REYES, A.

– AVIONICS-AS
AVIONICS-AS Module 4 Notes Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)
- An equipment which broadcasts
Aircraft Communication System distinctive signals on designated
frequencies and, depending on
application, may be automatically
Communication activated by impact or be manually
- Transmitting information from activated.
one party to another. - Self contained and self powered.
- Using different methods such as
radio, METAR, ATIS, etc. TransmiĒs on disĒrgss frgqugncigs:
● 121.5 MHz (civilian)
Basic Communication Equipment ● 406 MHz for new ELTs
● VHF Radio ● 243 MHz (military)
● Transponder
● ELT - Automatic on impact (5G’s).
VHF Radio - Battery should be enough to power it for
- VHF communication systems are the most widely at least 48 hours.
used for maintaining contact between ground and - Batteries should be changed or recharged at 50
aircraft. This employs "Line Of Sight" transmission. percent of the battery’s useful life.

Categories of Messages

1. Distress - a condition of being threatened by serious

Transponder and/or immediate danger requiring immediate
- A device that receives a radio signal and sends out assistance.
a signal in response. 2. Urgency – a condition concerning safety of an
aircraft, another vehicle, or some person on board or
within sight that does not require immediate
assistance.
3. Communications relating to DIRECTION FINDING.
● Heading
● Bearing
Mode A ● Radial
- Identification (Squawk Code) ● Track vs Course
4. Flight Safety Messages
Mode C - Movement and control messages.
- Identification and altitude (Pressure Altitude) - Messages originated by an aircraft operating
agency or by an aircraft, of immediate
Mode S concern to an aircraft in flight.
- Identification, altitude, and data exchange - Meteorological advice of immediate concern
to an aircraft in flight or about to depart
“Squawk” (individually communicated or for
- assigning a transponder code broadcast).
- Right to left - Other messages concerning aircraft in flight
- 0-7 or about to depart.
Basic Squawk Codes 5. Flight Regularity Messages
● 1200 – VFR - Messages regarding the operation or
● 7500 – Unlawful Interference maintenance of facilities essential for the
● 7600 – Radio Failure/Lost Communications (NORDO) safety or regularity of aircraft operation.
● 7700 – Emergency (SOS, MAYDAY) - Messages concerning the servicing of
aircraft.
● OFF Button - Instructions to aircraft operating agency
● ON Button representatives concerning changes in
● STBY Button requirements for passengers and crew
● ALT Button caused by unavoidable deviations from
● IDENT Button normal operating schedules.
REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS
Standard Words and Phrases METAR
- Meteorological Aerodrome Report

TAF
- Terminal Aerodrome Forecast

METAR: RPLC 221500Z 34004KT 8000 SCT020 BKN100 26/19

Q1011 NOSIG RMK A2985

TAF: RPLC 221100Z 2212/2318 34008KT 8000 SCT020

BKN300 TX31/2306Z TN20/2221Z TEMPO 2212/2218 36008KT
7000 -SHRA SCT020 OVC100

Call Signs for Aircrafts

1. Registration Markings
•RP-C 1049
2. The telephony designator of the aircrafĒ opgraĒing
aggncD
•Qatari
3. The telephony designator of the aircraft operating
agency, followed by the ½ighĒ idgnĒificaĒion
•Cebu 149

Call Signs for Aeronautical Stations

Namg ¦ Call Sign Suffiю:
● Manila Control
● Clark Approach
● Subic Tower
● Vigan Radio

VFR Procedures
● Start-up
● Clearances
● Departure Procedures
● Enroute Procedures
● Arrival and Approach Procedures
● NORDO Procedures

Standard Call

Weather Reports
ATIS
- Automatic Terminal Information Service
REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS

Read Back
Arrival and Approach

Startup and Taxi

Emergency Procedures (NORDO)

Clearance for Take-off - If the aircraft's radio fails, the recommended
procedure when landing at a controlled
airport.

1. Troubleshoot.
2. Observe the traffic flow.
3. Continue Blind Transmission, Squawk 7700 for 1 min
then 7600 for 15 mins.
Departure Procedures 4. Enter the pattern, flash landing lights, rock the
wings and look for a light gun signal from the tower
to get landing clearance.
5. Land as soon as possible and safe.

Light Gun Signals

AVIONICS-AS Module 5 Notes

Basic Aircraft Navigation System
Enroute

NAVIGATION
- is the method of determining position, course, and
distance traveled.

1. Where you are.

2. Where you want to go.
3. The route that will take you from here to there.
4. How much fuel and time it will take to get there.

Air navigation
- the science and technology of determining the
position of an aircraft with respect to the surface
of the earth and accurately maintaining a
desired course.
REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS
I.Visual Flight Rules (VFR)
- are the rules that govern the operation of aircraft
in Visual MgĒgorological CondiĒions (VMC), the
conditions in which flight is possible by visual
reference.
- Because of the limited communication and/or
navigation equipment required for VFR flight, a VFR
aircraft may be subject to limitations if and when it
is permitted in controlled airspace.

A. Pilotage
- is the use of fixed visual references on the
ground by means of sight to guide oneself
to a destination, sometimes with the help of
a map or aeronautical chart.
- Identification of present position and
direction of flight by visual contact
with terrain.

Aeronautical Chart
- is the road map for a pilot flying under VFR. The
chart provides information that allows pilots to track
their position and provides available information that
enhances safety.

Radio Navigation
- Navigating or piloting the aircraft using
only the instruments and the navigational
systems installed such as VHF Omni
dirgcĒional ½angg (VO½) and AuĒomaĒic
DirgcĒion Findgr (ADF).

II. Instrument Flight Rules

- Instrument flight rules (IFR) are a set of regulations
that dictate how aircraft are to be operated when the
pilot is unable to navigate using visual references
under visual flight rules.

- In order for the aircraft to be flown in insĒrumgnĒ

B. Deduced/Dead Reckoning (DR)
- is a method of navigation relying on
estimating one's current track, groundspeed
and position based on earlier known
positions.
Application of laws of physics to estimate position
● Estimating current position based solely on speed,
direction of travel, and time since last known
position (fix).
● Calculation of basic flight parameters are
necessary to safely get from point A to point B.
● Airspeed indicator, clock, compass, and estimation
of winds are required (wind trangle)
● Basis for air navigation
mgĒgorological condiĒions (IMC), it must be
fitted with the necessary instrumentation and
certified by the regulatory authority. In addition to
this, the pilot must hold an instrument rating.
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
- is an electronic aid to navigation that
identifies the relative bearing of an
aircraft from a radio beacon
transmitting in the MF or LF bandwidth,
such as a Non-DirgcĒional Ðgacon.
- Oldest navigational system in use.
- Receives radio signals from ground facilities called
Non dirgcĒional Ðgacon (NDÐ)
- Capable also to receive Commercial Broadcasting
Station which operates from 415-1750 KHz.
Non Directional Beacon (NDB)
- Ground based radio transmitter that transmits
radio energy in all directions.
- Operates at a frequency between 190-415 KHz LF
and 510-535 KHz MF.
- Limited operating range.
REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS
- Strongly affected by weather
- Used by Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
equipment.
Movable Card ADF
- Manually adjusted to show magnetic heading at top.
- The needle always points to Magnetic Bearing to the
station (MBTO).

Very High Frequency Omni Directional Range (VOR)

- is an aircraft navigation system
operating in the VHF band. VORs
ADF/NDB Airborne Equipment broadcast a VHF radio composite signal
● ADF Antenna including the station's Morse Code
○ Directional antenna identifier, and data that allows the
○ Sense antenna airborne receiving equipment to derive
● ADF Receiver the magnetic bearing from the station to
● ADF Indicator the aircraft. This line of position is called
the "radial".
- This is the most widely used means of radio
navigation.
- 108-117.95 MHz
- Accurate - with +/- 1 deg error.
- Automatically compensate for wind drift.

Deffinition of Terms Principles of Operation

Magnetic Heading (MH) - VOR station transmit radio beams, called radial ,
- Direction aircraft’s nose is pointed. outward in every direction, based on Magnetic North.

Relative Bearing (RB)

- Degrees from the nose of the aircraft to the
transmitter clockwise.

Magnetic Bearing to/from (MBTO / MBFROM)

- Direction to be flown to/from the station.

VOR Station
- VOR stations are fairly short range, the signals are
line of sight between transmitter and receiver and
are useful for up to 200 miles.
- Each station broadcasts a VHF radio composite signal
including the navigation signal, station's identifier
and voice.
- The navigation signal allows the airborne receiving
equipment to determine a bearing from the station
to the aircraft (direction from the VOR station in
How to ffind Line of Position (LOP)? relation to Magnetic North). The station's identifier is
typically a three-lettering string in morse code.
MH ¦ ½Ð = MÐTO
MÐTO ¦/- 180 = MÐF½OM = LOP

Types of ADF Indicator

How does the VOR station work?

● Reference phase (Omni directional)
● Variable phase (Directional)

Fixed Card ADF

- Always shows 0 0°at the top.
- The needle always points to Relative Bearing
(RB).
REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS
Classes of VOR
Terminal VOR
- A low-powered VOR (very high
frequency omnidirectional
radio-range) located at or near
an airport at which a particular
flight terminates and which
has been specified as a
NAVAID (navigational aid) in
the final approach clearance.
- Terminal VOR (TVOR) has a
range of 25NM from 1,000 feet AGL to 12,000 feet
AGL.
Low Altitude VOR
- Low-altitude VORs are meant to be
used from 1,000 feet AGL through 18,000 feet
AGL at distances of up to 40 NM from the
station.
4. Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) needle – Tells the pilot
if the aircraft is deviated to the right or left or when moving
sideways.
5. Deviation dots – Tells the pilot how many degrees
the aircraft is deviated. Outer dot is 10 deg / 2 deg per
dot.
6. Course Index Reciprocal Course Index - Tells the pilot the
radial or Line of Position (LOP) TO/FROM the station.
Steps how to use the VOR : “Going away FROM the station”
1. Twist OBS until ‘FR’ appear.
2. Continue twisting OBS until CDI centers.
3. Once CDI is centered, your RADIAL or LINE
OF POSITION reads under Course Index.

Steps how to use the VOR : “Going TO the station”

1. Twist OBS until ‘TO’ appears.
High Altitude VOR
2. Continue twisting OBS until CDI centers.
- High Altitude VOR (HVOR) is a
3. Once CDI is center, your RADIAL or LINE OF
little trickier and has several
POSITION reads under Reciprocal Course
different service volumes based
Index.
on altitude. The first of these
starts at

● 1,000 feet AGL up to 14,500

feet AGL with a range of
40NM.
● 14,500 feet AGL up to 18,000
feet, a range of 100NM.
● 18,000 feet up to 45,000 feet,
a range 130NM
● over 45,000 feet the range will decrease back down
to 100NM up to 60,000.

VOR Map Depictions

Things to remember before using the VOR

● Tune in to the correct frequency.
● Identify through Morse code.
● Test the VOR

VOR Airborne Equipment Testing the VOR

○ Antenna Accuracy
○ VHF/NAV Receiver 1. VOR ground checkpoints - pre determined area
○ Indicator in the airport with a known radial. +/ 4ᵒ allowable error.

2. VOR airborne checkpoints - a known landmark associated

Parts of the VOR with a published radial. +/ 6ᵒ allowable error.

1. Omni Bearing Selector (OBS) 3. VOT (VOR Testing Facility) - broadcasts signal for radial
Knob – To turn the compass card. 360 regardless of position.
2. TO/FROM Indicator – Indicates if you are
going TO/FROM the station. Can be changed Sensitivity
when you turn the OBS knob. - Twist OBS 10ᵒ left and right from the selected
3. Unreliable signal flag – Turns on when the radial and there must be a full deflection of the CDI
VOR is broken. needle Testing the VOR.
REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS
Ambiguity
- Twist OBS 90ᵒ left and right from the selected
radial and OFF flag must appear.
VOR Limitations
● Line of Sight – e.g. Terrain
● Cone of Confusion – Happens when near the VOR
station, CDI needle becomes erratic, Off position or
no signal symbol is on.
● Zone of Ambiguity – Center of TO and FROM.
● Reverse Sensing – Pilot error
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
- is defined as a navigation beacon, usually coupled
with a VOR beacon, to enable aircraft to measure
their position relative to that beacon.
- Aircraft send out a signal which is sent back after a
fixed delay by the DME ground equipment. An
aircraft can compute its distance to the beacon from
the delay of the signal perceived by the aircraft's
DME equipment using the speed of light.
- Combination of ground and airborne equipment
which gives a continuous slant range
distance-from-station readout by measuring
time-lapse of a signal transmitted by the aircraft to
the station and responded back.
- DMEs can also provide groundspeed and
time-to-station readouts by differentiation.
VOR vs DME
● VOR provides the ability to capture and track any
radial, but it only provides direction. More
information is needed in order to determine actual
location. Can use information from 2 VORs and see
where the radials intersect on a map to determine
location.
● VOR is passive, no input required from the plane.
● Another way is to incorporate an additional device
called a ‘DME’, Distance Measuring Equipment,
required for operation above FL240, Ultra-high
frequency
● DME is active, requires transmitter and receiver at
each end (Plane and DME).
● Plane must send a signal to DME for it to activate.
Marker Beacons
- are vertically broadcast radio
signals that indicate distance
from runway and Outer
Marker are more sensitive
(narrower broadcast vertical
cone) closer to the runway.
Outer Marker
- The outer marker, which
normally identifies the final
approach fix (FAF), is situated
on the same course/track as the localizer and the
runway center-line, four to seven nautical miles
before the runway threshold.
- It is typically located about 1 NM (1.85 km) inside
the point where the glideslope intercepts the
intermediate altitude and transmits a 400 Hz tone
signal.
- The valid signal area is a 2,400 ft (730 m) × 4,200 ft
(1,280 m) ellipse as measured 1,000 ft (300 m)
above the antenna. When the aircraft passes over
the outer marker antenna, its marker beacon
receiver detects the signal
Middle Marker
- A middle marker works on
the same principle as an
outer marker. It is normally positioned 0.5 to 0.8
nautical miles (1 km) before the runway threshold.
- When the aircraft is above the middle marker, the
receiver's amber middle marker light starts blinking,
and a repeating pattern of audible Morse code-like
dot-dashes at a frequency of 1,300 Hz in the
headset.
- This alerts the pilot that the CAT I missed approach
point (typically 200 feet (60 m) above the ground
level on the glideslope).
Inner Marker
- A inner marker located at
the beginning (threshold) of
the
runway on some ILS approach systems (usually
Category II and III) having decision heights of less
than 200 feet (60 m) AGL.
- Triggers a flashing white light on the same marker
beacon receiver used for the outer and middle
markers; also a series of audio tone 'dots' at a
frequency of 3,000 Hz in the headset.
AVIONICS-AS Module 6 Notes
Advance Aircraft Navigation System
Instrument Landing System
- The Instrument Landing System is a precision
runway approach aid employing two radio beams to
provide pilots with vertical and horizontal guidance
REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS
during the landing approach.
REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS
- The localizer (LOC) provides horizontal guidance, determine as left and right of
while the glideslope (GS) defines the correct vertical the centerline.
descent profile.
- Marker beacons and high intensity runways lights
may also be provided as aids to the use of an ILS.

Principles of operation
● An instrument landing system operates as a
ground-based instrument approach system that
provides precision lateral and vertical guidance to an
aircraft approaching and landing on a runway.
● It uses a combination of radio signals and in many
cases, high-intensity lighting arrays to enable a safe
landing during instrument meteorological conditions
(IMC), such as low ceilings or reduced visibility due
to fog, rain, or blowing snow.

Beam Systems
- Previous blind landing radio aids typically took the
form of beam systems. It normally consists of a
radio transmitter that was connected to a motorized
switch to produce a pattern of Morse code dots and
dashes.
- The resulting signal is sent into the air that consists
of dots sent to one side of the runway and dashes to
the other. The beams were wide enough so they
overlapped in the center.
- The pilots would hear dots or dashes if they were to
the side of the runway, or if they were properly
aligned, the two mixed together to produce a steady
tone, the equisignal.

ILS Components
● Localizer
● Glideslope
● Marker Beacon
● Approach Light System

Localizer
- A localizer (LOC) is an antenna
array normally located beyond the
departure end of the runway and
generally consists of several pairs
of directional antennas.
- The Localizer generates and
radiates signals to provide final
approach azimuth navigation
information to landing aircraft. The
antenna sends a VHF carrier signal
with 90-Hz and 150-Hz sideband
signals that the aircraft instruments
 REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS
- The aircraft interprets the signal and displays them on
the cockpit indicator guiding the pilot

Glideslope
- The Glide Slope sends a UHF carrier
signal with the same two 90-Hz and
150-Hz sideband frequencies that
aircraft instruments determine as
above or below the desired glide
path.
- The GS aerials are usually located so
that the glide-slope provides a
runway threshold crossing height of
about 50 ft. This is approximately 3°
above horizontal (ground level) to
remain above
obstructions and reach the runway at the proper
touchdown point which gives the aircraft a descent rate
of approximately 500 feet per minute.
- The glide slope is normally positioned 1000 feet after
the approach end of the runway
REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS

Marker Beacon
- these are vertically
broadcast radio
signals that
indicate distance
from runway and
are more sensitive
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)
(narrower broadcast vertical cone) closer to the - The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses
runway. light units similar to the VASI but are installed in
a single row of either two or four light units.
Approach Light System (ALS) These lights are visible from about 5 miles during
- ALS provide the basic means to transition from the day and up to 20 miles at night.
instrument flight to visual flight for landing. ALS are
- The visual glide path of the PAPI typically provides
a configuration of signal lights starting at the landing
safe obstruction clearance within plus or minus 10
threshold and extending into the approach area a
degrees of the extended runway centerline and to
distance of 2400-3000 feet for precision instrument
3.4 NM from the runway threshold.
runways and 1400-1500 feet for non-precision
instrument runways.
- Some systems include sequenced flashing lights
which appear to the

ILS Indicator

Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)

- The VASI is a system of lights so arranged to provide
Limitations of ILS
visual descent guidance information during the
● Localizer systems are sensitive to
approach to a runway. These lights are visible from 3-
obstructions in the signal broadcast
5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles or more at
area, such as large buildings or
night.
hangars.
- The visual glide path of the VASI provides safe
● Glide slope systems are also
obstruction clearance within plus or minus 10
limited by the terrain in front of
degrees of the extended runway centerline and to 4
the glide slope antennas. If terrain
NM from the runway threshold.
is sloping or uneven, reflections
- The basic principle of the VASI is that of color
can create an uneven glidepath,
differentiation between red and white. Each light
causing unwanted needle
unit projects a beam of light having a white segment
deflections.
in the upper part of the beam and red segment in
● ILS critical areas and ILS sensitive
the lower part of the beam.
areas are established to avoid hazardous reflections
that would affect the radiated signal. The location of
these critical areas can prevent aircraft from using
certain taxiways leading to delays in takeoffs,
REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS
increased hold times, and increased separation - Use accelerometers and gyros to track changes
between aircraft. in acceleration and direction
Categories of ILS Approach
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
- is a general term describing any satellite
constellation that provides positioning, navigation,
and timing (PNT) services on a global or regional
basis.
• GPS is the most well known type of GNSS.

Where:
RVR – Runway Visual Range

Microwave landing system (MLS) independent of magnetic North; it is considered

- is an all-weather, precision as true location.
radio guidance system
intended to be installed at
large airports to assist
aircraft in landing, including
blind landings.
- MLS was intended to replace
or supplement the instrument landing systems
(ILS). MLS has a number of operational advantages
over ILS, including a wider selection of channels to
avoid interference with nearby installations,
excellent performance in all weather, a small
"footprint" at the airports, and wide vertical and
horizontal "capture" angles that allowed approaches
from wider areas around the airport.

Inertial Navigation System (INS)

- Referred to a self-
contained navigation
system utilizing a gyro-
stabilized platform for
dead-reckoning, and with a
pilot interface allowing a
limited number of
waypoints to be entered
and basic navigation
information to be
displayed.
- Inertial Navigation is a form
of “Dead-Reckoning” that relies on accelerometers
and gyroscopes to detect acceleration and velocity
respectively along 3 perpendicular axes. An
approximate 2 or 3 dimensional position can be
constantly determined in relation to a known starting
point, velocity and orientation

Inertial Reference Unit (IRU)

- It refers to a computer
that integrates Inertial
Reference System (IRS)
outputs and provides
inertial reference outputs
for use by other
navigation and flight
control systems, including
the Flight Management
System (FMS).
- An IRU is like a modern, automated, dead-
reckoning device.
- IRU works on basis of latitude/longitude, so it is
 REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS

Global Positioning System (GPS)

- The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S.-owned
utility that provides users with positioning,
navigation, and timing (PNT) services. This system
consists of three segments: the space segment, the
control segment, and the user segment.
- GPS is a satellite based radio navigation system which
utilizes precise range measurements from GPS
satellites to determine precise position anywhere in the
world.

- Twenty four (24) satellites operated by USAF provide

24 hour, all weather, global coverage.
- Satellites are equipped with atomic clocks.
- Minimum of four (4) satellite signals enable receivers
to triangulate position and time.
- System is passive, it allows for unlimited number of
users.

Performance Based Navigation (PBN)

- Performance Based Navigation (PBN) is comprised of
Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation
Performance (RNP) and describes an aircraft's
capability to navigate using performance standards.
- Performance-based Navigation (PBN), in simple
terms, redefines the aircraft's required navigation
capability from sensor (equipment) based to
performance based. The foundation for Performance
Based Navigation is area navigation or RNAV.
- PBN defines performance requirements for aircraft
navigating on an Air traffic service route (ATS) route,
on a terminal or on an approach procedure.
REYES, A. – AVIONICS-AS

Area Navigation (RNAV)

- is a method of navigation that permits aircraft
operation on any desired flight path within the
coverage of ground or space based navigation aids,
or within the limits of the capability of self-contained
aids, or a combination of these.

Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

- is a family of navigation
specifications under Performance
Based Navigation (PBN) which
permit the operation of aircraft
along a precise flight path with a
high level of accuracy and the
ability to determine aircraft position
with both accuracy and integrity.