial.
3. The small size of the specimen generally does not
adequately represent the fabric features present in
natural soils.
4. It is assumed that the soil is saturated and
homogenous.
5. The test shall be carried out on undisturbed samples.
6. The mean diameter of the largest particle within a
specimen shall not normally exceed one-fifth of the
height of the ring.
15
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL
COMPRESSION AND SWELLING
h [mm] virgin compression curve

recompression curve

expansion / swelling
curve

σ [kPa]
16
 INITIAL OEDOMETRIC MODULUS

σ 2 − σ1
h1[kPa ]
h [mm]
E oed = M0 =
h1 − h2
h1

h2

σ1 σ2
σ [kPa]
17
SECONDARY OEDOMETRIC MODULUS

σ 2 − σ1
h3 [kPa ]
h [mm]
E oed =M=
h3 − h4

h3
h4

σ1 σ2
σ [kPa]
18
 COEFFICIENT OF VOLUME
COMPRESSIBILITY

h1 − h2 1000
[1/ MPa]
h [mm]
mv =
h1 σ 2 − σ1

h1
h2

σ1 σ2
σ [kPa]
19
COMPRESSIBILITY INDEX Cc
e [-]
−δe
e0
Cc = [−]
δ log σ

e1

e2
log σ [kPa]

σ1 σ2

20
SWELLING INDEX Cs
e [-]
−δe
e0
Cs = [−]
δ log σ

e1
e2
log σ [kPa]

σ1 σ2

21
 CONSOLIDATION IN TIME
h [mm]
initial compression
h0

primary consolidation

secondary consolidation

1 10 100 1000
t100 log t [min] 22
 COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION
LOG TIME CURVE FITTING 2
0 . 197 L
h [mm] cv = fT
d0 0% t50
b
b
a 4a 50%

100%

1 10 100 1000
tk log t [min] 23
APPARENT PRECONSOLIDATION
PRESSURE
e
α
A α

Cc

Cs

σp log σ [kPa]
24
EXCERCISE 1
Based on results of oedometric test calculate the value of the initial
oedometric compression modulus for stress range 200 – 300 kPa
and the height x, knowing that for this stress range the secondary
oedometric modulus M = 2.5 MPa
h [mm]

18.5
17.0
16.0 x
15.0 14.8

100 200 300 400 500

σ [kPa] 25
EXCERCISE 2
Results of oedometric test have been shown in the table. The mass of
the dry soil was ms = 116.74 g. The height of the specimen at the
beginning of the test was H0 = 25.4 mm, and diameter D0 = 63.5 mm.
Grain specific gravity was Gs = 2.72. Calculate the value of
compressibility index Cc.
Stress Height of specimen after
G

σ’ stabilization of settlement
s

ρ
s

= kPa H, mm
w

ρ 1 25.4
e
w
G
s

= ⋅ 52.5 24.9
105 24.7
210 24.0
420 22.9
840 21.8 26
EXCERCISE 2 - solution
To calculate Cc the graph e – log σ’ is needed
To calculate the void ratio if e = w·Gs,

m m
w

w
the soil water content is necessary. And what is it? =

s
We know ms, so we are looking for mw. In a fully saturated soil the total volume
consists of volume of voids filled with water and volume of solid particles: Vt =
Vs + Vw , so knowing the volume of solids
m
Vs

( = ) the volume of water can be obtained, and so its mass.

s

ρ
We get: ρs = 2.72 g/cm3, Vs = 42.919 cm3
Vt = 80.44 cm3, Vw = 37.52 cm3, mw = 37.52 g, w0 = 0.32

Thus e0 = 0.32*2.72 = 0.8704.

H

e e

∆ ∆
H

Then using the relation: = the following values of void ratio can be
0

+
calculated
27
 0.90

EX. 2 0.85

0.80

0.75
e, -
0.70
0.65
Cc = 0.27
0.60

0.55
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
log σ', kPa
σ’ log σ‘ H ∆h ∆e e
kPa kPa mm mm - -
1 0 25.4 0.870
52.5 1.72 24.9 0.5 0.037 0.833
105 2.02 24.7 0.7 0.052 0.818
210 2.32 24.0 1.4 0.103 0.767
420 2.62 22.9 2.5 0.184 0.686
840 2.92 21.8 3.6 0.265 0.605 28
Author: Magdalena Kowalska, PhD, CEng.
Department of Geotechnics and Roads. Silesian University of Technology. Poland

SHEAR STRENGTH
IN SHEAR BOX TEST

CEN ISO/TS 17892-10

Geotechnical investigation and testing
– Laboratory testing of soil
– Direct shear tests.
29
(DIRECT) SHEAR BOX
loading plate
soil specimen N

P
box
b

specimen area: A = b * b porous (or

b = e.g. 6cm, 10cm, 12 cm (>= 6cm) solid) plates
h > 10mm & h > 5*dmax 30
 (DIRECT) SHEAR BOX

http://www.controls-group.com/backend/prodotti/img_upload/img_big/1202091636100_1_shear_box_parts.jpg 31
http://www.controls-group.com/backend/prodotti/img_upload/img_big/1203061121110_2_extrusion_dolly_and_sample_cutter.jpg
 32
http://zasoby.open.agh.edu.pl/~09sjstanisz/grunty/P1010573.JPG
 33
http://www.controls-group.com/backend/prodotti/img_upload/img_big/1202091456100_1_digishear_27_wf2060...........jpg
 (DIRECT) SHEAR BOX

34
http://www.controls-group.com/backend/prodotti/img_upload/img_big/1202091456100_1_digishear_27_wf2060...........jpg
PROCEDURE
N
∆h
N A0

σ=
A0 = b2
35
PROCEDURE

t100

36
PROCEDURE
The minimum time to failure, i.e. to mobilisation of the
maximum shear resistance: tf = 12.7 · t100.

For saturated fine-grained (cohesive) soils the maximum

rate of shear displacement ν shall be determined
according to equation: ν = st/tf,
when the estimated horizontal shear deformation at
failure st is known.

For coarse-grained (cohesionless) soils the rate of

displacement shall not exceed: ν ≤ 0.5 mm/min.

37
PROCEDURE
∆l

∆h N

Pmax
τ=
A A = A 0 = b2
38
CONDITIONS TO TERMINATE
The test can be terminated when:
the strain at peak load is clearly exceeded, or
when the horizontal displacement has reached 20 % of
the diameter or the width of the specimen.

RESIDUAL SHEAR STRENGTH τR

can be determined when, after repeated reversal of the

shearing direction, no further decrease of the shearing
resistance can be measured between two subsequent
shear stages.

39
 40

SHEAR STRENGTH

Whitlow R.: Basic Soil Mechanics, Longman, Harlow, 1996, str. 224
TEST RESULTS

For each specimen the following graphs shall be plotted :

τ – εh
∆h – ∆a
τf – σ

41
 SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS
τ [kPa]
σ = 50, 100, 200,
300, 400 kPa
φ

τ = c + σ tanφ
c
σ [kPa]
c – cohesion ( = 0 for cohesionless soils ! )
φ – internal friction angle 42
SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS
Cohesion and internal angle of friction may be evaluated
from the approximation formulas:
N

12
N

N
i
i

ii

2
∑σ τ − ∑σ ∑τ
a

N
 (∑ ∆
) 
iN
1

i
1

i
sa

i
1
= = = =  
N
N

N
2
=
=
2

N
N


2
(∑ σ
) (− ∑ σ
)  −
i

i
(∑ σ
) (− ∑ σ
) 

i
i
1

i
1 N i

i
1

i
1
= =  = = 
N

N i

N i

1 2
2

N
(∑ σ
) ∑τ − ∑σ ∑σ τ

2
i N

i
i
 σ ) 
b

i
i
1

1N i

1 2i

∑
sb

sa
i
1
= = = = = = 

N
N

=
2

 
(∑ σ
) (− ∑ σ
)

t
g

c
i

 
i
1

f
i

i
= =   ∆ = τ −σ φ−
c
b

sc

sb
a
r
c
t
g
a

1
8
= ( ) = 0
s

sa
c
o
s
φ=

2
o
φ = φ
π 43
ADVANATAGES
1. The shear stress and normal stress on the plane of
failure are measured directly.
2. In case of cohesionless soils the tests can be carried
out in a reasonably short time.
3. It is possible, using a reversible shear box, to carry out
tests involving large displacements (e.g. residual
strength tests on clays)

44
DISADVANATAGES
1. The soil is sheared on a predetermined failure plane.
2. The distribution of shear stress over the plane of failure
is assumed to be uniform, but in fact it is not.
3. The drainage conditions cannot be controlled.
4. The pore water pressure within the specimen cannot be
measured – therefore only total stressmeasurements
can be made.
5. The area under the shear and vertical loads does not
remain constant throughout the test.

45
 q 0,1εmax
E 0,1ε =
0,1ε max

EXERCISE 3
You wanted to know the strength parameters of clay (G, IL=0.28)
so conducted a direct shear box test on 5 samples and obtained results
shown in the table below.
Your box was 6cm x 6cm in width.
What are the values of internal angle of friction and cohesion of
this soil? What is the standard mean square deviation of the results?
No. Normal Load Hor. shearing force Box movement
P [N] T [N] ∆a [cm]
1 360 184.2 0.25
2 540 231.8 0.32
3 720 270.0 0.4
4 1080 308.2 0.38
5 1440 349.7 0.51
ANSWER (acc. to PN): c = 41.26 kPa, φ = 9.54°, sc = 4.83 kPa, sφ = 1.058° 46
EXCERCISE 4
There are only 2 results of a shear-box test.
Based on them estimate the values of the internal angle of friction
and cohesion. Do it in an analytical and graphical way.
Write the equation of the Coulomb – Mohr failure line for this soil.
Calculate the values of the maximum σ1’ and minimum σ3’ principal
stress for the first specimen tested.

No. Normal stress Shear stress

σ’ [kPa] τ [kPa]
1 200 72.3
2 400 101.2

ANSWER: c = 43.4 kPa, φ = 8.22°, τ’ = 43.4 kPa + 0.1445 σ’,

σ1’ = 283.49 kPa, σ3’ = 137.39 kPa

47
Author: Magdalena Kowalska, PhD, CEng.
Department of Geotechnics and Roads. Silesian University of Technology. Poland

GEOTECHNICAL
PARAMETERS IN
TRIAXIAL APPARATUS
CEN ISO/TS 17892-8 & 17892-9
Geotechnical investigation and testing
– Laboratory testing of soil
– Unconsolidated undrained triaxial test (UU) &
– Consolidated triaxial compression tests on water saturated soil.
48
TRIAXIAL APPARATUS
piston

air bleed
perspex cylinder
loading cap
O-ring
soil specimen
rubber membrane
porous disc
pedestal
drainage or pore
all-round water pressure
pressure supply measurement

49
 TRIAXIAL LEGENDA
... czujniki:
H - przemieszczenia pionowego
S

APPARATUS
V - zmiany objętości
S - siły
C - ciśnienia
T - temperatury
H

C C

CP
C
C
BP

RAMA T POMPA POMPA

OBCIĄŻENIOWA CP BP

servo AD-IO servo AD-IO servo AD-IO

H V V

Bishop – Henkel’s cell

with the stress path moduł sieciowy
komputer z programem
TruePath
control system 50
 TRIAXIAL APPARATUS

51
Bishop – Henkel’s cell with the stress path control system
 LEGENDA
cylinder W-P

TRIAXIAL H
pompa CRS

silnik krokowy
z manostatem

APPARATUS T
S
... czujniki:
H - zmiany wysokości próbki
D - zmiany średnicy próbki
V - zmiany objętości próbki
H
PP - ciśnienia porowego
H S - siły
D C - ciśnienia
PP T - temperatury
BP
C V

CP
C

RAM

konwerter analogowo - cyfrowy

Bishop – Wesley’s cell with
the stress path control system
przemieszczenie osiowe
komputer z kartą WE/WY siła osiowa
i programem TRIAX ciśnienie wyrównawcze
ciśnienie wody w komorze głównej 52
 TRIAXIAL
APPARATUS

Bishop – Wesley’s cell with the stress path control system 53

WHAT SPECIMENS?

Cylindrical with D ≥ 35 mm & H/D = 1.85 ÷ 2.25

dmax < D/6 (when Cu = d60/d10<5 – dmax < D/10 !!!)
Undisturbed, reconstituted or remoulded
Saturated

54
QUALITY CLASS OF SOIL SAMPLE
Characteristics of soil 1 2 3 4 5
Unchanged soil properties:
- grading * * * *
- water content * * *
- density, density index, permeability * *
- compressibility, shear strength *

55
 QUALITY CLASS OF SOIL SAMPLE
Characteristics of soil 1 2 3 4 5
Can be determined:
- sequence of layers * * * * *
- layers’ boundaries - approximately * * * *
- layers’ boundaries - accurately * *
- Atterberg limits, soil particle density, * * * *
content of organic matter
- water content * * *
- density, density index, porosity, permeability * *
- compressibility, shear strength *
56
TEST PROCEDURE
1. Preparation of specimen
2. Saturation & application of back pressure*
3. Isotropic or anisotropic consolidation*
4. Shearing (with constant cell pressure)
5. Dismounting
6. Data processing

* not present in UU test

57
SPECIMEN PREPARATION

58
SPECIMEN PREPARATION

59
SPECIMEN PREPARATION

60
SPECIMEN PREPARATION

61
SPECIMEN PREPARATION

62
SATURATION & BACK PRESSURE
applied in steps

Filters, pore pressure measuring system and the

specimen shall be sufficiently saturated, if necessary
with back pressure, to allow reliable measurement of
pore pressure during undrained shearing and accurate
volume change measurements during drained shearing.

SKEMPTON CHECK
recorded no later than 2
mins after application of ∆σ
∆u
B= ≥ 0.95
∆σ 25 kPa for soft soils
to 100 kPa for stiff soils
63
TERZAGHI’s THEORY

If pore water pressure u is measured all the

stresses in soil may be presented as total or
effective ones according to the fundamental
Terzaghi theory (1936), where:

σ = σ’ + u

total stress effective stress pore pressure

64
TERZAGHI’s THEORY
1. Initial state: σ0 = σ0’ + u0 = σ0’ (u0 = 0)
2. Loading: σ1 = σ0 + ∆σ = σ0’ + u (εvol = 0, u = ∆σ)
3. Consolidation: σ1 = σ’ + u (εvol > 0, u 0)
4. Final stable state: σ1 = σ1’ (u1 = 0)

σ = σ’ + u

65
CONSOLIDATION
N
ISOTROPIC
(CIU & CID)

σ'1C = σ' 2 C = σ' 3C

ANISOTROPIC
(CAU & CAD)
σ'1C > σ' 2 C = σ' 3C

66
CONSOLIDATION
N
Major principal stress
σ'1C = σ' 3C +q
Deviator stress (stress intensity)
N
q=
A
Mean stress
σ'1C +σ' 2 C +σ' 3C
p' =
3 67
 SHEARING
N
DRAINED TEST
(CID & CAD)
free drainage, slow: νmax<0.2%/min
UNDRAINED TEST
(CIU & CAU)
no drainage, νmax shall allow
equalisation of pore pressure at
failure
νmax
UNDRAINED TEST
(UU)
no drainage, νmax = 0.5 – 2.0 %/min

68
SHEARING
N
Min 15 readings prior
to failure + thereafter
every 1% vertical
strain
The test may be
stopped when
εv = 15% or exceeds, νmax
by 5%, the strain at
peak deviator stress

69
 DISMOUNTING
As quickly as possible the specimen shall be
removed from the triaxial cell and the membrane and
filters shall be stripped off.
The whole specimen shall be weighted and
immediately afterwards a representative part shall be
selected and the moisture content shall be determined.
The total volume of the whole specimen should be
determined.
A rough sketch of the specimen indicating the failure
planes shall be made or a photograph of the specimen
shall be taken. 70
WHAT IS CONTROLLED?
rate of piston displacement
cell pressure
back pressure

WHAT IS MEASURED?
pore pressure (measured or not)
volume change (= 0 when UU)
axial load
sample deformation (compression/expansion)
71
RESULTS
Bulk density ρ, dry density ρd, water content w
Vertical displacement during consolidation (if not
measured) ∆HC:
1 ∆VC
∆HC = * Hi
3 Vi
Average area of specimen A, effective & total vertical &
horizontal stress σ’1, σ1, σ’3 , σ3, pore pressure change
∆u, vertical strain ε1, volumetric strain εvol

Vi − ∆VC − ∆V ∆V
A= ε vol =
Hi − ∆HC − ∆H Vi − ∆VC

72
RESULTS
Secant modulus E50

q [kPa]
qf (σ1 )50 − σ1C
E 50 =
(ε1 )50
0,5 qf σ1f + σ1C
(σ1 )50 =
2

(ε1)50 (ε1)100 ε1 [%]

73
 RESULTS Effective shear strength
parameters (Mohr circles)
τ [kPa]
φ

σ'1 −σ' 3
2
c σ [kPa]

σ’31 σ’32 σ’11 σ’33 σ’12 σ’13

σ'1 +σ' 3
2
74
 φ = arcsin tan(α
α)
RESULTS φ)
c = a/cos(φ
t [kPa]
α
t’3

t’2
t’1
a s [kPa]

s’1 s’2 s’3

s' =
σ'1 + σ' 3 σ'1 −σ' 3
t' =
2 2
75
 σ1

RESULTS σ3 σ3
β
τ [kPa]

σ1
t’
τ

2β
σ [kPa]

σ’3 σ s’ σ’1

σ = s' +t' ⋅ cos(2 β ) τ = t' ⋅ sin(2 β )

76
 TYPES OF TESTS
CONSOLIDATED DRAINED (CID & CAD)

φ’
τ [kPa]

c’
σ [kPa]

σ’31 σ’11 σ’32 σ’12

u=0 σ = σ’
77
 TYPES OF TESTS
CONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED (CIU & CAU)

φ’
τ [kPa]

c’
σ [kPa]

σ’31 σ31 σ’11 σ’32 σ11 σ32 σ’12 σ12

u1 u2
78
 TYPES OF TESTS
QUICK UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED (UU)

τ [kPa] φu = 0 !

cu
σ [kPa]

σ 31 σ32 σ11 σ13 σ12 σ13

cu (or su) – undrained shear strength
(not due to actual cohesion but mainly due to friction and effective stresses) 79
EXERCISE 5
There are results of only 2 triaxial compression tests
(CID) of a cohesive soil (table below).
Estimate the values of internal angle of friction and
cohesion of this soil using both analytical and graphical
method.

No. Minor principal stress Major principal stress

σ'3 [kPa] σ’1 [kPa]
1 98.06 238.02
2 196.12 382.24

ANSWER: c = 38.7 kPa, φ = 11°

80