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dedication
To the students and teachers of Earth, and
to all the children and grandchildren, for it
is their future and home planet.

The land still provides our genesis, how-

ever we might like to forget that our food
comes from dank, muddy Earth, that the
oxygen in our lungs was recently inside a
leaf, and that every newspaper or book
we may pick up is made from the hearts of
trees that died for the sake of our imag-
ined lives. What you hold in your hands
right now, beneath these words, is conse-
crated air and time and sunlight.
—Barbara Kingsolver
brief contents
1 Essentials of Geography 2

Part I The Energy–Atmosphere System   36

2 Solar Energy to Earth and the Seasons   38
3 Earth’s Modern Atmosphere   58
4 Atmosphere and Surface Energy Balances   82
5 Global Temperatures   106
6 Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulations   132

Part Ii  The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems  164

7 Water and Atmospheric Moisture   166
8 Weather  190
9 Water Resources   222
10 Global Climate Systems   256
11 Climate Change   286

Part Iii The Earth–Atmosphere Interface  322

12 The Dynamic Planet   324
13 Tectonics, Earthquakes, and Volcanism   356
14 Weathering, Karst Landscapes, and Mass Movement   392
15 River Systems   420
16 Oceans, Coastal Systems, and Wind Processes   454
17 Glacial and Periglacial Landscapes   494

Part Iv Soils, Ecosystems, and Biomes  526

18 The Geography of Soils   528
19 Ecosystem Essentials   558
20 Terrestrial Biomes   592
Appendix A Maps in this Text and Topographic Maps   A-1
Appendix B The Köppen Climate Classification System   A-6
Appendix C Common Conversions  A-9

Preface  xix
Digital and Print Resources xx
Book and MasteringGeography Walkthrough
Pearson Choices xxx
1 Essentials of Geography   2
Key Learning concepts  2
GEOSYSTEMS now Shale Gas: An Energy Resource
for the Future?  1
The Science of Geography  3
The Geographic Continuum   3
Geographic Analysis   4
The Scientific Process   5
Human–Earth Interactions in the 21st Century   7
Earth Systems Concepts 8
Systems Theory   8
Systems Organization in Geosystems  11
Part I The Energy–Atmosphere System  36
2 Solar Energy to Earth
and the Seasons   38
Key Learning concepts  38
GEOSYSTEMS now Chasing the Subsolar Point  39
The Solar System, Sun, and Earth   40
Solar System Formation   41
Dimensions and Distances   41
Solar Energy: From Sun to Earth   41
Solar Activity and Solar Wind   42
contents
xxii
Earth’s Dimensions   14
Location and Time on Earth  16
Latitude  17
Longitude  19
Great Circles and Small Circles   19
Meridians and Global Time   20
Maps and Cartography  22
The Scale of Maps   22
Map Projections   24
Modern Tools and Techniques for Geoscience  26
Global Positioning System   27
Remote Sensing   28
Geographic Information Systems   31
Geosystems connection  33
Key Learning concepts review  33
geosystems in action 1 Exploring Earth Systems   12
Critical Thinking 1.1 What is Your Footprint?   8
CT 1.2 Latitudinal Geographic Zones and Temperature   19
CT 1.3 Where are You?   20
CT 1.4 Find and Calculate Map Scales   24
CT 1.5 Test Your Knowledge about Satellite Imagery   31
GEO reports: 7 reports   29
Electromagnetic Spectrum of Radiant Energy   43
Incoming Energy at the Top of the Atmosphere   45
The Seasons   47
Seasonality  48
Reasons for Seasons   48
Annual March of the Seasons   51
Key Learning concepts review  56
geosystems in action 2 Earth-Sun Relations  52
Critical Thinking 2.1 A Way to Calculate Sunrise
and Sunset   48
CT 2.2 Astronomical Factors Vary over
Long Time Frames   50
CT 2.3 Use the Analemma to Find the Subsolar Point   54
The humanDenominator: The Earth-Sun System and the
Seasons  55
GEO reports: 4 reports   41
viii Geosystems

Pollutants in the Atmosphere   67

Key Learning concepts
3 Earth’s Modern Atmosphere   58
Key Learning concepts  58
GEOSYSTEMS now Humans Help Define
the Atmosphere   59
Atmospheric Composition, Temperature,
and Function   60
Atmospheric Profile   60
Atmospheric Composition Criterion   61
Atmospheric Temperature Criterion   63
Atmospheric Function Criterion   65
Natural Sources of Air Pollution   67
Anthropogenic Pollution   70
Natural Factors That Affect Pollutants   74
Benefits of the Clean Air Act   78
Geosystems connection  79
review  80
geosystems in action 3 Air Pollution  76
Focus Study 3.1 Pollution   68
Focus Study 3.2 Pollution   72
Critical Thinking 3.1 Where is Your Tropopause?   65
CT 3.2 Finding Your Local Ozone   66
CT 3.3 Evaluating Costs and Benefits   78
The humanDenominator: The Shared Global
­Atmosphere   79
GEO reports: 5 reports   60

Energy Balance in the Troposphere   90

The Greenhouse Effect and Atmospheric Warming   90
Earth–Atmosphere Energy Balance   91
Energy Balance at Earth’s Surface   95
Daily Radiation Patterns   95
A Simplified Surface Energy Budget   96
The Urban Environment   100
Geosystems connection  103
Key Learning concepts review  104
geosystems in action 4 Earth–Atmosphere Energy Balance   92

4 Atmosphere and Surface Energy Focus Study 4.1 Sustainable Resources   98

Balances  82 Critical Thinking 4.1 A Kelp Indicator of Surface
Energy Dynamics   94
Key Learning concepts  82
CT 4.2 Applying Energy-Balance Principles to
GEOSYSTEMS now Melting Sea Ice Opens Arctic Shipping
a Solar Cooker   97
Lanes, However...  83
CT 4.3 Looking at Your Surface Energy Budget   102
Energy-Balance Essentials   84
The humanDenominator: Changes in Atmosphere and
Energy and Heat   84
­Surface Energy Budgets   103
Energy Pathways and Principles   86
GEO reports: 3 reports   87

Principal Temperature Controls   112

Latitude  112
Altitude and Elevation   112
Cloud Cover   113
Land–Water Heating Differences   114
Earth’s Temperature Patterns   120
January and July Global Temperature Maps   121
January and July Polar-Region Temperature Maps   123
5 Global Temperatures   106 Annual Temperature Range Map   124
Key Learning concepts  106 Recent Temperature Trends and Human Response   124
GEOSYSTEMS now The Mystery of St. Kilda’s Shrinking Record Temperatures and Greenhouse Warming   125
Sheep  107 Heat Stress and the Heat Index   127
Geosystems connection  129
Temperature Concepts and Measurement   109
KEY LEARNING concepts review  130
Temperature Scales   109
Measuring Temperature   110 geosystems in action 5 Earth’s Highest Land Surface
Temperatures  111

Focus Study 5.1 Climate Change   126
Critical Thinking 5.1 Compare and Explain Coastal
and Inland ­Temperatures   117
6 Atmospheric and Oceanic
Circulations  132
Key Learning concepts  132
GEOSYSTEMS now Ocean Currents Bring
Invasive Species  133
Wind Essentials   135
Air Pressure   135
Wind: Description and Measurement   136
Driving Forces Within the Atmosphere   138
Pressure Gradient Force   138
Coriolis Force   138
Friction Force   140
Summary of Physical Forces on Winds   140
High- and Low-Pressure Systems   142
Part Ii The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems   164
7 Water and Atmospheric Moisture   166
Key Learning concepts  166
GEOSYSTEMS now Summer Fog Protects
the World’s Tallest Trees  167
Water’s Unique Properties   168
Phase Changes and Heat Exchange   169
Latent Heat Transfer Under Natural Conditions   171
Humidity  172
Relative Humidity   172
Contents    ix
CT 5.2 Begin a Full Physical Geography Profile of Your
Area  122
The humanDenominator: Global Temperatures   129
GEO reports: 4 reports   109
Atmospheric Patterns of Motion   142
Primary Pressure Areas and Associated Winds   142
Upper Atmospheric Circulation   145
Monsoonal Winds   150
Local Winds   151
Oceanic Currents   153
Surface Currents   153
Thermohaline Circulation—The Deep Currents   154
Natural Oscillations in Global Circulation   155
El Niño–Southern Oscillation   155
Pacific Decadal Oscillation   158
North Atlantic and Arctic Oscillations   159
Geosystems connection  160
Key Learning concepts review  161
geosystems in action 6 Atmospheric Circulation  146
Focus Study 6.1 Sustainable Resources   156
Critical Thinking 6.1 Measure the Wind   138
CT 6.2 What Causes the North Australian Monsoon?   151
CT 6.3 Construct Your Own Wind-Power Assessment
Report  152
The humanDenominator: Global Circulation   160
GEO reports: 5 Reports   135
Specialized Expressions of Humidity   174
Instruments for Measuring Humidity   175
Atmospheric Stability   176
Adiabatic Processes   176
Stable and Unstable Atmospheric Conditions   177
Clouds and Fog   180
Cloud Formation Processes   180
Cloud Types and Identification   180
Processes That Form Fog   183
Geosystems connection  186
Key Learning concepts review  187
geosystems in action 7 Adiabatic Heating and Cooling  178
Critical Thinking 7.1 Iceberg Analysis   170
CT 7.2 Using Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Maps   175
CT 7.3 Identify Two Kinds of Fog   184
The humanDenominator: Atmospheric Moisture    186
GEO reports: 3 reports   170
x The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems
Geosystems

Midlatitude Cyclonic Systems   200

Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone   200
Weather Maps and Forecasting   201
Violent Weather   204
Ice Storms and Blizzards   204
Thunderstorms  204
Derechos  208
Tornadoes  209
Tropical Cyclones   211
8 Weather   190 Geosystems connection  219
Key Learning concepts  190 Key Learning concepts review  220
GEOSYSTEMSnow On the Front Lines of Intense Weather  191 geosystems in action 8 Midlatitude Cyclones  202
Air Masses   192 Focus Study 8.1 Natural Hazards   216
Air Masses Affecting North America   192
Critical Thinking 8.1 Analyzing a Weather Map   205
Air Mass Modification   193
CT 8.2 Hazard Perception and Planning: What Seems to
Atmospheric Lifting Mechanisms   193
be Missing?   218
Convergent Lifting   194
Convectional Lifting   194 The humanDenominator: Weather   219
Orographic Lifting   195 GEO reports: 5 reports   195
Frontal Lifting (Cold and Warm Fronts)   197

Surface Water Resources   235

Snow and Ice   235
Rivers and Lakes   235
Wetlands  241
Groundwater Resources   241
The Groundwater Environment   242
Overuse of Groundwater   243
Pollution of Groundwater   248
9 Water Resources   222 Our Water Supply   248
Key Learning concepts  222
Water Supply in the United States   250
Water Withdrawal and Consumption   251
GEOSYSTEMS now Earth’s Largest Lake
Future Considerations   251
Warms with Changing Climate  223
Geosystems connection  252
Water on Earth   224 Key Learning concepts review  253
Worldwide Equilibrium   225
geosystems in action 9 Groundwater  244
Distribution of Earth’s Water Today   225
The Hydrologic Cycle   226 Focus Study 9.1 Climate Change   238
Water in the Atmosphere   226 Focus Study 9.2 Sustainable Resources   246
Water at the Surface   227 Critical Thinking 9.1 Your Local Water Budget   232
Water in the Subsurface   228
CT 9.2 Calculate Your Water Footprint   249
Water Budgets and Resource Analysis   228
Components of the Water Budget   228 CT 9.3 That Next Glass of Water   251
The Water-Budget Equation   232 The humanDenominator: Water Use   252
Sample Water Budgets   232 GEO reports: 4 reports   224
Water-Budget Application: Hurricane Camille   233
Drought: The Water Deficit   234

10 Global Climate Systems   256

Key Learning concepts  256

GEOSYSTEMS now A Large-Scale Look at Puerto

Rico’s Climate  257
Review of Earth’s Climate System   258

Classifying Earth’s Climates   259
Tropical Rain Forest Climates   264
Tropical Monsoon Climates   265
Tropical Savanna Climates   266
Humid Subtropical Hot-Summer Climates   267
Humid Subtropical Winter-Dry Climates   267
Marine West Coast Climates   267
Mediterranean Dry-Summer Climates   269
Humid Continental Hot-Summer Climates   272
Humid Continental Mild-Summer Climates   272
Subarctic Climates   273
Tundra Climates   276
Ice-Cap and Ice-Sheet Climates   277
Polar Marine Climates   277
11 Climate Change   286
Key Learning concepts  286
GEOSYSTEMS now Greenhouse Gases Awaken
in the Arctic  287
Population Growth and Fossil Fuels—The Setting
for Climate Change   288
Deciphering Past Climates   290
Methods for Long-Term Climate Reconstruction   291
Earth’s Long-Term Climate History   293
Methods for Short-Term Climate Reconstruction   295
Earth’s Short-Term Climate History   297
Mechanisms of Natural Climate Fluctuation   299
Solar Variability   299
Earth’s Orbital Cycles   299
Continental Position and Topography   300
Atmospheric Gases and Aerosols   300
Climate Feedbacks and the Carbon Budget   300
Earth’s Carbon Budget   300
Water-Vapor Feedback   301
Carbon–Climate Feedbacks   301
CO2–Weathering Feedback   301
Part III The Earth–Atmosphere Interface   322
Change     xi
Contents    xi
Climate Systems and Climate
Characteristics of Dry Climates   278
Tropical, Subtropical Hot Desert Climates   279
Midlatitude Cold Desert Climates   280
Tropical, Subtropical Hot Steppe Climates   280
Midlatitude Cold Steppe Climates   280
Climate Regions and Climate Change   288
Geosystems connection  283
Key Learning concepts review  284
geosystems in action 10 Earth’s Climate System  260
Critical Thinking 10.1 Finding Your Climate   259
The humanDenominator: Climate Regions   283
GEO reports: 3 reports   266
Evidence for Present Climate Change   304
Temperature  305
Ice Melt   305
Sea-Level Rise   307
Extreme Events   308
Causes of Present Climate Change   308
Contributions of Greenhouse Gases   309
Sources of Radiative Forcing   311
Scientific Consensus   313
Climate Models and Forecasts   314
Radiative Forcing Scenarios   314
Future Temperature Scenarios   315
Sea-Level Projections   315
The Path Ahead   316
Taking a Position on Climate Change   316
Action Now Means “No Regrets”   317
Mitigating Climate Change: What Can You Do?   317
Geosystems connection  319
Key Learning concepts review  320
geosystems in action 11 The Global Carbon
Budget  302
Focus Study 11.1 Climate Change   312
Critical Thinking 11.1 Crossing The 450-ppm Thresh-
old for Carbon Dioxide   290
CT 11.2 Thinking Through an Action Plan to Reduce Hu-
man Climate Forcing   312
The humanDenominator: Taking Action on Climate
Change  319
GEO reports: 3 reports   307
12 The Dynamic Planet   324
Key Learning concepts  324
GEOSYSTEMS now Earth’s Migrating Magnetic Poles  325
The Pace of Change   326
Earth’s Structure and Internal Energy   328
Earth’s Core and Mantle   329
xii The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems
Geosystems

Earth’s Crust   329 Hot Spots   346

The Asthenosphere and Lithosphere   330 The Geologic Cycle   350
Adjustments in the Crust   330
Geosystems connection  351
Earth’s Magnetism   331
Key Learning concepts review  354
Earth Materials and the Rock Cycle   332
geosystems in action 12 The Geologic Cycle   352
Igneous Processes   333
Sedimentary Processes   334 Focus Study 12.1 Sustainable Resources   348
Metamorphic Processes   338 Critical Thinking 12.1 Thoughts about an “Anthropo-
The Rock Cycle   338 cene ­Epoch”   328
Plate Tectonics   340 CT 12.2 Tracking Your Location Since Pangaea   344
Continental Drift   340
CT 12.3 How Fast is the Pacific Plate Moving?   350
Seafloor Spreading   340
Subduction  344 The humanDenominator: Earth Material and Plate Tecton-
Plate Boundaries   344 ics  351
Earthquake and Volcanic Activity   345 GEO reports: 4 reports   329

The Tetons and the Sierra Nevada   371

The Appalachian Mountains   374
Earthquakes  374
Earthquake Anatomy   375
Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude   376
Fault Mechanics   377
Earthquake Forecasting   380
Earthquake Planning   381
13 Tectonics, Earthquakes, Volcanism  382
and Volcanism   356 Settings for Volcanic Activity   383
Volcanic Materials   383
Key Learning concepts  356
Volcanic Landforms   383
GEOSYSTEMS now The San Jacinto Fault Connection  357 Effusive Eruptions   384
Earth’s Surface Relief   358 Explosive Eruptions   386
Studying Earth’s Topography   358 Volcano Forecasting and Planning   387
Orders of Relief   359 Geosystems connection  389
Earth’s Hypsometry   359 Key Learning concepts review  390
Earth’s Topographic Regions   360 geosystems in action 13 Mountain Building  372
Crustal Formation   361
Focus Study 13.1 Natural Hazards   378
Continental Shields   361
Building Continental Crust and Accretion of Terranes   362 Critical Thinking 13.1 Comparing Topographic Re-
gions at Different Scales   360
Crustal Deformation   363
Folding and Broad Warping   364 CT 13.2 Ocean-Floor Tectonics Tour   387
Faulting  366 The humanDenominator: Tectonics   389
Orogenesis (Mountain Building)   369 GEO reports: 4 reports   360
Types of Orogenesis   371

GEOSYSTEMS now Human-Caused Mass Movement at the

Kingston Steam Plant, Tennessee  393
Landmass Denudation   394
Dynamic Equilibrium Approach to Understanding
­Landforms   395
Slopes  395
Weathering Processes   398
Factors Influencing Weathering Processes   399
14 Weathering, Karst Landscapes, Physical Weathering Processes   400
Chemical Weathering Processes   401
and Mass Movement   392 Karst Topography   405
Key Learning concepts  392
Formation of Karst   406
 Change     xiii
Contents    xiii
Climate Systems and Climate

Features of Karst Landscapes   406 geosystems in action 14 Hillslopes As Open ­Systems  396

Caves and Caverns   408 Focus Study 14.1 Natural Hazards   413
Mass-Movement Processes   410 Critical Thinking 14.1 Find a Slope; Apply the
Mass-Movement Mechanics   410 Concepts  398
Classes of Mass Movements   411
Humans as a Geomorphic Agent   415 The humanDenominator: Weathering, Karst, and
­Hillslopes   417
Geosystems connection  417
GEO reports: 5 reports   400
Key Learning concepts review  418

Base Level   427

15 River Systems   420
Key Learning concepts  420
GEOSYSTEMS now Environmental Effects of Dams
on the Nu River in China  421
Drainage Basins and Drainage Patterns   422
Drainage Divides   423
Drainage Basins as Open Systems   425
International Drainage Basins   425
Internal Drainage   425
Drainage Patterns   426
Basic Fluvial Concepts   427
Gradient  427
Stream Discharge   428
Fluvial Processes and Landforms   430
Stream Channel Processes   431
Channel Patterns   433
Graded Streams   437
Depositional Landforms   441
Floods and River Management   446
Humans and Floodplains   446
Flood Protection   447
Flood Probability   448
Floodplain Management   448
Geosystems connection  450
Key Learning concepts review  451
geosystems in action 15 Meandering: Streams  438
Focus Study 15.1 Environmental Restoration   434
Critical Thinking 15.1 Locate Your Drainage Basin   425
CT 15.2 Identifying Drainage Patterns   427
The humanDenominator: Rivers, Floodplains, and Deltas   450
GEO reports: 3 reports   445

Coastal Erosion   470

Coastal Deposition   472
Barrier Beaches and Islands   475
Coral Formations   477
Coastal Wetlands   479
Wind Processes   481
Eolian Transport of Dust and Sand   481
Eolian Erosion   482
16 Oceans, Coastal Systems, and Wind Desert Pavement   484
Eolian Deposition   484
Processes  454
Geosystems connection  490
Key Learning concepts  454
Key Learning concepts review  491
GEOSYSTEMS now Sand Dunes Prevent Coastline Erosion
during Hurricane Sandy  455 geosystems in action 16 Wind-Blown Dune Forms  486
Focus Study 16.1 Pollution   460
Global Oceans and Seas   456
Properties of Seawater   457 Focus Study 16.2 Natural Hazards   470
Physical Structure and Human Impacts   458 Critical Thinking 16.1 Thinking Through a R
­ ising Sea
Coastal System Components   459 Level  463
The Coastal Environment   461 CT 16.2 Allocating Responsibility and Cost for Coastal
Sea Level   462 Hazards  477
Coastal System Actions   463 CT 16.3 The Nearest Eolian Features   489
Tides  463
The humanDenominator: Oceans, Coasts, and Dunes   490
Waves  465
GEO reports: 5 reports   458
Coastal System Outputs   470
xiv The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems
Geosystems

Erosional Landforms   505

Depositional Landforms   508
Periglacial Landscapes   511
Permafrost and Its Distribution   511
Periglacial Processes   513
Humans and Periglacial Landscapes   515
The Pleistocene Epoch   515
Ice-Age Landscapes   515
Paleolakes  517
17 Glacial and Periglacial Arctic and Antarctic Regions   518
Landscapes  494 Recent Polar Region Changes   519
Key Learning concepts  494 Geosystems connection  522
GEOSYSTEMS now Tidewater Glaciers and Ice Shelves Key Learning concepts review  523
Give Way to Warming  495 geosystems in action 17 Glaciers As Dynamic
Snow into Ice—The Basis of Glaciers   496 ­Systems  502
Properties of Snow   496 Focus Study 17.1 Natural Hazards   498
Formation of Glacial Ice   497
Critical Thinking 17.1 Looking for Glacial
Types of Glaciers   497 ­Features   507
Alpine Glaciers   498
CT 17.2 A Sample of Life at the Polar Station   519
Continental Ice Sheets   499
Glacial Processes   500 CT 17.3 The IPY Accomplishment Continues   521
Glacial Mass Balance   500 The humanDenominator: Glaciers and Permafrost   522
Glacial Movement   501 GEO reports: 4 reports   499
Glacial Landforms   505

PART IV SOILS, ECOSYSTEMS, AND BIOMES   526

Human Impacts on Soils   537
Soil Erosion   537
Desertification  539
Soil Classification   540
Soil Taxonomy   540
The 12 Soil Orders of the Soil Taxonomy   541
Geosystems connection  555
Key Learning concepts review  556
18 The Geography of Soils   528 geosystems in action 18 Biological Activity in Soils  535
Key Learning concepts  528
Focus Study 18.1 Pollution   546
GEOSYSTEMS now Desertification: Declining Soils
Critical Thinking 18.1 Soil Losses—What to
and Agriculture in Earth’s Drylands  529
Do?  540
Soil-Formation Factors and Soil Profiles   530
CT 18.2 Soil Observations   541
Natural Factors in Soil Development   530
Soil Horizons   531 The humanDenominator: Soils and Land Use   555

Soil Characteristics   532 GEO reports: 4 reports   534

Physical Properties   532
Chemical Properties   536

19 Ecosystem Essentials   558
Key Learning concepts  558
GEOSYSTEMS now Species’ Distributions Shift with
Climate Change  559
Energy Flows and Nutrient Cycles   560
Converting Energy to Biomass   561
Elemental Cycles   564
Energy Pathways   567
Communities and Species Distributions   573
The Niche Concept   573
Species Interactions   574
20 Terrestrial Biomes   592
Key Learning concepts  592
geosystems now Invasive Species Arrive at Tristan
da Cunha   593
Biogeographic Divisions   594
Biogeographic Realms   594
Biomes  595
Invasive Species   596
Earth’s Terrestrial Biomes   599
Tropical Rain Forest   599
Tropical Seasonal Forest and Scrub   603
Tropical Savanna   603
Midlatitude Broadleaf and Mixed Forest   606
Boreal and Montane Forest   607
Temperate Rain Forest   608
Mediterranean Shrubland   609
Midlatitude Grassland   610
Deserts  611
Change     xv
Contents    xv
Climate Systems and Climate
Abiotic Influences   575
Limiting Factors   576
Disturbance and Succession   579
Biodiversity, Evolution, and Ecosystem Stability   581
Biological Evolution Delivers Biodiversity   582
Biodiversity Fosters Ecosystem Stability   583
Biodiversity on the Decline   584
Geosystems connection  588
Key Learning concepts review  589
geosystems in action 19 Coastal Dead Zones  568
Focus Study 19.1 Natural Hazards   578
Focus Study 19.2 Environmental Restoration   586
Critical Thinking 19.1 Mutualism? Parasitism? Where
Do We Fit in?   575
CT 19.2 Observe Ecosystem Disturbances   577
The humanDenominator: Ecosystems and
Biodiversity  588
GEO reports: 4 reports   567
Arctic and Alpine Tundra   612
Conservation, Management, and Human Biomes   614
Island Biogeography for Species Preservation   614
Focus Study 20.1 Environmental Restoration   615
Aquatic Ecosystem Management   616
Anthropogenic Biomes   616
Geosystems connection  617
Key Learning concepts review  618
geosystems in action 20: Tropical Rain Forests and Amazon
Deforestation  604
Critical Thinking 20.1 Reality Check   599
CT 20.2 Tropical Forests: A Global or Local
Resource?  603
CT 20.3 A Shifting-Climate Hypothetical   613
The humanDenominator: Anthropogenic Environments   617
GEO reports: 5 reports   595
Appendix A Maps in this Text and Topographic
Maps  A-1
Appendix B The Köppen Climate Classification
System  A-6
Appendix C Common Conversions  A-9
Glossary G-1
Index  I-1
xvi The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems
preface
Welcome to the Ninth Edition of Geosystems. This edition
marks the addition of Dr. Ginger Birkeland as a coauthor to
Robert Christopherson. This Ninth Edition features signif-
icant revision, with a new chapter on climate change, new
features, updated content, and many new photos and il-
lustrations. We continue to build on the success of the first
eight editions, as well as the companion texts, Elemental
Geosystems, now in its Seventh Edition, and Geosystems,
Canadian Edition, Third Edition. Students and teachers
appreciate the systems organization, scientific accuracy,
integration of figures and text, clarity of the summary and
review sections, and overall relevancy to what is happen-
ing to Earth systems in real time. Geosystems continues to
tell Earth’s story in student-friendly language.
The goal of physical geography is to explain the spa-
tial dimension of Earth’s dynamic systems—its energy, air,
water, weather, climate, tectonics, landforms, rocks, soils,
plants, ecosystems, and biomes. Understanding human–
Earth relations is part of physical geography as it seeks to
understand and link the planet and its inhabitants. Wel-
come to physical geography!
New to the Ninth Edition
Nearly every page of Geosystems, Ninth Edition, presents
updated material, new content in text and figures, and
new features. A sampling of new features includes:
• A new chapter on climate change. Although climate
change science affects all systems and is discussed to
some extent in every chapter of Geosystems, we now
present a stand-alone chapter covering this topic —
Chapter 11, Climate Change. This chapter covers
paleoclimatology and mechanisms for past climatic
change (expanding on topics covered in Chapter 17 in
previous editions), climate feedbacks and the global
carbon budget, the evidence and causes of present
climate change, climate models and projections, and
actions that we can take to moderate Earth’s changing
climate. This new Chapter 11 expands on the climate
change discussion that was formerly part of Chapter
10, Climate Systems and Climate Change, in previous
editions.
• A new Geosystems in Action feature focusing on key
topics, processes, systems, or human–Earth connec-
tions. In every chapter, Geosystems in Action is a
one- to two-page highly visual presentation of a topic
central to the chapter, with active learning questions
and links to media in MasteringGeography, as well as
a GeoQuiz to aid student learning. Throughout each
part of the Geosystems in Action figure, students are
asked to analyze, explain, infer, or predict based on
the information presented. Topics include Earth–Sun
Relations (Chapter 2), Air Pollution (Chapter 3),
xvi
Earth–Atmosphere Energy Balance (Chapter 4), The
Global Carbon Budget (Chapter 11), Glaciers as Dy-
namic Systems (Chapter 17), and Biological Activity
in Soils (Chapter 18).
• A new feature, The Human Denominator, that links
chapter topics to human examples and applications.
At the end of Chapters 2 through 20, this new feature
includes maps, photos, graphs, and other diagrams
to provide visual examples of many human–Earth in-
teractions. This feature replaces and expands on the
former Chapter 21 in previous Geosystems editions,
called Earth and the Human Denominator.
• New and revised illustrations and maps to improve stu-
dent learning. More than 250 new photos and images
bring real-world scenes into the classroom. Our photo
and remote sensing program, updated for this edition,
exceeds 500 items, integrated throughout the text.
• New images and photos for the 20 chapter openers,
and redesigned schematics and photos for the 4 part
openers.
• Learning Catalytics, a “bring your own device” stu-
dent engagement, assessment, and classroom intel-
ligence system, integrated with MasteringGeography.
Continuing in the Ninth Edition
• Twenty Focus Studies, with either updated or new
content, explore relevant applied topics in greater
depth and are a popular feature of the Geosystems
texts. In the Ninth Edition, these features are grouped
by topic into five categories: Pollution, Climate
Change, Natural Hazards, Sustainable Resources,
and Environmental Restoration.
Nine new Focus Study topics include:
Heat Waves (Chapter 5)
Hurricanes Katrina and Sandy: Storm Development
and Links to Climate Change (Chapter 8)
Thawing Methane Hydrates—Another Arctic Meth-
ane Concern (Chapter 11)
Earthquakes in Haiti, Chile, and Japan: A Compara-
tive Analysis (Chapter 13)
Stream Restoration: Merging Science and Practice
(Chapter 15)
The 2011 Japan Tsunami (Chapter 16)
Snow Avalanches (Chapter 17)
Wildfire and Fire Ecology (Chapter 19)
Global Conservation Strategies (Chapter 20)
• The chapter-opening Geosystems Now case study fea-
ture presents current issues in geography and Earth
systems science. These original, unique essays, up-
dated for the Ninth Edition, immediately engage read-
ers into the chapter with relevant, real-world examples

of physical geography. New Geosystems Now topics
in the Ninth Edition include shale gas as an energy
resource in the United States (Chapter 1), coastal red-
wood trees and declining summer moisture in Califor-
nia (Chapter 7), the effects of proposed dams on rivers
in China (Chapter 15), and coastal erosion caused by
Hurricane Sandy (Chapter 16). Many of these features
emphasize linkages across chapters and Earth sys-
tems, exemplifying the Geosystems approach.
• Geo Reports continue to describe timely and relevant
events or facts related to the discussion in the chapter,
provide student action items, and offer new sources of
information. The 75 Geo Reports in the Ninth Edition,
placed along the bottom of pages, are updated, with
many new to this edition. Example topics include:
Did light refraction sink the Titanic? (Chapter 4)
The hottest temperature on Earth (Chapter 5)
Storm causes Hawai’i hailstorm and tornado
(Chapter 8)
Satellite GRACE enables groundwater measurements
(Chapter 9)
Tropical climate zones advance to higher latitudes
(Chapter 10)
Surprise waves flood a cruise ship (Chapter 16)
Greenland ice sheet melting (Chapter 17)
Overgrazing effects on Argentina’s grasslands (Chap-
ter 18)
• Critical Thinking exercises are integrated throughout
the chapters. These carefully crafted action items bridge
students to the next level of learning, placing students
in charge of further inquiry. Example topics include:
Applying Energy-Balance Principles to a Solar Cooker
What Causes the North Australian Monsoon?
Identify Two Kinds of Fog
Analyzing a Weather Map
Allocating Responsibility and Cost for Coastal Hazards
Tropical Forests: A Global or Local Resource?
• The Geosystems Connection feature at the end of each
chapter provides a preview “bridge” between chap-
ters, reinforcing connections between chapter topics.
• Key Learning Concepts appear at the outset of each
chapter, many rewritten for clarity. Each chapter con-
cludes with Key Learning Concepts Review, which
summarizes the chapter using the opening objectives.
• Geosystems continues to embed Internet URLs within
the text. More than 200 appear in this edition. These
allow students to pursue topics of interest to greater
depth, or to obtain the latest information about
weather and climate, tectonic events, floods, and the
myriad other subjects covered in the book.
• The MasteringGeography™ online homework and
tutoring system delivers self-paced tutorials that pro-
vide individualized coaching, focus on course objec-
tives, and are responsive to each student’s progress.
Instructors can assign activities built around Geosci-
ence Animations, Encounter Google Earth“ activities,
Preface    xvii
MapMaster” interactive maps, Thinking Spatially and
Data Analysis activities, new GeoTutors on the most
challenging topics in physical geography, end-of-chap-
ter questions, Test Bank questions, and more. Students
now have access to new Dynamic Study Modules that
provide each student with a customized learning ex-
perience. Students also have access to a text-specific
Study Area with study resources, including a Pearson
eText version of Geosystems, Geoscience Animations,
MapMaster interactive maps, new videos, Satellite
Loops, Author Notebooks, additional content to sup-
port materials for the text, photo galleries, In the News
RSS feeds, web links, career links, physical geography
case studies, flashcard glossary, quizzes, and more—all
at www.masteringgeography.com.
Author Acknowledgments
After all these years, the strength of a publishing team re-
mains ever essential. Continuing thanks to President Paul
Corey for his leadership since 1990 and to Frank Rug-
girello, Senior Vice-president and Editorial Director for
Geosciences, for his vision. Thanks to Senior Geography
Editor Christian Botting for his guidance and for the at-
tention devoted to the Geosystems texts; and to Program
Manager Anton Yakovlev and Assistant Editors Bethany
Sexton and Kristen Sanchez for their careful attention.
Maya Melenchuk, Image Management, is a great addition
to the team and a help to us. Thanks to Managing Editor
Gina Cheselka, Program Manager Janice Stangel, and Di-
rector of Development Jennifer Hart, for their skills and
continuing support.
Our appreciation to designers Mark Ong and Jeanne
Calabrese, for such skill in a complex book design.
Thanks to the late Randall Goodall for his design work
over the years on the previous several editions of Geosys-
tems and Elemental Geosystems. Thanks also to Maureen
McLaughlin, Senior Marketing Manager, Nicola Houston,
Senior Marketing Assistant, and the many publisher rep-
resentatives who spend months in the field communicat-
ing the Geosystems approach. Our gratitude is extended
to the entire “Geosystems Team” for allowing us to par-
ticipate in the publishing process.
Our sincere appreciation for production coordina-
tion goes to Editorial Director for Higher Education Cindy
Miller of Cenveo LLC for our friendship and sustaining
care through eight books, and to Senior Project Manager
Suganya Karuppasamy for her ability to respond to
our feedback as she oversees manuscript, copy editing,
complex compositing, and page proofs. With so many
changes in this edition, her skills make it work. To photo
researcher Erica Gordon, copy editor Kathy Pruno, proof-
reader Jeff Georgeson, and indexer Robert Swanson we
give thanks for quality work. We offer special thanks to
development editor Moira Lerner Nelson for advice and
suggestions that improved many aspects of this edition.
Our appreciation also goes to Jay McElroy and Jonathan
Cheney for their creative talent in helping develop the
xviii The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems
Geosystems
new Geosystems in Action features, and to Jay for his de-
tailed work improving the art program.
Thanks to all the colleagues who served as reviewers on
one or more editions of each book, or who offered helpful
suggestions in conversations at our national and regional
geography meetings. Thanks to the accuracy reviewers of all
ninth edition chapters: Todd Fagin, Oklahoma University;
Giraldo Mario, California State University, Northridge; Ste-
phen Cunha, Humboldt State University; Charlie Thomsen,
American River College. And thanks for special reviews for
the new Chapter 11 in this edition from Jason Allard, Valdo-
sta State University; Marshall Shepherd, University of Geor-
gia; Scott Mandia, Suffolk County Community College, Long
Island; David Kitchen, University of Richmond.
We are grateful for the generosity of ideas and sacri-
fice of time. Thanks to all reviewers who have provided
valuable feedback on Geosystems over the years:
Ted J. Alsop, Utah State University
Michael Allen, Kent State University
Philip P. Allen, Frostburg State University
Ted J. Alsop, Utah State University
Ward Barrett, University of Minnesota
Steve Bass, Mesa Community College
Stefan Becker, University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh
Daniel Bedford, Weber State University
David Berner, Normandale Community College
Trent Biggs, San Diego State University
Franco Biondi, University of Nevada, Reno
Peter D. Blanken, University of Colorado, Boulder
Patricia Boudinot, George Mason University
Anthony Brazel, Arizona State University
David R. Butler, Southwest Texas State University
Mary-Louise Byrne, Wilfred Laurier University
Janet Cakir, Rappahannock Community College
Ian A. Campbell, University of Alberta–Edmonton
Randall S. Cerveny, Arizona State University
Fred Chambers, University of Colorado, Boulder
Philip Chaney, Auburn University
Muncel Chang, Butte College Emeritus
Jordan Clayton, Georgia State University
Andrew Comrie, University of Arizona
C. Mark Cowell, Indiana State University
Richard A. Crooker, Kutztown University
Stephen Cunha, Humboldt State University
Armando M. da Silva, Towson State University
Dirk H. de Boer, University of Saskatchewan
Dennis Dahms, University of Northern Iowa
J. Michael Daniels, University of Denver
Shawna Dark, California State University, Northridge
Stephanie Day, University of Kansas
Lisa DeChano-Cook, Western Michigan University
Mario P. Delisio, Boise State University
Joseph R. Desloges, University of Toronto
Lee R. Dexter, Northern Arizona University
Don W. Duckson, Jr., Frostburg State University
Daniel Dugas, New Mexico State University
Kathryn Early, Metropolitan State College
Christopher H. Exline, University of Nevada–Reno
Todd Fagin, Oklahoma University
Michael M. Folsom, Eastern Washington University
Mark Francek, Central Michigan University
Glen Fredlund, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
Dorothy Friedel, Sonoma State University
William Garcia, University of N. Carolina–­Charlotte
Doug Goodin, Kansas State University
Mark Goodman, Grossmont College
David E. Greenland, University of N. Carolina–Chapel
Hill
Duane Griffin, Bucknell University
John W. Hall, Louisiana State University–Shreveport
Barry N. Haack, George Mason University
Roy Haggerty, Oregon State University
Vern Harnapp, University of Akron
John Harrington, Kansas State University
Blake Harrison, Southern Connecticut University
Jason “Jake” Haugland, University of Colorado,
Boulder
Gail Hobbs, Pierce College
Thomas W. Holder, University of Georgia
David H. Holt, University of Southern Mississippi
Robert Hordon, Rutgers University
David A. Howarth, University of Louisville
Patricia G. Humbertson, Youngstown State University
David W. Icenogle, Auburn University
Philip L. Jackson, Oregon State University
J. Peter Johnson, Jr., Carleton University
Gabrielle Katz, Appalachian State University
Guy King, California State University–Chico
Ronald G. Knapp, SUNY–The College at New Paltz
Peter W. Knightes, Central Texas College
Jean Kowal, University of Wisconsin, Whitewater
Thomas Krabacher, California State University–­
Sacramento
Richard Kurzhals, Grand Rapids Junior College
Hsiang-te Kung, University of Memphis
Kara Kuvakas, Hartnell College
Steve Ladochy, California State University, Los Angeles
Charles W. Lafon, Texas A & M University
Paul R. Larson, Southern Utah University
Robert D. Larson, Southwest Texas State University
Derek Law, University of Kentucky
Elena Lioubimtseva, Grand Valley State University
Joyce Lundberg, Carleton University
W. Andrew Marcus, Montana State University
Giraldo Mario, California State University, Northridge
Brian Mark, Ohio State University
Nadine Martin, University of Arizona
Elliot G. McIntire, California State University,
Northridge
Norman Meek, California State University, San
Bernardino
Leigh W. Mintz, California State University–Hayward,
Emeritus
Sherry Morea-Oaks, Boulder, CO
Debra Morimoto, Merced College
Patrick Moss, University of Wisconsin, Madison
Steven Namikas, Louisiana State University

Lawrence C. Nkemdirim, University of Calgary
Andrew Oliphant, San Francisco State University
John E. Oliver, Indiana State University
Bradley M. Opdyke, Michigan State University
Richard L. Orndorff, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
FeiFei Pan, University of North Texas
Patrick Pease, East Carolina University
James Penn, Southeastern Louisiana University
Rachel Pinker, University of Maryland, College Park
Greg Pope, Montclair State University
Robin J. Rapai, University of North Dakota
Philip Reeder, University of South Florida
Philip D. Renner, American River College
William C. Rense, Shippensburg University
Leslie Rigg, Northern Illinois University
Dar Roberts, University of California–Santa Barbara
Wolf Roder, University of Cincinnati
Robert Rohli, Louisiana State University
Bill Russell, L.A. Pierce College
Dorothy Sack, Ohio University
Erinanne Saffell, Arizona State University
Randall Schaetzl, Michigan State University
Glenn R. Sebastian, University of South Alabama
Daniel A. Selwa, U.S.C. Coastal Carolina College
Debra Sharkey, Cosumnes River College
Peter Siska, Austin Peay State University
Lee Slater, Rutgers University
Thomas W. Small, Frostburg State University
Daniel J. Smith, University of Victoria
Richard W. Smith, Hartford Community College
Stephen J. Stadler, Oklahoma State University
Michael Talbot, Pima Community College
Paul E. Todhunter, University of North Dakota
Susanna T.Y. Tong, University of Cincinnati
Liem Tran, Florida Atlantic University
Suzanne Traub-Metlay, Front Range Community
College
Alice V. Turkington, The University of Kentucky
Jon Van de Grift, Metropolitan State College
David Weide, University of Nevada–Las Vegas
Forrest Wilkerson, Minnesota State University,
Mankato
Thomas B. Williams, Western Illinois University
Brenton M. Yarnal, Pennsylvania State University
Catherine H. Yansa, Michigan State University
Keith Yearwood, Georgia State University
Stephen R. Yool, University of Arizona
Don Yow, Eastern Kentucky University
Susie Zeigler-Svatek, University of Minnesota
From Robert: I thank my family for believing in this
work, especially considering the next generation: Cha-
von, Bryce, Payton, Brock, Trevor, Blake, Chase, Téyenna,
and Cade. When I look into our grandchildren’s faces, I
see why we work toward a sustainable future.
I give special gratitude to all the students during my
30 years teaching at American River College, for it is in the
classroom crucible that the Geosystems books were forged.
Special continued thanks to Charlie Thomsen for his creative
Change     xix
Climate Systems and Climate Preface    xix
work and collaboration on Encounter Geosystems, the Ap-
plied Physical Geography lab manual, work on Mastering-
Geography media and assessments, and ancillaries. Thanks
and admiration go to the many authors and scientists who
published research that enriches this work. Thanks for all
the dialogue received from students and teachers shared
with me through e-mails from across the globe.
I offer a special thanks to Ginger Birkeland, Ph.D., my
new coauthor on this edition and previous collaborator and
developmental editor, for her essential work, attention to
detail, and geographic sense. The challenge of such a text
project is truly met by her strengths and talents. She is truly
a valuable colleague and makes the future of the Geosys-
tems franchise look bright as we view the path ahead. She
has worked as a river guide operating boats on the Colorado
River, and at times I felt her at the helm of Geosystems!
As you read this book, you will learn from more than
300 content-specific, beautiful photographs made by my
wife, photographer, and expedition partner, Bobbé Chris-
topherson. Her contribution to the success of Geosystems
is obvious and begins with the spectacular cover photo
and continues through the text. Please visit the photo gal-
leries at MasteringGeography and learn more from her
camera work. Bobbé is my expedition partner, colleague,
wife, and best friend.
From Ginger: Many thanks to my husband, Karl Birkeland,
for his ongoing patience, support, and inspiration through-
out the many hours of work on this book. I also thank my
daughters, Erika and Kelsey, who endured my absence
throughout a ski season and a rafting season as I sat at my
desk. My gratitude also goes to William Graf, my academic
advisor from so many years ago, for always exemplifying
the highest standard of research and writing, and for help-
ing transform my love of rivers into a love of science and all
things geography. Special thanks to Robert Christopherson,
who took a leap of faith to bring me on this Geosystems
journey. It is a privilege to work with him, and I hope our
raft runs smoothly and stays upright on the voyage ahead!
From us both: Physical geography teaches us a holistic
view of the intricate supporting web that is Earth’s en-
vironment and our place in it. Dramatic global change is
underway in human–Earth relations as we alter physi-
cal, chemical, and biological systems. Our attention to
climate change science and applied topics is in response
to the impacts we are experiencing and the future we are
shaping. All things considered, this is a critical time for
you to be enrolled in a physical geography course! The
best to you in your studies—and carpe diem!
Robert W. Christopherson
P. O. Box 128
Lincoln, California 95648-0128
E-mail: bobobbe@aol.com
Ginger H. Birkeland
Bozeman, Montana
digital and print resources
For Students and Teachers Geoscience Animation Library 5th edition DVD-
ROM (0321716841). Created through a unique collabo-
MasteringGeography™ with Pearson eText. The Mas-
ration among Pearson’s leading geoscience authors, this
tering platform is the most widely used and effective
resource offers over 100 animations covering the most
online homework, tutorial, and assessment system for
difficult-to-visualize topics in physical geology, physical
the sciences. It delivers self-paced tutorials that provide
geography, oceanography, meteorology, and earth science.
individualized coaching, focus on course objectives,
The animations are provided as Flash files and preloaded
and are responsive to each student’s progress. The Mas-
into PowerPoint(R) slides for both Windows and Mac.
tering system helps teachers maximize class time with
customizable, easy-to-assign, and automatically graded
assessments that motivate students to learn outside of
Practicing Geography: Careers for Enhancing So-
class and arrive prepared for lecture. MasteringGeogra-
ciety and the Environment by Association of American
phy offers:
Geographers (0321811151). This book examines career
opportunities for geographers and geospatial profes-
• Assignable activities that include MapMaster” in-
sionals in the business, government, nonprofit, and
teractive map activities, Encounter Google Earth
education sectors. A diverse group of academic and
Explorations, video activities, Geoscience Anima-
industry professionals shares insights on career plan-
tion activities, Map Projections activities, GeoTutor
ning, networking, transitioning between employment
coaching activities on the toughest topics in geog-
sectors, and balancing work and home life. The book
raphy, Dynamic Study Modules that provide each
illustrates the value of geographic expertise and tech-
student with a customized learning experience, end-
nologies through engaging profiles and case studies of
of-chapter questions and exercises, reading quizzes,
geographers at work.
Test Bank questions, and more.
• A student Study Area with MapMaster™ interactive
maps, videos, Geoscience Animations, web links, Teaching College Geography: A Practical Guide
glossary flashcards, “In the News” RSS feeds, chapter for Graduate Students and Early Career Faculty by As-
quizzes, PDF downloads of outline maps, an optional sociation of American Geographers (0136054471). This
Pearson eText including versions for iPad and An- two-part resource provides a starting point for becom-
droid devices, and more. ing an effective geography teacher from the very first day
of class. Part One addresses “nuts-and-bolts” teaching
Pearson eText gives students access to the text when- issues. Part Two explores being an effective teacher in
ever and wherever they can access the Internet. The eText the field, supporting critical thinking with GIS and map-
pages look exactly like the printed text and include ping technologies, engaging learners in large geography
powerful interactive and customization functions, in- classes, and promoting awareness of international per-
cluding links to the multimedia. spectives and geographic issues.

Aspiring Academics: A Resource Book for Gradu-

Television for the Environment Earth Report Geog-
ate Students and Early Career Faculty by Association
raphy Videos on DVD (0321662989). This three-DVD set
of American Geographers (0136048919). Drawing on
helps students visualize how human decisions and be-
several years of research, this set of essays is designed
havior have affected the environment and how individu-
to help graduate students and early career faculty start
als are taking steps toward recovery. With topics ranging
their careers in geography and related social and envi-
from the poor land management promoting the devasta-
ronmental sciences. Aspiring Academics stresses the in-
tion of river systems in Central America to the struggles
terdependence of teaching, research, and service—and
for electricity in China and Africa, these 13 videos from
the importance of achieving a healthy balance of profes-
Television for the Environment’s global Earth Report se-
sional and personal life—while doing faculty work. Each
ries recognize the efforts of individuals around the world
chapter provides accessible, forward-looking advice on
to unite and protect the planet.
topics that often cause the most stress in the first years of
a college or university appointment.

xx

For Students
Applied Physical Geography—Geosystems in the Lab-
oratory, Ninth Edition (0321987284) by Charlie Thom-
sen and Robert Christopherson. A variety of exercises
provides flexibility in lab assignments. Each exercise
includes key terms and learning concepts linked to Geo-
systems. The ninth edition includes new exercises on
climate change, a fully updated exercise on basic GIS us-
ing ArcGIS online, and more integrated media, including
Google Earth and Quick Response (QR) codes. Supported
by a website with media resources needed for exercises,
as well as a downloadable Solutions Manual for teachers.
Companion website for Applied Physical Geogra-
phy: Geosystems in the Laboratory. The website for lab
manual provides online worksheets as well as KMZ files
for all of the Google Earth” exercises found in the lab
manual. www.mygeoscienceplace.com
Goode’s World Atlas, 22nd Edition (0321652002).
Goode’s World Atlas has been the world’s premiere educa-
tional atlas since 1923—and for good reason. It features over
250 pages of maps, from definitive physical and political maps
to important thematic maps that illustrate the spatial aspects of
many important topics. The 22nd Edition includes 160 pages
of digitally produced reference maps, as well as thematic maps
on global climate change, sea-level rise, CO2 emissions, polar
ice fluctuations, deforestation, extreme weather events, infec-
tious diseases, water resources, and energy production.
Pearson’s Encounter Series provides rich, interactive ex-
plorations of geoscience concepts through Google Earth” activ-
ities, covering a range of topics in regional, human, and physical
geography. For those who do not use MasteringGeography, all
chapter explorations are available in print workbooks, as well
as in online quizzes at www.mygeoscienceplace.com, accom-
modating different classroom needs. Each exploration consists
of a worksheet, online quizzes whose results can be emailed to
teachers, and a corresponding Google Earth” KMZ file.
• Encounter Physical Geography by Jess C. Porter and
Stephen O’Connell (0321672526)
• Encounter Geosystems by Charlie Thomsen
(0321636996)
• Encounter World Regional Geography by Jess C. Por-
ter (0321681754)
• Encounter Human Geography by Jess C. Porter
(0321682203)
• Encounter Earth by Steve Kluge (0321581296)
Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming by
Michael Mann, Lee R. Kump (0136044352) Appropriate for
any science or social science course in need of a basic un-
derstanding of the reports from the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC). These periodic reports evaluate
the risk of climate change brought on by humans. But the
sheer volume of scientific data remains inscrutable to the
general public, particularly to those who still question the
validity of climate change. In just over 200 pages, this practi-
cal text presents and expands upon the essential findings in
a visually stunning and undeniably powerful way to the lay
reader. Scientific findings that provide validity to the impli-
cations of climate change are presented in clear-cut graphic
elements, striking images, and understandable analogies.
Digital and
Climate Systems and Print Change     xxi
Resources    xxi
Climate
For Teachers
Learning Catalytics is a “bring your own device”
student engagement, assessment, and classroom intelli-
gence system. With Learning Catalytics, you can:
• Assess students in real time, using open-ended tasks
to probe student understanding.
• Understand immediately where students are and ad-
just your lecture accordingly.
• Improve your students’ critical-thinking skills.
• Access rich analytics to understand student performance.
• Add your own questions to make Learning Catalytics
fit your course exactly.
• Manage student interactions with intelligent group-
ing and timing.
Learning Catalytics is a technology that has grown out
of twenty years of cutting-edge research, innovation, and
implementation of interactive teaching and peer in-
struction. Available integrated with MasteringGeography.
Instructor Resource Manual (Download)
(032197249X) by Charlie Thomsen includes lecture out-
lines and key terms, additional source materials, teaching
tips, and a complete annotation of chapter review ques-
tions. Available from www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, and in
the Instructor Resources area of MasteringGeography.
TestGen® Test Bank (Download) (032197252X) by
Tod Fagin. TestGen® is a computerized test generator that
lets you view and edit Test Bank questions, transfer ques-
tions to tests, and print tests in a variety of customized
formats. This Test Bank includes around 3,000 multiple-
choice, true/false, and short answer/essay questions. All
questions are correlated against the National Geography
Standards, textbook key concepts, and Bloom’s Taxon-
omy. The Test Bank is also available in Microsoft Word®
and importable into Blackboard and WebCT. Available
from www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, and in the Instruc-
tor Resources area of MasteringGeography.
Instructor Resource DVD (0321972538). The Instruc-
tor Resource DVD provides a collection of resources to
help teachers make efficient and effective use of their time.
All digital resources can be found in one well-organized,
easy-to-access place. The IRDVD includes:
• All textbook images as JPEGs, PDFs, and Power-
Point™ Presentations
• Pre-authored Lecture Outline PowerPoint™ Presen-
tations (by FeiFei Pan), which outline the concepts of
each chapter with embedded art and can be custom-
ized to fit teachers’ lecture requirements
• CRS “Clicker” Questions (by FeiFei Pan) in Pow-
erPoint™, which correlate to the book’s Learning
Objectives, U.S. National Geography Standards, chap-
ter-specific learning outcomes, and Bloom’s Taxonomy
• The TestGen software, Test Bank questions, and an-
swers for both MACs and PCs
• Electronic files of the Instructor Resource Manual
and Test Bank
This Instructor Resource content is also available
online via the Instructor Resources section of Mastering-
Geography and www.pearsonhighered.com/irc.
 Exploring Earth’s Dynamic Systems
xxii The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems

Geosystems is organized around the natural flow of energy, materials, and information,
presenting subjects in the same sequence in which they occur in nature—an organic, ho-
listic Earth systems approach that is unique in this discipline. Offering current examples
and modern science, Geosystems combines a structured learning path, student-friendly
writing, current applications, outstanding visuals, and a strong multimedia program for a
truly unique physical geography experience.

. NEW! Chapter 11: Climate Change. Incorporating the latest climate change science and data, this new chapter
covers paleoclimatology and mechanisms for past climatic change, climate feedbacks and the global carbon budget,
the evidence and causes of present climate change, climate forecasts and models, and actions that we can take to
moderate Earth’s changing climate.

now
geosystems

11
286 part II The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems

Greenhouse trapping plant and animal ma-

Climate Change Gases Awaken in

terial before it can decompose
completely. Over hundreds of
thousands of years, this car-
bon-rich material has become
the Arctic incorporated into permafrost
and now makes up roughly
half of all the organic matter

I
n the subarctic and tundra climate re-
gions of the northern Hemisphere,
perennially frozen soils and sediment,
known as permafrost, cover about 24%
of the land area. With arctic air tem-
peratures currently rising at a rate more
than two times that of the midlatitudes,
ground temperatures are increasing,
causing permafrost thaw. This results in
changes to land surfaces, primarily sink-
ing and slumping, that damage build-
ings, forests, and coastlines (Figure gn
11.1). Permafrost thaw also leads to the
decay of soil material, a process that
releases vast amounts of carbon, in the
form of the greenhouse gases carbon di-
oxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), into the
atmosphere.
Carbon in Permafrost Soils Permafrost
is, by definition, soil and sediment that
have remained frozen for two or more
consecutive years. The “active layer” is the of methane seeps can develop under a
seasonally frozen ground on top of subsur-
face permafrost. This thin layer of soil and plied by hundreds of thousands of lakes
sediment thaws every summer, providing
substrate for seasonal grasses and other
plants that absorb CO2 from the atmos-
phere. in winter, the active layer freezes, major greenhouse gases, which absorb
stored in earth’s soils—twice
the amount of carbon that is
stored in the atmosphere. in
terms of real numbers, the
latest estimate of the amount
of carbon stored in arctic
permafrost soils is 1700 giga-
tonnes (or 1700 billion tons).
▲Figure GN 11.2 Blocks of melting permafrost collapse
A Positive Feedback Loop into the Beaufort Sea, Alaska. [USgS alaska Science Center.]
as summers become warmer
in the arctic, heat radiating
through the ground thaws the permafrost
layers. Microbial activity in these layers
increases, enhancing the breakdown of
organic matter. as this occurs, bacteria
and other organisms release CO2 into
the atmosphere in a process known as
microbial respiration. in anaerobic (ox-
ygen-free) environments, such as lakes
and wetlands, the process releases
methane. Studies show that thousands
single lake, a huge amount when multi-
across the northern latitudes (Figure
gn 11.2).
Carbon dioxide and methane are
outgoing longwave radiation
and radiate it back toward earth,
enhancing the greenhouse ef-
fect and leading to atmospheric
warming. Methane is especially
important because, although
supporting structure provided by the
ice is removed, land surfaces collapse
and slump. Subsurface soils are then
exposed to sunlight, which speeds up
microbial processes, and to water ero-
sion, which moves organic carbon into
streams and lakes, where it is mobilized
into the atmosphere. research suggests
that this process may release bursts of
CO2 and CH4 into the atmosphere, in
contrast to the slower top-down melting
of permafrost.
Permafrost soils are now warming at a
rate faster than arctic air temperatures,
releasing vast amounts of “ancient” car-
bon into the atmosphere. Scientists are
actively researching the locations and
amounts of vulnerable permafrost, the
current and projected rates of thaw, and
the potential impacts to the permafrost–
carbon positive feedback. The thawing
arctic is one of many immediate concerns
we discuss in this chapter regarding the

concepts
key learning in March 2013, scientists began the fifth year
of Operation iceBridge, naSa’s airborne,
its relative percentage is small causes and impacts of changing climate
multi-instrument survey of earth’s rapidly in the atmosphere, it is over 20 on earth systems.
changing polar ice. This view of Saunders times more effective than CO2
island and Wolstenholme Fjord in north- at trapping atmospheric heat.
After reading the chapter, you should be able to: geosystems now online go to Chapter 11
west greenland in april 2013 shows the
Thus, a positive feedback loop
• Describe scientific tools used to study paleoclimatology. characteristic of arctic sea ice as air and on the MasteringGeography website (www
ocean temperature warm. Thinner seasonal forms: as temperatures rise, per-
.masteringgeography.com) for more on
• Discuss several natural factors that influence earth’s climate, and describe ice appears clearer in the foreground; mafrost thaws, causing a release
the permafrost thaw and climate change.
climate feedbacks, using examples. thicker multi-year ice appears whiter in the of CO2 and CH4 into the atmos-
distance. Much of the arctic Ocean is now To learn about naSa’s Carbon in arc-
phere, which causes more warm-
• List the key lines of evidence for present global climate change, and dominated by seasonal ice, which melts tic reservoirs Vulnerability experiment
rapidly every summer. ice melt in the polar
ing, leading to more permafrost
summarize the scientific evidence for anthropogenic forcing of climate. (CarVe), which measures CO2 and CH4
regions and at high altitudes is an impor- thaw.
gas emissions in permafrost regions, go to
• Discuss climate models, and summarize several climate projections. tant indicator of earth’s changing climate,
the subject of this chapter [naSa/Michael http://science1.nasa.gov/missions/carve/
Melting Ground Ice in addi-
• Describe several mitigation measures to slow rates of climate change. Studinger.] (the mission website) or http://www.nasa
tion to frozen soil and sedi-
.gov/topics/earth/features/earth20130610
ment, permafrost also contains
.html#.UhwyVj_pxXJ (mission background
ground ice, which melts as the
and early results).
▲Figure GN 11.1 Methane lies under arctic lake- permafrost thaws. When the

THEhumanDENOMINATOR 12 Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics

beds, and like natural gas, is highly flammable.
[Todd Paris/aP images.] 287

ENDOGENIC PROCESSES HUMANS HUMANS ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

• Endogenic processes cause natural hazards such as earthquakes and volcanic • Wells drilled into Earth’s crust in association with oil and gas drilling and
events that affect humans and ecosystems. Enhanced Geothermal Systems may cause earthquakes.
M11_CHRI6982_09_SE_C11.indd 286 • Rocks
11/18/13 provide
6:32 PM materials for human
M11_CHRI6982_09_SE_C11.indd 287 use; geothermal power is a renewable 11/25/13 5:57 PM

resource.

12a
12b

c NEW! The Human Denominator Hydrothermal features and travertine deposits are common in

summarizes Human-Earth relationships,

Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, which sits above a stationary The Mid-Atlantic Ridge system surfaces at Thingvellir, Iceland,
hot spot in Earth’s crust. Hydrothermal activity produces hot springs, now a tourist destination. The rifts mark the divergent boundary
fumaroles (steam vents), mud pots, and geysers. Grand Prismatic separating the North American and Eurasian plates.
Spring, pictured here, is the largest hot spring in the United States, [ARCTIC IMAGES/Alamy.]

interactions, challenges for the 21st cen- and third largest in the world. [Edward Fielding/Shutterstock.]

tury through dynamic visuals, including

maps, photos, graphs, and diagrams.

12c

12d

Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock, is probably Australia’s

best known landmark. This steep-sided isolated
In April 2013, the Nevada Desert Peak Enhanced sandstone feature, about 3.5 km long and 1.9 km (1.2
Geothermal System (EGS) became the first mi) wide, was formed from endogenic and exogenic
Background Image: [NOAA/NGDC.]
project with enough generating capacity to supply processes, and has cultural significance for the
electricity to the power grid. [Inga Spence/Alamy.] Aboriginal peoples. [Penny Tweedie/Alamy.]

ISSUES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

• Geothermal capacity will continue to be explored as an alternative energy
source to fossil fuels.
• Mapping of tectonically active regions will continue to inform policy actions
with regard to seismic hazards.

geosystemsconnection
We surveyed the internal structure of Earth and discussed the internal energy flow. Movement
in Earth’s crust results from these internal dynamics. Plate tectonics is the unifying theory that
describes the lithosphere in terms of continent-sized migrating pieces of crust that can collide
with other plates. Earth’s present surface map is the result of these vast forces and motions.
In Chapter 13, we focus more closely on the surface expressions of all this energy and matter in
motion: the stress and strain of folding, faulting, and deformation; the building of mountains; and
the sometimes dramatic activity of earthquakes and volcanoes.

M12_CHRI6982_09_SE_C12.indd 351 28/10/13 3:52 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 BELISARIUS.
a. d. 565.

The imagination of poets, painters, and sculptors, backed by one of

Marmontel’s novels, has helped to make of an apocryphal tradition a
matter of history which has been believed in by the many, who are
ever open-mouthed to receive the marvellous upon trust.
This tradition relates to the general Belisarius, the conqueror of the
Vandals, who, after having been falsely accused of treason, is said
to have been deprived of his sight by the Emperor Justinian, and to
have been reduced to such a state of poverty that he was compelled
to beg his bread in the streets of Constantinople.
No contemporary historian mentions these circumstances; but they
have been repeated age after age without examination, and several
learned men of repute, such as Volaterranus, Pontanus, &c., have
helped to propagate the error in the literary world.
In the 16th century it was so unquestionably accepted by the Italians,
that they gave the name of Belisarius begging to a beautiful ancient
statue then in the Borghese museum, which Winckelmann, in his
Histoire de l’Art, has proved to be no other than a statue of Augustus
propitiating Nemesis.
Between the years 1637 and 1681, this fable was made the subject
of several tragedies. In the following century Marmontel composed
and published his romance of Belisarius, the conception of which
arose from an engraving that came into his possession. In his
Memoirs he himself thus explains the circumstance:
“I had received a present of an engraving of Belisarius taken from
the fine picture of him by Van Dyck. My eyes were continually
attracted to the face, and I was seized with an irresistible desire to
treat this interesting subject in prose; and as soon as the idea took
possession of me, the pains in my chest and lungs seemed to leave
me as if by magic. The pleasure of composing my story, the care I
took in arranging and developing it, occupied my mind so entirely,
that I was drawn away from all thoughts of self.”
The novel was so successful that it was translated into almost every
language of Europe, and three successive editions appeared. But
the really ludicrous part of the story is, that in the preface to the
edition of 1787, the author declares that he has followed from first to
last the account given by Procopius, while in fact the details
presented by this contemporary of Belisarius in the five first chapters
of his Secret History are diametrically opposed to the picture drawn
by Marmontel.
Thus then the fiction of blind Belisarius begging was quickly
propagated, and was helped on by the artist David, who painted in
1781 his celebrated picture of the general. Again, in the reign of
Napoleon I., M. Jouy wrote a tragedy on this subject, but he only
obtained permission to bring it out in 1825, and thanks to the
immense talent of Talma it was very well received. M. Jouy, in his
preface, showed his ignorance as an historian by saying, “I have
kept faithfully to the facts, details, and characters authorised by
history.”
Lastly, this error appears in modern times in a Turkish tradition, and
is noticed by Feller in his Universal Biography. “There is shown to
this day,” says he, “a prison in Constantinople called the Tower of
Belisarius. It stands on the borders of the sea, on the road from the
castle of the seven towers to the seraglio. The common people say
that the prisoners let down a small bag at the end of a string to solicit
alms from the passers-by, saying: “Date obolum Belisario quem
Fortuna evexit, Invidia oculis privavit.”
After having traced as briefly as possible the origin of this fable, we
will dwell for a moment on the manner in which the best and most
learned critics have treated it.
The hackneyed story of Belisarius, blind and begging, was unknown
to all contemporary authors without exception. Not one can be
quoted as having mentioned so remarkable a circumstance. From
the 6th to the 12th century, no writer who speaks of this great
general ever alludes to his blindness or to his poverty.
The French historian Le Beau, in his “Histoire du bas Empire,” says:
“The fall of Belisarius gave rise to a ridiculous story which has been
for 600 years repeated by poets and prose writers, but which all well-
informed authors have agreed in refuting.”
The real fact, drawn from the best sources, and recorded by Gibbon,
is this:
About two years after the last victory of Belisarius over the
Bulgarians, the Emperor Justinian returned in bad health from a
journey to Thracia. There being a rumour of his death, a conspiracy
was formed in the palace, but the conspirators were detected, and
on being seized were found to have daggers hidden under their
garments. Two officers of the household of Belisarius were accused,
and torture induced them to declare that they had acted under the
secret instructions of their chief. Belisarius appeared before the
council, indignant and undaunted. Nevertheless, his fidelity, which
had remained unshaken for forty years, availed him nothing. The
emperor condemned him without evidence; his life was spared, but
his fortune was sequestrated, and from December 563 to July 564
he was guarded as a prisoner in his own palace. At length his
innocence was acknowledged, and his freedom and honours were
restored; but death, which might possibly have been hastened by
grief and resentment, removed him from the world within a year of
his liberation.
About 600 years after this event, John Tzetzes, poet and
grammarian, born in Constantinople, attempted in ten bad Greek
verses to draw a picture of Belisarius deprived of sight and
penniless. The tale was imported into Italy with the manuscripts of
Greece, and before the close of the 15th century it was taken up by
more than one learned writer and universally believed.
The credulity of the multitude is such, that they still persist in ignoring
the refutation of Samuel Schelling (Dissertatio historica de Belisario,
Witteb. 1665, in 4ᵗᵒ), of Th. Fr. Zeller (Belisarius, Tubing. 1809, in
8ᵛᵒ), of Roth (Ueber Belisar’s Ungnade, Bâle 1846, in 8ᵛᵒ) and many
others.
In a note to Gibbon’s History edited by W. Smith LL.D., we see that
two theories have been started in modern times to account for the
fable of the beggary of Belisarius. The first is that of Le Beau, who
supposes that the general was confounded with his contemporary
John of Cappadocia. This prætorian prefect of the East, whose
crimes deserved a thousand deaths, was ignominiously scourged
like the vilest of malefactors, clothed in rags and transported in a
bark (542) to the place of his banishment at Antinopolis in Upper
Egypt, and this ex-consul and patrician was doomed to beg his
bread in the cities which had trembled at his name.
The second supposition is that of Mr. Finlay (History of the Byzantine
Empire), who suggests that the story took its rise from the fate of
Symbatius and Peganes, who, having formed a conspiracy against
Michael III., in the 9th century, were deprived of their sight and
exposed as common beggars in Constantinople.
It is not likely, however, that the fate of men in the ninth century
should have been confused with that of individuals in the sixth.
It is right to add, that Lord Mahon, in his Life of Belisarius, argues in
favour of the tragic fate of Justinian’s celebrated general. “But,”
observes Dean Milman, “it is impossible to obtain any satisfactory
result without contemporary evidence, which is entirely wanting in
the present instance.” These words from the learned Milman lead us
to suppose that he rejects the authority of Procopius, who
accompanied Belisarius as counsellor and secretary in his Eastern
wars, in Africa, and in Italy, as he himself informs us; and who, in his
Anecdota,[12] devotes five chapters to the life and misfortunes of
Belisarius, without saying one word either of his blindness or of his
abject poverty.
Ernest Renan, in his Essais de morale et de critique, has also
examined into the trustworthiness of the Secret History of Procopius,
and he arrives at the opinion, that this author had only exaggerated
the crimes of the wicked century in which Justinian lived. He would
then have been the last to soften the disgrace incurred by Belisarius.
At the time of the fall of Napoleon I., a popular song written by
Népomucène Lemercier on Belisarius, became more than ever in
vogue, as it contained allusions to the misfortunes of the
companions in arms and soldiers, attached to the emperor. At all the
Bonapartist reunions they sang:

“Un jeune enfant, un casque en main,

Allait quêtant pour l’indigence,
D’un vieillard aveugle et sans pain,
Fameux dans Rome et dans Byzance;
Il disait à chaque passant
Touché de sa noble misère,
Donnez une obole à l’enfant
Qui sert le pauvre Bélisaire!”

In France this ballad contributed greatly to keep up a belief in the

fabulous story which we have here examined.
 THE ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY.
a. d. 640.

Ptolemy-Soter, chief of the dynasty of the Lagides, laid the

foundation of the Alexandrian library. It was afterwards enlarged by
his son Ptolemy Philadelphus and his successors; and from this
celebrated repository the city of Alexandria derived the title of
“Mother of Books.”
There is much difference of opinion as to the number of works
contained in this library. Instead of 54,800 volumes as asserted by
St. Epiphanes, or 200,000 according to Josephus, Eusebius tells us,
that at the death of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 100,000 volumes were
collected in it.
The building was situated to the east of the large sea-port, near the
city of Canopus, and became a prey to the flames when Julius
Cæsar, who was besieged in that part of the town in which the
museum stood, ordered the fleet to be set on fire. The wind
unfortunately carried the flames to the neighbouring houses and to
the locality of the Bruchion, close to the site of the valuable library.
Lucan, in his Pharsalia, has described this conflagration with much
spirit:[13]

“On one proud side the lofty fabric stood

Projected bold into the adjoining flood;
There, fill’d with armed bands, their barks draw near,
But find the same defending Cæsar there:
To every part the ready warrior flies,
And with new rage the fainting fight supplies;
Headlong he drives them with his deadly blade,
Nor seems to be invaded, but to invade.
 Against the ships Phalaric darts he aims,
Each dart with pitch and livid sulphur flames.
The spreading fire o’erruns their unctuous sides,
And nimbly mounting, on the topmast rides:
Planks, yards and cordage feed the dreadful blaze;
The drowning vessel hisses in the seas;
While floating arms and men promiscuous strew’d,
Hide the whole surface of the azure flood.
Nor dwells destruction on their fleet alone,
But driven by winds, invades the neighbouring town:
On rapid wings the sheety flames they bear,
In wavy lengths, along the reddening air.
Not much unlike the shooting meteors fly,
In gleamy trails athwart the midnight sky.
Soon as the crowd behold their city burn,
Thither all headlong from the siege they turn;
But Cæsar, prone to vigilance and haste,
To snatch the just occasion ere it pass’d,
Hid in the friendly night’s involving shade,
A safe retreat to Pharos timely made.”

Orosius tells us that 400,000 volumes were destroyed by the fire:

“So perished,” says he “this monument of the learning and labour of
the ancients, who had amassed the works of so many illustrious
men.” “Monumentum studiique curæque majorum qui tot ac tanta
illustrium ingeniorum opera congesserant.”[14]
Cleopatra was not insensible to the loss of so great a treasure, and
Antony, to console her, presented her with the whole collection of
books made by the king of Bithynia at Pergamus, to the number of
200,000 volumes. These books, with the few that had escaped the
flames, formed the second library, and were placed in the Serapeon,
or temple of Serapis, which from that time became the resort of all
learned men. In a. d. 390, the fanatic Theophilus, patriarch of
Alexandria, worthy of being the friend of the tyrant Theodosius, took
advantage of the protection of that Emperor to disperse the library of
the Serapeon, and to drive out the savans who assembled there. He
overthrew the temple itself and built a church on its ruins which bore
the name of the Emperor Arcadius. It would thus appear that the
oldest and most extensive libraries of Alexandria ceased to exist
before the 5th century of the Christian era. Nevertheless, there is still
an opinion maintained among learned men that the immense
collection made by the Ptolemies was destroyed by the Arabs in the
7th century.[15]
Several writers, with Gibbon at their head, have rejected this notion.
Reinhart published at Göttingen in 1792 a special dissertation on the
subject. It was Gregorius Bar-Hebræus, better known under the
name of Abulpharadje, elected primate of the East in 1264, who
gave the earliest account of the burning of the library at Alexandria,
in a chronicle he published in Syriac, and afterwards translated into
Arabic at the solicitation of his friends.
He says: “John the grammarian came to Amrou, who was in
possession of Alexandria, and begged that he might be allowed to
appropriate a part of the booty. ‘Which part do you wish for,’ asked
Amrou. John replied, ‘The books of philosophy which are in the
treasury (library) of kings.’ Amrou answered that he could not
dispose of these without the permission of the Emir Al-Moumenin
Omar. He wrote to the Emir, who replied in these terms: ‘As to the
books you speak of, if their contents are in conformity with the Book
of God (the Koran) we have no need of them; if, on the contrary, their
contents are opposed to it, it is still less desirable to preserve them,
so I desire that they may be destroyed.’ Amrou-Ben-Alas in
consequence ordered them to be distributed in the various baths in
Alexandria, to be burnt in the stoves; and after six months, not a
vestige of them remained.”[16]
How open is this unlikely story to objection! In the first place, John of
Alexandria was dead before the city was taken, on the 21st
December 640.
D’Herbelot, in his Bibliothèque Orientale, tells us that at that period
four thousand baths existed in Alexandria. What a multitude of
volumes it must have required to supply fuel for them for the space
of six months! And then the absurdity of attempting to heat baths
with parchment!!!
Renaudot was the first in France who threw a doubt on this story in
his Histoire des Patriarches d’Alexandrie. “It merely reposes,” says
he, “on Eastern tales, and these are never to be relied upon.”
Kotbeddin, in his History of Mecca, from which de Sacy quotes an
extract in his Notes des Manuscrits, Vol. IV. p. 569, relates seriously,
that at the taking of Bagdad by Hulagou the destroyer, of the empire
of the Caliphs, the Tartars threw the books belonging to the colleges
of this city into the river Euphrates, and the number was so great,
that they formed a bridge, over which foot-passengers and
horsemen went across!
Besides Abulpharadi, two other eastern writers give an account of
the destruction of the library: Abd-Allatif and Makrizi; but they only go
over the same ground as their predecessors.
These three writers (of the 12th, the 13th, and the 15th centuries)
are the less to be relied upon as no other eastern historians who
speak of the conquest of Egypt by the Arabians, mention the loss of
their great repository by fire.
Eutyches, the patriarch of Alexandria, who lived in the 10th century,
and who enters into details of the taking of this city by the Arabians;
Elmacin, who, in the 13th century, recounts the same fact; and
Aboulfeda, who at about the same period gives a description of
Egypt, completely ignore this remarkable and important event.
How is it that the Greek authors, who were so incensed against the
Saracens, omit to speak of this conflagration authorised by Omar?—
and that after centuries of silence Abulpharadi is the first who opens
his lips on the subject? And it is still more surprising that this writer
did not mention the anecdote in his Chronicle, published in Syriac,
but that he only added it while translating his work into Arabic at the
latter end of his life.
The Caliphs had forbidden under severe penalties the destruction of
all Jewish and Christian volumes, and we nowhere hear of any such
work of destruction during the first conquests of the Mahommedans.
Quite at the beginning of the 5th century, Paulus Orosius, a disciple
of St. Jerome, mentions, on his return from Palestine, having seen at
Alexandria the empty book-cases which the library had formerly
contained.
All these arguments brought forward by Assemanni, by Gibbon, by
Reinhard, and many others, do not appear to have convinced M.
Matter, although he admits in his Histoire de l’École d’Alexandrie,
that a certain amount of courage is necessary to maintain the
opinion of the existence of an extensive collection of books at the
commencement of the conquest.
“There are two points beyond dispute,” says he, “in this question.
The first is, that Alexandria possessed during the 5th and 6th
centuries, after the destruction of the Serapeon, a library of sufficient
importance to contain many valuable literary works. The next is, that
these works, far from being limited to religion and theology, as
Gibbon supposes, included various branches of study; of this we
cannot entertain a doubt when we reflect on the later productions of
the school of Alexandria.”
In order to establish his argument, Matter enters into long details.
“Gibbon himself,” he says, “would have admitted later that Amrou
might have burned other works in Alexandria besides those on
theology.”
Two orientalists, Langlès and de Sacy, have adopted a very similar
opinion. “It is incontestable,” says the former, “that on the entrance of
the Mahommedans, a library still existed at Alexandria, and that it fell
a prey to the flames.”[17]
De Sacy allows that the story told by Abulpharadi is very probable,
and proves that at that period the Mahommedans did demolish
libraries and destroy books, in spite of the law against any such
destruction.
At any rate this opinion has only been adopted by a small minority,
and Amrou is generally exonerated from having been the destroyer
of the Alexandrian Library.
 POPE JOAN.
a. d. 855.

Is it true that a woman succeeded in deceiving her cotemporaries to

the extent of elevating herself to the pontifical throne?
Did a catastrophe ensue which afforded a proof of her sex as
unexpected as indisputable?
If there is no foundation for this tale, how comes it that it has been so
long accepted as authentic by writers whose attachment to the
Roman church is perfectly sincere?
Such are the questions that we here propose to ourselves, and
which have been recently treated by two Dutch literati, Mr. N. C. Kist,
professor at the university of Leyden, in a work published in 1845;
and Mr. J. H. Wensing, professor at the seminary of Warmond, who
has written a refutation of Mr. Kist’s work in a thick volume of more
than 600 pages, printed at the Hague.
I will proceed to give a brief sketch of the circumstances as
presented to us by reliable authors.
After the death of Leo IV., in the year 855, the Roman people
proceeded, according to the custom of that period, to the nomination
of a sovereign pontiff. The choice fell upon a foreigner who had for
some years been resident in the eternal city. He was held in high
repute, as well for his virtues as for his talents. This stranger was a
woman of English origin, born in Germany, who had studied in
France and Greece, and who in the disguise of a man had baffled all
detection. Raised to the pontifical throne, she assumed the name of
John VIII., and governed with exemplary wisdom, but in private life
was guilty of irregularities which resulted in pregnancy. She
endeavoured to conceal her situation, but on the occasion of a great
religious festival she was seized with sudden pains in the midst of a
procession, and, to the astonishment and consternation of the
crowd, gave birth to a child who instantly expired. The mother herself
died upon the spot, succumbing to the effects of pain, terror, and
shame.
This is the most widely spread version; it has however been asserted
that the female pope, “la papesse,” survived her mischance, and
ended her days in a dungeon.
Anastatius, deacon and librarian of the Roman church, was living at
this period, and collected numerous materials for a history of the
sovereign pontiffs. He composed a series of their biographies under
the title of “Liber Pontificalis,” and affirms that he was present at the
election of the Popes from Sergius III. to John VIII., that is to say
from 844 to 882. He must then have been a witness to the
catastrophe of Joan. Now he makes no mention of it, but, in his
work, Pope Benedictus III. follows immediately after Leo IV. An
occurrence of so extraordinary a nature must necessarily have
struck him. It has indeed been pretended that he did make mention
of it, but that his account was suppressed by defenders of the
church, and that in some manuscripts it is still to be found.
Nevertheless these manuscripts, very scarce and incorrect, only
contain one phrase to the purpose, which is met with for the first time
in the writings of the 14th century. It is moreover accompanied by an
expression of doubt (ut dicitur) and there is at the present time
scarcely any enlightened critic but would regard it as an interpolation
of the copyist.
The silence of Anastatius admits therefore of but one interpretation.
It is not until two hundred years after the alleged date of the event
that the first mention of it is found in the Chronicon of Marianus
Scotus, who was born in Scotland in 1028, and died at Mayence in
1086. He says: “Joan, a female, succeeded Pope Leo IV. during two
years, five months, and four days.” A contemporary of Marianus
Scotus, Godfrey of Viterbo, made a list of the sovereign pontiffs, in
which we read between Leo IV. and Benedict III., “Papissa Joanna
non numeratur” (the female Pope does not count).
We must come to the 13th century to find in the Chronicon of
Martinus Polonus, Bishop of Cosenza in Calabria, some particulars
respecting the female Pope Joan.[18] At this period a belief in the
truth of her existence is spread abroad, and the evidences become
more numerous, but they are little else but repetitions and hear-says;
no details of any weight are given.
David Blondel,[19] although a Protestant clergyman, treated the story
of Pope Joan as a fable. The English bishop John Burnet is of the
same opinion, as well as Cave, a celebrated English scholar. Several
other learned men have amply refuted this ancient tradition. Many
have thought to sustain the romance of Marianus against the doubt
excited by a silence of more than 200 years, by asserting that the
authors who lived from the year 855 to 1050, refrained from making
any mention of the story on account of the shame it occasioned
them; and that they preferred to change the order of succession of
the Popes by a constrained silence, rather than contribute, by the
enunciation of an odious truth, to the preservation of the execrable
memory of the woman who had dishonoured the papal chair. But
how is it possible to reconcile this with the other part of the same
story, that the Roman court was so indignant at the scandal, that, to
prevent a repetition of it, they perpetuated its remembrance by the
erection of a statue, and the prohibition of all processions from
passing through the street where the event had happened. What
shadow of truth can exist in things so totally contradictory?
Moreover, Joseph Garampi[20] has proved beyond dispute, that
between the death of Leo IV. and the nomination of Benedict III.,
there was no interval in which to place Pope Joan, and the most
virulent antagonists of the court of Rome make no mention of her.
In 991 Arnolphus, bishop of Orleans, addressed to a council held at
Reims, a discourse in which he vehemently attacked the excesses
and turpitudes of which Rome was guilty. Not a word, however, was
said on the subject of Joan. The patriarch of Constantinople,
Phocius, who was the author of the schism which still divides the
Greek and Latin churches, and who died in 890, says nothing
respecting her.
The Greeks, who after him maintained eager controversies against
Rome, are silent respecting Joan.
It is clear that the author who first speaks of this event, after a lapse
of two centuries, is not worthy of credit, and that those who, after
him, related the same thing, have copied from one another, without
due examination.
Whilst rejecting as apocryphal the legend under our consideration,
some writers have at the same time sought to explain its origin.
The Jesuit Papebroch, one of the most industrious editors of the
Acta Sanctorum, thinks that the name “papesse” was given to John
VII., because he shewed extreme weakness of character in the
exercise of his functions.
The Cardinal Baronius starts an hypothesis of the same kind, but this
conjecture is somewhat far-fetched.
A chronicle inserted in the collection of Muratori, Rerum Italicarum
Scriptores, contains an anecdote that has some analogy with our
subject.
A patriarch of Constantinople had a niece to whom he was much
attached. He disguised her in male attire and made her pass for a
man. At his death he recommended her to his clergy, without
divulging the secret of her sex. She was very learned and virtuous,
and was elected Patriarch. She remained eighteen months on the
throne, but the Prince of Benevent, having become acquainted with
the truth, denounced the fraud at Constantinople, and the
patriarchess was immediately expelled.
This anecdote was very generally reported and credited in Italy in the
11th century, for Pope Leo IX., in a letter of 1053, written to the
Patriarch of Constantinople, expresses himself thus:—
“Public report asserts as an undeniable fact, that in defiance of the
canons of the first council of Nice, you Greeks have raised to the
pontifical throne, eunuchs, and even a woman.”
At this period Rome had not yet begun to occupy herself with the
legend of Joan, which was scarcely spread abroad in Germany. If in
the East there had been any idea of the scandal of the female Pope,
which was afterwards so prevalent, the reproach of Leo IX. would
undoubtedly have been turned against himself.
We give another explanation: “The strangest stories have always
their foundation in some truth,” says Onuphrius Panvinius, in his
notes upon Platina: “I think that this fable of the woman Joan takes
its origin from the immoral life of Pope John XII., who had many
concubines, and amongst others Joan, who exercised such an
empire over him that for some time it might be said it was she who
governed. Hence it is that she was surnamed “papesse,” and this
saying, taken up by ignorant writers and amplified by time, has given
birth to the story which has had such wide circulation.
We find in the history of the Bishop of Cremona, Luitprand,[21] that
the love of John XII. for his concubine Joan went so far that he gave
her entire cities, that he despoiled the church of St. Peter of crosses
and of golden chalices in order to lay them at her feet; and we are
told that she died in childbed.
This death is a remarkable circumstance. In it we may trace the
source of the most striking event in the story of Pope Joan.
 ABELARD AND ELOISA.
a. d. 1140.

We had already collected many notes with the intention of

examining critically the celebrated history of these two lovers of the
12th century, when we read an article by Mr. F. W. Rowsell in the St.
James’s Magazine for October 1864, in which he gives a sketch of
the lives of both of them. The writer has succeeded in condensing
into half a dozen very amusing pages a complete résumé of the
leading events in their history; only he has followed the commonly
received opinion held by many English and French historians who
have taken up the subject, and he does not enter into a critical
examination of several points at issue.
Everybody knows how great an attraction the monument erected to
the memory of Eloisa and Abelard is to the crowds who visit the
cemetery of Père la Chaise, recalling to their minds the letters full of
love and passion written by Eloisa, which have elicited so many
imitations both in prose and verse in England and in France.
The history of the two lovers being true as a whole, we are far from
wishing to take away from the sympathy that their constancy and
hapless love so well deserve. Our only object is to separate the true
from the false, and to show that the celebrated letters imputed to
Eloisa were not written by her at all, and that the tomb in Père la
Chaise is altogether a modern construction.
Abelard, born in 1079, died in 1164, and Eloisa survived him
upwards of twenty years, dying in 1184.
The works and correspondence of Abelard were published for the
first time in 1616 by the learned Duchesne, and we therein find three
letters from Eloisa to Abelard and four from Abelard to Eloisa. These
are the letters on which Pope, in England, and Dorat, Mercier,
Saurin, Colardeau, &c., in France, founded their poems.
Out of these seven letters, four only can strictly be termed the
amatory correspondence of the two lovers. The remainder, and
those that have been brought to light and published in later years,
are pious effusions which contain no trace whatever of those
passionate emotions which pervaded the four other letters. We must
remind the reader that the oldest manuscript existing of these
epistles is nothing more than an alleged copy of the originals made
one hundred years after the death of Eloisa. It is preserved in the
library of the town of Troyes, and belongs to the latter half of the 13th
century.
A modern French historian, M. Henri Martin, having written some
pages in a melodramatic style on these letters of Eloisa, a critic, M.
de Larroque,[22] pointed out to him the error into which he had fallen,
they having evidently been composed some years after the death of
the heroine.
The learned Orelli published in 4ᵗᵒ at Zurich, in 1841, what may be
termed the memoirs of Abelard, entitled, Historia Calamitatum: also
the seven letters of the two lovers.
In the preface to this work, Orelli declares, that on many grounds he
believes that these letters, so different from such as might have been
expected from Eloisa, were never written by her. The grounds, which
Orelli omits to state, are supplied by M. Lalanne in “La
Correspondance Littéraire” of the 5th December 1856.
In order to arrive at a clear perception of the improbabilities and
contradictions contained in these epistles, all the bearings of the
case should be kept well in mind.
In the Historia Calamitatum, Abelard opens his heart to a friend who
is in affliction and whom he endeavours to console by drawing a
counter picture of his own misery. The writer relates his life from his
birth; his struggles and his theological triumphs; his passion for
Eloisa, the vengeance of Fulbert, her uncle, the canon of Paris; his
wandering life since he assumed the cowl in the abbey of St. Denis;
the foundation of the convent of the Paraclete, where he received
Eloisa and the nuns of the convent of Argenteuil; and lastly his
nomination as Abbé of the monastery of St. Gildas, where the monks
more than once conspired against his life.
This is about the only document we possess regarding the life of
Abelard, for it is remarkable that the contemporary writers are
singularly concise in all that concerns him. Otho, bishop of
Freisingen, who died in 1158, is the only one who makes even an
allusion to the vengeance of Fulbert; and he expresses himself so
vaguely that his meaning would be incomprehensible were we not
able to explain it by the help of the Historia Calamitatum.
According to these memoirs, Abelard was thirty-seven or thirty-eight
years of age when he became enamoured of Eloisa, who was then
sixteen or seventeen years old. He introduced himself into the
household of the Canon Fulbert, was appointed professor to the
young girl, and soon became domesticated in the family. Eloisa,
becoming soon after pregnant, fled to Brittany, where she gave birth
to a son. She afterwards returned to Paris, and after frequent
negotiations between Fulbert and Abelard, the lovers were at length
married, but the marriage was kept secret.
The rest is known. Abelard, fearfully mutilated, became a monk in
the abbey of St. Denis, and at his bidding, to which she was ever
entirely submissive, Eloisa took the veil in the convent of Argenteuil.
These events occupied about the space of two years, and bring us to
1118 or 1119.
In a council held in Paris ten years later (1129) a decree was passed
expelling Eloisa and the other nuns from the convent of Argenteuil,
which the Abbé Suger had claimed as being a dependance of the
Abbaye de St. Denis.[23]
This expulsion coming to the ears of Abelard, he offered the nuns an
asylum in the Paraclete, which he had lately founded, and which he
soon after made over to them as a gift.
Pope Innocent II. confirmed this gift in 1131. Abelard speaks further,
in his Historia Calamitatum, of events befalling a year later, and of
his return to the abbey of St. Gildas. We see therefore that this
memoir, written with much care and attention, cannot have been
published before 1133, and perhaps even long after that. Abelard
was then in his fifty-fourth year and Eloisa in her thirty-second or
thirty-third. About fourteen years had elapsed since both had
embraced the monastic life: in the meanwhile they had met and had
spent more or less time together in the Paraclete between 1129 and
1132.
Let us now enquire if the subject matter contained in these seven
letters, all of which were written after the latter date (a fact that
should be carefully noted) agrees with that which has preceded.
The amorous correspondence of the lovers is confined to four letters.
The first is written by Eloisa. She says, that if she writes to Abelard
at all, it is that she has by accident seen the Historia Calamitatum;
and in order to convince him that she has read it, she touches briefly
on each circumstance recorded in it, every one of which must have
been only too familiar to them both.
Does the reader think this a natural or a probable style of
commencement? Does it not denote something artificial in the
composition? Farther on she complains that Abelard has forsaken
her: “her to whom the name of mistress was dearer than that of wife,
however sacred this latter tie might be.”[24]
And finally she adds: “Only tell me if you can, why, since we have
taken the monastic vows, which you alone desired, you have so
neglected and forgotten me that I have neither been blessed by your
presence nor consoled by a single letter in your absence. Answer
me, I beseech you, if you can, or I may myself be tempted to tell you
what I think, and what all the world suspects.”[25]
This letter, full of passionate reproach, contains contradictions and
improbabilities perceptible to all who have read that which has
preceded.
Let us first call attention to the style, which is hardly to be explained.
The passionate expressions of Eloisa would have been quite natural
in the first years that followed her separation from Abelard, but
fourteen years had elapsed—fourteen years of monastic life to both
one and the other.
She appeals to a man of fifty-four years of age, cut off for the space
of fourteen years from all intercourse with her, worn out by his
theological contests, his wandering life, and the persecutions of
which he had been the victim; and who prays only, according to his
own letters, “for eternal rest in the world to come.” But nothing
checks the flow of her passion, which she pours out with a
vehemence the more remarkable as proceeding from a woman of
whom Abelard had not long since written, in his Historia
Calamitatum: “All are alike struck by her piety in the convent, her
wisdom, and her incomparable gentleness and patience under the
trials of life. She is seldom to be seen, but lives in the solitude of her
cell, the better to apply herself to prayer and holy meditation.”
But the continuation seems even more incomprehensible.
Admitting, which is somewhat difficult, that Eloisa had not seen
Abelard since his severe affliction until his reception of her in the
Paraclete in 1129, on her expulsion from Argenteuil, is it at all certain
that they did meet then, and that moreover the frequency of their
interviews gave rise to scandalous reports which obliged them again
to separate? How then can Eloisa complain that since their entrance
upon a religious life (that is to say since 1119) she has “neither
rejoiced in his presence, nor been consoled by his letters?” And she
wrote this in 1133 or 1134! It is incredible that these lines should
have been penned by her.
The second letter of Eloisa is not less ardent than the first. She
mourns in eloquent language over the cold tone of sadness
pervading the answer sent to her by Abelard. She reverts at some
length to the cruel cause of their separation, and deplores her
misfortune in such unequivocal terms, that we think it better to give
her words in their original latin. “Difficillimum est a desideriis
maximarum voluptatum avellere animum. ... In tantum vero illæ
quæs pariter exercuimus amantium voluptates dulces mihi fuerunt ut
nec displicere mihi nunc, nec a memoria labi possint.