Force

Kinds of Forces

 Force is a physical cause which changes (or tends to change) either the size or shape or the state of
rest or motion of the body.

 The forces which act on bodies when they are in physical contact are called contact forces.

 When a body moves over a rough surface, a force acts on the body in a direction opposite to the
motion of the body along the surface of contact. This is called the frictional force or the force of friction.

 When a person moves towards the right on a road, the force of friction acts on him towards the left.
This force resists his motion on the road.

 When a body is placed on a surface, the body exerts a force equal to its weight in the downward
direction on the surface. However, the body does not move (or fall) because the surface exerts an
equal and opposite force on it, which is called the normal reaction force.

 When a body is suspended by a string, the body pulls the string vertically downwards due to its weight.
In its stretched condition, the string pulls the body upwards by a force which balances the weight of the
body. This force developed in the string is called the tension force T.

 The spring has a tendency to return to its original form. Similarly, when one end of a spring is kept
fixed, the spring is found to exert a force at its other end which is directly proportional to the
displacement, and the force exerted is in a direction opposite to the direction of displacement. This
force is called the restoring force.

 When two bodies collide, they push each other. As a result, equal and opposite forces act on each
body.
 The forces experienced by bodies even without being physically touched are called non-contact forces
or forces at a distance.

 In the Universe, each particle attracts another particle because of its mass. This force of attraction
between the particles is called the gravitational force.

 The force on a body due to the Earth’s attraction is called the force of gravity. It causes the movement
of the body towards the Earth, i.e. downwards, if the body is free to move. The body also attracts the
Earth by an equal amount of force, but no motion is caused in the Earth because of its huge mass.

 Two like charges repel, while two unlike charges attract each other. The force between the charges is
called the electrostatic force.

 Two like magnetic poles repel each other, while two unlike magnetic poles attract each other. The force
between the magnetic poles is called the magnetic force.

General Character of Non-contact Forces

1. The gravitational force is always of an attractive nature, while the electrostatic force and the
magnetic force can be either attractive or repulsive.
2. The magnitude of non-contact forces on the two bodies varies inversely as the square of the
distance of separation between them. It decreases with an increase in separation and increases as
the separation decreases.

Newton’s First Law of motion

 Newton’s First Law: A body remains in the state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
an external force is applied on it.
 The property of an object by virtue of which it neither changes its state nor tends to change its state is
called inertia. It is an inherent property of each object.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion

 Newton’s Second Law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
Δp Δ  mv 
F= =
Δt Δt

Momentum
 The force required to stop a moving body is directly proportional to the mass and velocity of the
body.
 The momentum ‘p’ of a body is defined as the product of mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘v’ of the body.
p  mv
 If a body is at rest, then its momentum will be zero.
 Momentum has both magnitude as well as direction; hence, it is a vector quantity.
 The SI unit of momentum is kg.m/s.
Change in momentum m  v  u
 Rate of change of momentum    ma
Time t
 Thus, the rate of change of momentum is the product of mass and acceleration.
 From Newton’s law,
F  ma or F  kma
 In SI units, k = 1
F  ma
 In the vector form, the above equation is written as
F  ma
 The acceleration produced in a body of a given mass is directly proportional to the force applied on
it.
aF
 The acceleration produced in a body is inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
1
a
m
Newton’s Third Law of Motion

 Newton’s Third Law: To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
 When you pull a spring with both hands, you feel an equal force trying to pull the spring back.

 Thus, in an interaction of two bodies, there are action and reaction forces present. However, we should
note that the action and reaction forces act on two different bodies.
 In the CGS system, the unit of force is dyne.
1 dyne = 1 g × 1 cm s−2
 SI unit: The SI unit of force is newton (N).
1 N = 1 kg × 1 m s−2
 One newton (N) is that force which when acting on a body of mass 1 kg produces an
acceleration of 1 m s−2 in it.
 1 N = 105 dyne
 The gravitational unit of force in the MKS system is kilogram force (kgf).
1 kgf = 1 kg × 9.8 m s−2
1 kgf = 9.8 N
 One kilogram force is the force with which the Earth pulls a body of mass 1 kg towards itself.
 The three equations of motion considered for a body moving with uniform acceleration are
1. v = u + at
1
2. s = ut + at 2
2
3. v = u + 2as
2 2

Here, ‘u’ is the initial velocity, ‘v’ is the final velocity, ‘a’ is the acceleration and ‘s’ is the distance.

Translational and Rotational Motion

 When a force acts on a stationary rigid body which is free to move, the body starts moving in a straight
path in the direction of the force. This is called linear or translational motion.
 When the body is pivoted at a point, the force applied on the body at a suitable point rotates the body
about the axis passing through the pivoted point. This is called rotational motion.
Moment of a Force or Torque

 The turning effect of the force acting on the body about an axis is due to the moment of force or
torque.
 The factors affecting the turning of a body are
I. Magnitude of the force applied
II. Distance of the line of action of the force from the axis of rotation
 The moment of force (or torque) is equal to the product of the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of force from the axis of rotation.

Clockwise and Anticlockwise Moments

 The direction of turning (or sense of rotation) produced on the body depends on the point of
application of the force and on the direction of the force.
 Conventionally, when the turning effect on the body is anticlockwise, the moment of force is called
the anticlockwise moment and it is taken as positive, while if the turning effect on the body is
clockwise, the moment of force is called the clockwise moment and it is taken as negative.
 The SI unit of the moment of force is newton metre (N m).
 In gravitational units, the MKS unit is (kgf m) and the CGS unit is (gf m).
 1 N m  107 dyne cm
 1 kgf m  9.8 N m
 1 gf m  980 dyne cm
 For turning a steering wheel, a force is applied tangentially on the rim of the wheel. The sense of
rotation of the wheel is changed by changing the point of application of force without changing the
direction of force.
 The turning of a body about an axis depends not only on the magnitude of the force but also on the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the applied force from the axis of rotation.
 A single force applied on a pivoted body alone does not cause turning or rotation of the body.
 The turning is always produced by a pair of forces.
 Such a pair of forces is called a couple. Thus, two equal and opposite parallel forces not acting along
the same line form a couple. A couple is always needed to produce rotation.
 For example, when we open a door, the rotation of the door is produced by a couple consisting of two
forces: (1) the force which we exert at the handle of the door, and (2) an equal and opposite force of
reaction at the hinge.

Action of a Couple
 The perpendicular distance between the two forces is called the couple arm.

 The two forces cannot produce translational motion as their resultant sum is zero. However, each
force has the turning effect on the bar in the same direction, so the two forces together form a couple
which rotates the bar about the point O.

Equilibrium of Bodies
 When several forces acting on a body produce no change in its state of rest or of motion, the body is
said to be in equilibrium.
 When a body remains in the state of rest under the influence of the applied forces, the body is in static
equilibrium.
 When a body remains in the same state of motion under the influence of the applied forces, the body
is said to be in dynamic equilibrium.
Conditions for Equilibrium
1. The resultant of all the forces acting on the body should be equal to zero.
2. The resultant moment of all the forces acting on the body about the point of rotation
should be zero, i.e. the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the axis of rotation must be equal to
the sum of the clockwise moments about the same axis.

Principle of Moments

 If the algebraic sum of moments of all the forces acting on the body about the axis of rotation is zero,
then the body is in equilibrium. This is called the principle of moments.
Sum of anticlockwise moments  Sum of clockwise moments

Centre of Gravity

 The force with which the Earth attracts every particle towards its centre is known as the force of
gravity. It is also known as the weight of the particle.
 A body can be made up of several particles, each of weight ‘w’. As the size of the body is quite small
in comparison to the size of the Earth, the pull of gravity w acting on these particles can be regarded
as parallel to each other.

 The magnitude of a single force is equal to the sum of all these parallel forces.
 Weight W is considered to act at a point G such that the algebraic sum of moments due to weight w of
each particle about the point G is zero. The point G is called the centre of gravity of the body.
 Centre of gravity (CG) of a body is the point about which the algebraic sum of moments of weights of
all the particles constituting the body is zero. The entire weight of the body can be considered to act at
this point.
 It is not necessary that the centre of gravity always lies within the material of the body.
 Object Shape Position of CG Location of CG

Within the
Rod Mid-point of rod
material

Within the
Circular disc Geometric centre
material

Within the
Solid sphere Geometric centre
material

Outside the
Hollow sphere Geometric centre
material

Mid-point on the axis of Within the

Solid cylinder
the cylinder material
 Hollow Mid-point on the axis of Outside the
cylinder the cylinder material

Outside the
Circular ring Centre of the ring
material

Triangular Mid-point of Within the

lamina intersection of medians material

Centre of Gravity and balance point

 When a body is freely suspended from a point, it comes to rest (or in balance) in such a position that
its centre of gravity lies vertically below the point of suspension.
 It is possible because the algebraic sum of moments of the weights of all the particles about the point
of suspension is zero.
Uniform Circular Motion

 When an object moves in a circle, its motion is called circular motion.

 When an object moves along a circular path, its direction of motion as well as speed changes
continuously.
 Thus, the motion is said to be accelerated motion because the speed (or velocity) keeps changing.
 When the body moves in a circle with uniform speed, its motion is known as uniform circular motion.

Centripetal and Centrifugal Force

 The force needed to make an object travel in a circular path is known as centripetal force.
 This force is always directed towards the centre of the circle at each point of its path.
Hence, for a body moving uniformly in a circular path, there must be a force to provide the centripetal
force required for circular motion.
 In an atom, an electron moves around the nucleus in a circular path for which the
centripetal force is obtained from the electrostatic force of attraction on the electron by the nucleus.
 A planet moves around the Sun in a nearly circular path for which the gravitational force of attraction
on the planet by the Sun provides the necessary centripetal force.
 The force acting on a body away from the centre of the circular path is called the centrifugal force.
 It is not a real force. However, it is considered to describe a certain motion and is called fictitious force
or virtual force.
 Its magnitude is the same as centripetal force. It is however not a reaction force of centripetal force,
because both the forces act on the same body performing circular motion.
 A bucket filled with water is swirled around. The water does not spill out of it because of the centrifugal
force acting on it away from the centre.
 Work, Energy and Power
Work

 Work is any physical or mental activity which one does to perform daily tasks. However, in scientific
parlance, work is done when a force produces motion in an object.
 The amount of work depends on two factors:
 The magnitude and direction of force applied to an object
 The distance/displacement through which the object moves
 The amount of work done by a force in moving a body is equal to the product of the force and the
displacement of the point of application of the force in the direction of force.
Work = Force × Displacement
W = F×s
 Work is a scalar quantity.

 Thus, the expression of work is

W  Fscos 
 Thus, the amount of work done is the product of force, displacement and the cosine of the angle
between the force and displacement.
 If the displacement is in the direction of the force, i.e.  = 0, then the work done is W  F  s .
This work is maximum and positive.
 If the displacement is normal to the direction of the force, i.e.  = 90, then the work done is W  0 .
Thus, no work is done.
 If the displacement is zero, then the work done is zero. This is the case when a body is performing
circular motion.
 If the displacement is in the direction opposite to that of the force, i.e.  = 180, then the work done is
W  F  s .
This work is minimum and negative.
Work Done by Gravity
 If a body of mass m moves down from a height h, then the force of gravity or weight acts on the body
through a displacement h.
 Thus, the work done by the force of gravity is
W  mg  h
 Similarly, if the body is thrown up to a height h, then the work done by gravity is
W  mg  h
 The SI unit of work is newton metre (N m) or joule (J).

 One joule of work is said to be done when a force of one newton displaces the body through a
distance of one metre in its direction.
 The CGS unit of work is erg.
 One erg of work is said to be done when a force of one dyne displaces the body through a distance of
one centimetre in its direction.
 1 joule = 107 erg

Power: Rate of Doing Work

 Power is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of transfer of energy.
W
P=
t
 Power is a scalar quantity.
 If displacement is at an angle , then the power is
W Fs cosθ
P= = = Fv cosθ
t t
 Its SI unit is watt (W) or joule per second (J/s), and its CGS unit is erg per second (erg/s).
 Another unit of power is kilowatt (kW).
 1 kW = 1000 W
 1 MW = 106 W
 1 horsepower = 746 W = 0.746 kW

Energy

 We can define energy as the capacity to do work.

 The amount of energy possessed by a body is the amount of work it can do when that energy is released.
 Energy is a scalar quantity.
 The SI unit of energy is the same as the unit of work, i.e. joule (J), and its CGS unit is erg.
 Another unit of energy is watt hour or kilowatt hour.
 The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kW h), commonly known as unit.
 1 kW h = 3.6×106 J = 3.6 MJ
 Heat energy is usually measured in calorie. One calorie is the energy required in raising the
temperature of 1 g of water through 1°C.
 1 J = 0·24 calorie
 1 calorie = 4·18 J
  1 kilocalorie = 1000 calorie = 4180 J
 1 eV is the energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential difference of 1
volt
 1 eV = 1·6 × 10−19 J

Mechanical Energy
 The energy possessed by a body due to its state of rest or of motion is called mechanical energy.
 The total mechanical energy of a body is equal to the sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy.

Kinetic Energy
 The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its state of motion is called kinetic energy. It is denoted
by ‘K’.
 Suppose a body of mass m is moving with a velocity ‘v’. It is brought to rest by applying a constant
opposing force F. Let ‘a’ be the uniform retardation produced by the force, and the body travels a
distance ‘S’ before coming to rest.
Kinetic energy  Work done by retarding force in stopping it
 Re tarding force  displacement
 FS
 ma  S
 Thus, the kinetic energy is given as
1
K = mv2
2
 The kinetic energy and momentum are related as
p = 2mK

Work–Energy Theorem
 According to the work–energy theorem, the work done by a force on a moving body is equal to the
increase in its kinetic energy.
W = mv2 - mu2 = K - Ki
1 1

2 2 f
 W = Final kinetic energy – Initial kinetic energy
 Thus, the work done is the increase in kinetic energy.

Forms of Kinetic Energy

 The motion of a body in a straight line path is called translational motion, and the kinetic energy of the
body due to motion in a straight line is called translational kinetic energy.
 When a body rotates about an axis, the motion is called rotational motion, and the kinetic energy of the
body due to rotational motion is called rotational kinetic energy or simply rotational energy.
 When a body moves to and fro about its mean position, the motion is called vibrational motion. The
kinetic energy of the body due to its vibrational motion is called vibrational kinetic energy or simply
vibrational energy.
Potential Energy
 The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its specific position or changed configuration is called
potential energy. It is denoted by ‘U’.
 The potential energy possessed by a body due to its position relative to the centre of the Earth is
called its gravitational potential energy.
 Larger the distance of the body from the centre of the Earth, greater is its gravitational potential
energy.
 The potential energy possessed by a body in the deformed state due to change in its configuration is
called elastic potential energy. It is equal to the amount of work done in deforming the body or in
changing the configuration of the body.

Gravitational Potential Energy

 The gravitational potential energy of a body at a height above the ground is measured by the amount
of work done in lifting it up to that height against the force of gravity.
 Let a body of mass m be lifted from the ground (or Earth surface) to a vertical height h. The work W
done on the body in lifting it to a height h is
W = Force of gravity (mg) x displacement (h) =mgh
 This work is stored in the body when it is at a height h in the form of its gravitational potential energy.
Thus, gravitational energy is U = mgh.
 Thus, when a body is thrown vertically upwards, its potential energy increases. Similarly, when a body
is dropped from a height, its potential energy decreases.
 Potential energy changes into kinetic energy whenever it is put to use.
 When the string of a bow is pulled, some work is done which is stored in the deformed state of the
bow in the form of its elastic potential energy. On releasing the string, the potential energy of the
bow changes into the kinetic energy of the arrow which helps to move it forward.

Different forms of Energy

 The energy radiated by the Sun is called solar energy.
 Several devices are available to use solar energy. These devices are solar panels, solar furnaces,
solar cells etc.
 The energy released on burning coal, oil, wood or gas is heat energy.
 Light energy is the form of energy which helps other objects to be seen.
 The Sun is the natural source of light energy. The moon reflects light from the Sun.
Other sources such as fire, candle, tube light, bulb etc. provide light energy.
 The energy possessed by fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas is called chemical
energy or fuel energy.
 The energy possessed by running water is called hydro energy. It is used to generate electricity in
hydroelectric power stations.
 When two dry bodies are rubbed together, they get charged due to the movement of free electrons
from one body to the other. Thus, they possess electrical energy. An electric cell is a source of
electrical energy.
 The energy released during the process of nuclear fission and fusion is called nuclear or atomic
energy.
 The energy released in nuclear disintegrations in the interior of the Earth gets stored deep inside
the Earth and is called geothermal energy. This energy heats up the underground water to produce
natural steam.
 The energy possessed by fast-moving air is called wind energy. This energy is used in driving a
wind mill.
 A vibrating body possesses sound energy. It is sensed by our ears. When the disturbance
produced in atmospheric air layers by a vibrating body reaches our ears and produces vibrations in
the ear membrane, sound is heard.
 The energy possessed by a magnet due to which it can attract iron filings is called magnetic
energy. An electromagnet has magnetic energy.
 The energy possessed by a body due to its state of rest or of motion is called mechanical energy.
A body at a height, a moving body, a stretched bow etc. have mechanical energy.

Conversion of One form of Energy into Another

 In a hydroelectric power station water stored in a dam has potential energy which is converted to
kinetic energy while falling and then this mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy by the
generator.
 In an electric motor, the electrical energy is passed through the coil which is freely suspended
between the poles of a magnet. This causes the coil to rotate converting the electrical to
mechanical energy.
 In a loudspeaker electrical energy is converted to sound energy.
 When a candle burns the chemical energy inside the wax gets converted to light energy.
 In a photocell, light energy incident on gets converted to electrical energy.
 In automobiles, the chemical energy of petrol is used to run the engine and convert to mechanical
energy of the vehicle.

Many more such conversions are possible, viz. Heat to electrical, sound to electrical, electrical to
chemical, light to chemical, heat to mechanical, etc.

Law of Conservation of Energy

 According to the law of conservation of energy, energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. It
only changes from one form to another.
 The total mechanical energy of an isolated system at any instant is equal to the sum of its kinetic
energy and potential energy.
K  U = Constant: Theoretical Verification
 Consider a body of mass m freely falling under gravity from a height h.

At position A: Total energy = K + U = mgh

At position B:
Kinetic energy is
1
K mv12
2
1
 m  2gx  mgx
2
Potential energy is = mg (h - x)
Hence, total energy = K + U = mgx + mg(h -x) = mgh

At position C:
Kinetic energy is
1
K mv12 
2
1
 m  2gh  mgh
2
Potential energy is 0.
Hence, total energy = K + U = mgh + 0 = mgh

 Thus, the mechanical energy always remains constant. Hence, mechanical energy is conserved.
Application of Law of Conservation of Energy to a Simple Pendulum

 At the resting position, the bob of the pendulum has zero potential energy. When the bob is displaced
from its resting position, it gets raised by a vertical height h, so its potential energy increases by mgh if
m is the mass of the bob.
 On releasing the bob from a height, it moves back to its initial position. Its vertical height decreases
from h to zero, so its potential energy decreases from mgh to zero, and it gets converted into kinetic
energy,
i.e. ½ mv2 = mgh.
 Velocity of the bob = v  2gh
 At an intermediate position, the bob has both kinetic energy and potential energy, but the sum of both
remains constant throughout the swing.
 Machines
 Machines help us to perform daily activities in a better efficient way.
 Functions and uses of simple machines: Machines perform the following functions, and they are useful
to us in the following four ways:
1. In changing the point of application of effort to a convenient point
2. In changing the direction of effort to a convenient direction
3. For obtaining a gain in speed
4. In lifting a heavy load by applying a less effort
 Machines help us to perform daily activities in a better and efficient way.
 A machine can be defined as a device by which we can either overcome a large resistive force (or
load) at some point by applying a small force (or effort) at a convenient point and in a desired direction
or by which we can obtain a gain in speed.

Terms related to Machines

 The resistive or opposing force to be overcome by a machine is called load (L).
 The force applied on the machine to overcome the load is called effort (E).
 The ratio of the load to the effort is called the mechanical advantage of the machine.
Load(L)
Mechanical advantage(M.A.) 
Effort(E)
 MA greater than one: In a machine used to overcome a certain load, the effort needed is less than the
load.
 MA less than one: In a machine used to overcome a certain load, the effort needed is greater than the
load.
 MA equal to one: The effort needed is equal to the load.
 A machine with MA greater than one works as a force multiplier, while the machine with MA less than
one gives the gain in speed.
 The machine with MA equal to one is generally used to change the direction of effort as there is no gain
in force or speed.
 Unit: Because MA is the ratio of two similar quantities, it has no unit.

Velocity Ratio (VR)

 The ratio of the velocity of effort to the velocity of load is called the velocity ratio of a machine.
Velocity of effort(VE )
Velocity ratio(V.R.) 
Velocity of load(VL )
 If dL and dE are the distances moved in the same time t by the load and effort, respectively, then
d
Velocity of load(VL )  L
t
d
Velocity of effort(VE )  E
t
dE
 Velocity ratio(V.R.) 
dL
 Thus, VR is also defined as the ratio of the displacement of effort to the displacement of load.
 A machine works as a force multiplier if its VR is more than one.
 VR of a machine is equal to one if the displacement of load is equal to the displacement of effort. Such
a machine changes the direction of effort.
 Unit: Because VR is also the ratio of two similar quantities, it has no unit.
 The work done on the machine by the effort is called the work input (W input).
Work input = Work done by the effort
 The work done by the machine on the load is called the work output (W output).
 Work output = Work done on the load
 It is the ratio of the useful work done by the machine to the work put into the machine by the effort. In
other words, efficiency is the ratio of the work output to the work input. It is denoted by the symbol 
(eta).
Work output(Woutput )
Efficiency() 
Work input(Winput )
It is usually expressed in percentage, so we have
Work output(Woutput )
Efficiency()   100%
Work input(Winput )
Unit: Because it is a ratio of two similar quantities, it has no unit.

Principle of a Machine
 The point at which energy is supplied to a machine by applying effort is called the effort point, and the
point where the energy is obtained by overcoming the load is called the load point.
 The input energy is given as
Input energy  Work done at the effort point
 Effort  displacement of the point of application of effort
 The output energy is given as
Output energy  Work done at the load point
 Load  displacement of the point of application of load
 From the law of conservation of energy, the useful work done by a machine (i.e. output energy) can
never be greater than the work done on the machine (i.e. input energy).
 Thus, no machine can have efficiency greater than 1.
 An ideal machine is one in which there is no loss of energy in any manner. The work output is equal to
the work input, i.e. the efficiency of an ideal machine is 100%.
 In an actual machine, the output energy is always less than the input energy as there is some loss of
energy during its operation. The loss in energy can be due to the following reasons:
I. The moving parts in it are neither weightless nor smooth (or frictionless).
II. The string in it (if any) is not perfectly elastic.
III. Its different parts are not perfectly rigid.

Efficiency, MA and VR
 Thus, MA of a machine is equal to the product of its VR and efficiency.

Work output
Efficiency   
Work input
L  dL L dL
  
E  dE E dE
M.A.

 V.R.
M.A.  V.R.  
 Thus, MA of a machine is equal to the product of its VR and efficiency.
Levers
 The axis about which the lever turns passes through a point of the lever called the fulcrum.

 Principle of a lever

 A lever works on the principle of moments.

Moment of load about the fulcrum  Moment of effort about the fulcrum
 The two moments are always in opposite direction.
Load  Load arm  Effort  Effort arm
L  BF  E  AF
L AF

E BF
 M.A.
 Thus, we have MA of a lever as the ratio of length of its effort arm to the length of its load arm. This is
known as the law of levers.
 From the above equation,
I. If effort arm = load arm, then MA = 1.
II. If effort arm < load arm, then MA < 1.
III. If effort arm > load arm, then MA > 1.

Kinds of Levers
 In case of Class I levers, the fulcrum F is in between the effort E and the load L.
 For Class I levers, MA and VR can have any value—either greater than 1 or equal to 1 or less than 1.

 In case of Class II levers, the load L is somewhere in between the effort and the fulcrum F.

 In case of Class II levers, the fulcrum F is in between the effort E and the load L.
 For Class II levers, the effort arm is always longer than the load arm.
 MA and VR of Class II levers are always more than 1.
 Class II levers always act as a force multiplier.
 In case of Class III levers, the effort E is in between the fulcrum F and the load L, and so the effort arm
is always smaller than the load arm.

 Therefore, MA < 1, and because MA is equal to VR for an ideal lever, VR < 1 for these levers.
 MA and VR for Class III levers are always less than 1.
 With levers of Class III, we do not get gain in force, but we get gain in speed.

Examples of each Class of Levers as Found in the Human Body

 Class I lever: Action of nodding of the head.
 Class II lever: Raising the weight of the body on the toes.
 Class III lever: Raising a load by the forearm.

Pulley
 A single pulley or a combination of two or more pulleys fixed in a frame is called a block, while a string
(rope or chain) which winds around the pulleys in different blocks is known as tackle.

Single fixed Pulley

 A pulley which has its axis of rotation fixed in position is called a fixed pulley. It is used for lifting a
small load.
 MA, VR and  of a single fixed pulley
LT

ET
L
 M.A.   1
E
d
 V.R.  E  1
dL
Single Movable Pulley
 A pulley whose axis of rotation is not fixed in position is called a movable pulley.
MA, VR and  of a single movable pulley
 The load L is balanced by the tension in two segments of the string, and the effort E balances the
tension T at the free end.
L  T  T  2T

ET
L
 M.A.   2
E
 A single movable pulley acts as a force multiplier.
d
 V.R.  E  2
dL

Way to change the direction of effort using a movable pulley

 With a single movable pulley, the effort has to be applied in the upward direction.
 However, it is inconvenient to apply effort in an upward direction; therefore, a movable pulley is used
along with a single fixed pulley to change the direction of effort.

Combination of Pulleys
 When a heavy load is to be lifted or shifted from one place to another, we require a pulley system of
MA > 2, so a single movable pulley is not enough. A combination of several pulleys is then used.
1. Using one fixed pulley and other movable pulleys
 L
 M.A.   23
E
 In general, if n movable pulleys are connected with one fixed pulley, then
M.A.  2n
 If n movable pulleys are connected, then VR is
V.R.  2n

2. Using several fixed pulleys in two blocks (the block and tackle system)
 If the total number of pulleys used in both the blocks is n and the effort is being applied in the
downward direction, then the tension in n segments of the string supports the load; therefore, we have
M.A.  n
 The effort required to balance the load is
L
E
n
nd
 V.R.  n
d
 Thus, VR is always equal to the number of strands of tackle (or sections of the string) supporting the
load.

Effect of weight of pulleys on MA, VR and 

 Consider a system of n pulleys. Let w be the total weight of the lower block along with the pulleys.
 In the balanced position,
L nE  w w
M.A.   n
E E E
 Thus, MA is less than the ideal value n. VR does not change.
 Therefore, efficiency is reduced due to the weight of the lower block of pulleys.
 Refraction of Light at Plane Surfaces

Refraction of Light

 The change in direction of the path of light when it passes from one transparent medium to another
transparent medium is called refraction. The refraction of light is a surface phenomenon.

Experimental Observations
 When a ray of light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends towards the normal, i.e.
i > r. The deviation of the ray is  = i − r.

 When a ray of light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal,
i.e. i < r. The deviation of the ray is then  = r − i.
 The ray of light which is incident normally on the surface separating the two media passes undeviated.
Thus, if the angle of incidence i = 0°, then the angle of refraction is r = 0°. The deviation of the ray
is zero.

Laws of Refraction

 The first law of refraction:

The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at the point
of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

 Second law of refraction:

The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for a
given pair of media and for a given wavelength of light. This law is also known as Snell’s law.

sini
 constant  1 2  1n2
sinr

Speed of Light in Medium and Refractive Index

 The extent of the change in the direction of light ray which occurs in a given pair of media is expressed
in terms of the refractive index.
 Light travels the fastest in vacuum and also with almost the same speed in air, i.e. c = 3 × 108 m s−1.
 The refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is given as
Speed of light in medium 1 v1
1 2  1n2  
Speed of light in medium 2 v2
 Similarly, the refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 is
Speed of light in medium 2 v2
2 1  2 n1  
Speed of light in medium 1 v1
 If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then the refractive index of medium 2 is considered with respect to
vacuum. This is known as the absolute refractive index of the medium.
Speed of light in vacuum c
 n 
Speed of light in medium v
 The absolute refractive index of a transparent medium is always greater than 1.

Conditions for no change in direction of light ray on refraction

 When the angle of incidence at the boundary of two media is zero.
 When the refractive index of medium 2 is the same as that of refractive index of medium 1.

Change in speed, direction and wavelength of light due to refraction

 Due to the change in the speed of light from one medium to another, the direction of the ray of light
changes except for i = 0°.
 When a ray of light passes from a rarer medium to a denser medium, its speed decreases. While if it
passes from a denser to a rarer medium, its speed increases.
 Because the frequency of light depends on the source of light, it does not change on refraction.
 In refraction of light from one medium to another medium, due to the change in the speed of light, the
wavelength of light also changes because its frequency remains unchanged.

Factors affecting the refractive index of a medium

 Nature of the medium, i.e. its optical density: Smaller the speed of light in a medium relative to air,
higher is the refractive index of that medium.
 Physical condition such as temperature: With increase in temperature, the speed of light in the
medium increases, so the refractive index of the medium decreases.
 The colour or wavelength of light: The speed of light of all colours is the same in air (or vacuum), but in
any other transparent medium, the speed of light is different for different colours.
In a medium, red light travels faster than violet light; therefore, the refractive index of a medium is
more for violet light and less for red light. Thus, the refractive index of a medium increases with the
decrease in wavelength.
Principle of Reversibility of the Path of Light

 According to this principle, the path of a light ray is reversible.

 A ray of light AO incident at an angle i on a plane surface SS' separating two media 1 and 2 is
refracted along OB at an angle of refraction r.

 The refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is

2 sini v1
1 2    …… (1)
1 sinr v2

 Now, if refraction occurs from 2 to 1, then the principle of reversibility requires that the ray of light
incident along BO at an angle of incidence r will be refracted only along OA at the angle of refraction i.

 The refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 is

1 sinr v2
2 1    …… (2)
2 sini v1

 From equations (1) and (2), we get

sini sinr
1 2  2 1   1
sinr sini
1
 2 1 
1 2

1
OR 1 2 
2 1
Refraction of Light through a Rectangular Glass Block

 Consider a rectangular glass block PQRS.

 A light ray AO falls on the surface PQ. NOM is the normal to the surface PQ at the point of incidence
O. At the surface PQ, the ray AO travels from air to glass, so it bends towards the normal NOM and
travels inside the glass in a straight line path along OB.
 At the surface RS, the ray OB suffers refraction again. N 1BM1 is the normal to the surface RS at the
point of incidence B.

 Ray OB travels from glass to air, so it bends away from the normal and travels along BC.
 The ray AO is called the incident ray, OB the refracted ray and BC the emergent ray. AON is the
angle of incidence i, BOM is the angle of refraction r and CBM1 is the angle of emergence e.
 Because refraction occurs at two parallel surfaces PQ and RS, MOB = N1BO and i = e, i.e.
the angle of incidence i is equal to angle of emergence e by the principle of reversibility of the path of
a light ray. Thus, the emergent ray BC is parallel to the incident ray AO.

Lateral Displacement
 Due to refraction of light through a parallel-sided glass block, the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of emergence, so the incident ray AO and the emergent ray BC are parallel, but they are not
along the same line.
 The emergent ray is laterally displaced from the path of the incident ray. The path of the incident ray
AO in the absence of a glass block is shown by the dotted line OD.
 The perpendicular distance XY between the path of the emergent ray and the direction of the incident
ray is called lateral displacement.
Prism

 A prism is a five-sided transparent medium with a triangular cross-section. Two opposite surfaces of
the prism are identical parallel triangles, while the other three surfaces are rectangular and inclined
on each other.
 A prism is a transparent refracting medium bounded by five plane surfaces inclined at some angles.
 The two rectangular plane inclined surfaces through which the light passes are called refracting
surfaces. The angle between the two refracting surfaces is called the angle of prism.
 The line of intersection of the two refracting surfaces is called the refracting edge of the prism.
 The section of the prism perpendicular to the refracting edge is called the principal section of the
prism.
 The third rectangular plane surface is the base of the prism.

Refraction of Light through a Prism

 The principal section ABC of a prism is shown below. The angle of the prism is BAC = A.

 A monochromatic ray of light OP strikes the face AB of the prism at an angle of incidence i1. It suffers
refraction making an angle of refraction r1 and travels along PQ inside the prism. Thus, PQ is the
refracted ray.
 PQ strikes the face AC of the prism at an angle of incidence r2. It suffers refraction and emerges out
of the prism as QR at an angle of emergence i2. Thus, QR is the emergent ray.
 Thus, the ray of light suffers refraction at two surfaces AB and AC of the prism.
 The angle between the direction of the incident ray (OP produced forward) and the emergent ray (QR
produced backward) is called the angle of deviation. This is denoted by the Greek letter  (delta).

From the figure, we have

LMQ  MPQ  MQP
   MPQ  MQP
   1  2

The angle of incidence and the angle of emergence are

MPN  i1
MQN  i2

So, we have
MPQ  1  i1  r1
MQQ  2  i2  r2
   i1  r1  i2  r2
   i1  i2   r1  r2  …… (1)

For the quadrilateral APNQ,

APN  AQN  90
 PNQ  PAQ  180
…… (2)
 PNQ  180  A

However, in triangle PNQ, we have

PNQ  180  r1  r2  …… (3)

Thus, from equations (2) and (3), we have

A  r1  r2 …… (4)

Thus, from equations (1) and (4), we get

i1  i2  A  

Factors affecting the angle of deviation

1. Angle of incidence
2. Material of the prism, i.e. on refractive index
3. Angle of prism
4. Colour or wavelength of light used
Real Depth and Apparent Depth

An object placed in a denser medium when viewed from a rarer medium appears to be at a depth less
than its real depth. This is because of the refraction of light.

In the figure, for the incident ray OB, the angle of incidence i = OBN' and the angle of refraction r =
CBN. Because AO and BN' are parallel and OB is a transversal line,
AOB  OBN'  i

Similarly, IA' and BN are parallel and IC is the transversal line, so

BIA '  CBN  r

Now, from the right-angled triangle BAO, we have

BA
sini 
OB

Similarly, in the right-angled triangle IAB, we have

BA
sinr 
IB

From the definition of refractive index, we have

sini IB
m a  
sinr OB
OR
1 OB
a m  
m a IB
 Because point B is close to A, we have IB = IA and OB = OA.
OA Real depth
a m  
IA Apparent depth
Real depth
 Apparent depth 
a m

Thus, we have the shift as

Shift  Real depth  Apparent depth
 1 
 Shift  Real depth 1  
 a m 

Consequences of Refraction of Light

 A star appears to twinkle in the sky.

Stars twinkle on account of atmospheric refraction. Starlight undergoes refraction many times before
reaching the Earth.
 The apparent position of the star differs from the actual position due to refraction.

 The Sun is seen a few minutes before it rises above the horizon in the morning and a few minutes
longer after it sets in the evening.
 A coin kept in a vessel and not visible when seen from just below the edge of the vessel can be
viewed from the same position when water is poured into the vessel.
 A print appears to be raised when a glass block is placed over it.
 A tank appears shallow than its actual depth.

Critical Angle

 It is the angle of incidence in the denser medium corresponding to which the angle of refraction in the
rarer medium is 90°.
i. When the angle of incidence is small, i.e. i < ic
ii. When the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, i.e. i = ic
iii. When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, i.e. i > ic

Critical Angle and Refractive Index

Consider the refraction of a light ray at a critical angle as shown in the following figure.

The refractive index of air with respect to glass is

sinic
g a   sinic
sin90

However, we know that

1 1
a g    cos ecic
g a sinic
Factors Affecting the Critical Angle
 Colour (or wavelength) of light:
The refractive index of a transparent medium is most for violet light and least for red light; therefore,
the critical angle for a pair of media is least for the violet light and most for the red light. Thus, the
critical angle increases with increase in the wavelength of light.
 Temperature: On increasing the temperature of the medium, its refractive index decreases, so the
critical angle for that pair of media increases. Thus, the critical angle increases with increase in
temperature.

Total Internal Reflection

 When a ray of light travelling in a denser medium is incident at the surface of a rarer medium such that
the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle for the pair of media, the ray is totally reflected
into the denser medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

Reflection from a plane mirror Total internal reflection

It occurs only when light passes from a
It occurs when light is incident on a plane
denser medium to a rarer medium at an
mirror from any medium at any angle of
angle of incidence greater than the critical
incidence.
angle for that pair of media.
Only a part of light is reflected while the rest
The entire light is reflected.
is refracted and absorbed.
There is a loss of energy. The energy of the There is no loss of energy. The energy of
reflected light is less than that of the incident the reflected light is the same as that of the
light. incident light.
The image is less bright and the brightness
The image is much brighter, and the
gradually decreases as silvering on mirror
brightness is permanent.
becomes old and rough.
Total Internal Reflection in a Prism

Total internal reflection through a 45°, 90°, 45° prism

 A prism with an angle of 90° between its two refracting surfaces and the other two angles each equal
to 45° is called a total reflecting prism because the light incident normally on any of its faces suffers
total internal reflection inside the prism.
 This prism is used for the following three purposes:
i. To deviate a ray of light through 90°

ii. To deviate a ray of light through 180°

iii. To erect an inverted image without deviation

Total internal reflection through a prism with each angle as 60°, i.e. an equilateral prism
 A prism with each angle of 60° can be used to deviate a light ray through 60° by total internal
reflection.

Total internal reflection and refraction through a 30°, 60°, 90° prism
i. Incident normally on face BC (side opposite to 30°)

ii. Incident normally on face AB (side opposite to 60°)

 iii. Incident normally on face AC (side opposite to 90°)

a. Incident normally in the portion AD

b. Incident normally in the portion DC

Consequences of Total Internal Reflection

 A phenomenon called mirage is observed on a hot dry day. In this phenomenon, a pool of water is
observed on a road in front of a driver at some distance.
 A crack in glass is often seen shining like a mirror.
 A piece of diamond shines when viewed from certain directions.

 An optical fibre is used to transmit a light signal over a long distance with little loss of energy.
 Refraction through a Lens
Lens

 A lens is a transparent refracting medium bounded by two curved surfaces, of which one or both
surfaces are spherical.

Convex or Converging Lens

 A lens with both surfaces bulging outwards is called a double convex lens or
simply a convex lens.
 A convex lens converges the light rays incident on it to a point. Hence, a convex lens is also known as
a converging lens.
 It may be of three types:
 A bi-convex, double-convex or equi-convex lens has both its surfaces convex.
 A plano-convex lens has one surface plane and the other surface convex.
 A concavo-convex lens has one surface convex and the other surface concave such that it is
thicker in the middle than at the periphery.

Concave or Diverging Lens

 A lens with both surfaces curving inwards is called a double concave lens or simply a concave lens.
 A concave lens diverges the light rays incident on it. Hence, a concave lens is also known as a
diverging lens.
 It may be of three types:
 A bi-concave, double-concave or equi-concave lens has both its surfaces concave.
 A plano-convex lens has one surface plane and the other surface concave.
 A convexo-concave lens has one surface concave and the other surface convex such that it is
thicker at the periphery than at the middle.
Sign convention for measurement of distances

 The origin of the coordinate system for measurement of the distances is the optical centre of the lens.
 In order to make the sign of distances identical to the Cartesian coordinate system, the object is
considered to be placed on the left of the lens.
 The axis along which the distances are measured is called as the principal axis. These distances are
measured from the optical centre of the lens.
 All the distances which are measured along the direction of the incident ray of the light is taken
positive, while the distances opposite to the direction of the incident ray.
 All the lengths that are measured above the principal axis are taken positive, while the length below
the principal axis is considered negative.
 The focal length of the convex lens is taken positive and that of concave lens is negative.

Technical Terms Related to Spherical Mirrors

 Centre of curvature: Each surface of a spherical mirror forms a part of a sphere. The centre of this
sphere whose part is the lens surface is called the centre of curvature of that surface of the lens. It is
represented by C1 and C2.
 Radius of curvature: It is the radius of the sphere of which the part is the lens surface. PC1 and PC2
are the radii of curvature of the convex lens. Similarly, P1C1 and P2C2 are the radii of curvature of the
concave lens.
 Principal axis: The horizontal line joining the centre of curvature of the two surfaces of the lens is
known as the principal axis.

 Optical centre: It is a point on the principal axis of the lens such that a ray of light passing through
this point emerges parallel to its direction of incidence. The optical centre is thus the centre of the lens.
A ray of light directed towards the optical centre of a thin lens can be considered as passing
undeviated and undisplaced. The optical centre of a thin lens is the point on the principal axis of the
lens through which a ray of light passes undeviated.

 Principal foci: A light ray can pass through a lens from either direction. Therefore, a lens has two
principal foci which are situated at equal distances from the optical centre, one on either side of the
lens. These are known as the first focal point (or first focus) F1 and the second focal point (or second
focus) F2.

Principal Rays in Constructing a Ray Diagram

 First rule: A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the lens will emerge without any
deviation.

 Second rule: A ray of light incident parallel to the principal axis, after refraction from a convex lens,
passes through the second focus F2. In case of a concave lens, the ray appears to diverge from the
first focus F1.
 Third rule: A ray of light passing through the first focus, after refraction from a convex lens, will
emerge parallel to the principal axis. Whereas a ray of light appearing to meet at the first focus of a
concave lens, after refraction, will emerge parallel to the principal axis.

Types of images: The images can be of two types—real and virtual.

 Real image: When the rays from a point of object after refraction through the lens actually meet at a
point, the image is real. If a screen is placed at this point, then the image will be formed on it, i.e. a real
image can be obtained on a screen.
 Virtual image: When the rays from a point of object after refraction through the lens do not actually
meet at a point, but they appear to diverge from a point, the image is virtual. A screen placed at this
point will not show any image on it, i.e. a virtual image cannot be obtained on a screen. However,
when an eye is kept between the diverging rays, it is able to see the image because the eye lens
being convex converges the rays to form the image on its retina.

Characteristics and Location of Images for a Convex Lens

Case (i):
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
Highly diminished,
At infinity At focus F2 Real and inverted
point-sized
Case (ii):
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
Between F2 and
Beyond 2F1 Diminished Real and inverted
2F2

Case (iii):
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted

Case (iv):
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
Case (v):
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
Infinitely large or
At focus F1 At infinity Real and inverted
highly enlarged

Case (vi):
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
Between focus F1 On the same side of
Enlarged Virtual and erect
and optical centre O the lens as the object
Characteristics and Location of Images for a Concave Lens

Case (i):
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
Highly diminished,
At infinity At focus F1 Virtual and erect
point-sized

Case (ii):
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
Between infinity
Between focus F1
and optical centre Diminished Virtual and erect
and optical centre O
O

Power of a Lens

 The measure of deviation produced by a lens in the path of rays refracted through it is called the
power of a lens.
 The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is represented by the letter P. The
power P of a lens of focal length f is given as
1
P
f
 The SI unit of power is dioptre (D).
Magnifying Glass or Simple Microscope

Magnifying Power
 The magnifying power of the microscope is defined as the ratio of the B'OA' (= ) subtended by the
image A'B' at the eye (or lens) to the DOA' (= ) subtended by A'D at the eye, i.e.
B'OA ' D
Magnifying power   1
DOA ' f
 Spectrum

Deviation Produced by a Triangular Prism

 When a ray of light passes from one medium to another medium, it gets deviated from its path
because of the difference in speeds of light in the two media.
 The deviation produced by a triangular prism is shown below.

 For the emergent ray RS, the total deviation  with respect to the incident ray PQ is given as
  1  2
 Thus, the total angle of deviation  depends on the following three factors:
 Angle of incidence at the first surface
 Angle of the prism (A)
 Refractive index of the material of the prism ()
Because the refractive index depends on the colour (or wavelength λ) of light used, the angle of
deviation depends on the colour of incident light.

Dependence of Deviation on Colour (or Wavelength) of Light

 Light of different colours has different speeds in a medium. The speed of light in a transparent medium
decreases with the decrease in the wavelength of light.
 Therefore, the refractive index of glass increases with decrease in the wavelength of light, so the
deviation increases with decrease in the wavelength.
 Thus, in the visible spectrum, red colour (λ = 7000 Å) is deviated the least and violet (λ = 4000 Å) is
deviated the most.
Dispersion of White Light through a Prism and Formation of a
Spectrum

 Newton allowed the white light from the Sun to enter a darkened room through a small aperture in a
window and placed a glass prism in the path of light rays and found light emerging with the colours of
a rainbow.
 This coloured band is termed a spectrum.
 Starting from the side of the base of the prism, the colours in the spectrum on the screen are in the
following order: Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. The order of colours can easily
be remembered as VIBGYOR.

 Thus, white light consists of a mixture of seven different colours.

Dispersion and Spectrum

 The phenomenon of splitting of white light by a prism into its constituent colours is known as
dispersion.
 The band of colours obtained on a screen on passing white light through a prism is called a spectrum.

Cause of Dispersion
 The cause of dispersion is the change in speed of light with wavelength (or frequency).
 Red colour is deviated the least, while violet colour is deviated the most.
 On the second surface of the prism, only refraction occurs (from glass to air), and different colours are
deviated through different angles, i.e. violet is deviated the most and red the least.
 As a result, the colours get further separated on refraction at the second surface. The light coming out
of the prism thus has different colours that spread out to form a spectrum.
Recombination of Colours
 The colours of a spectrum of white light combine to reproduce white light.

 The two prisms combined together effectively act like a parallel-sided glass slab.
 This experiment shows that prism P1 simply disperses the white light into its constituent colours and
prism P2 recombines these colours to form the white light again. None of the two prisms produces
colours by itself.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

 The portion of the spectrum between red and violet colours is the visible spectrum, and it is only a
small part of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.
 The portion of the spectrum just beyond the red end is called the infrared spectrum, while the portion
of the spectrum just before the violet end is called the ultraviolet spectrum.
 The waves of wavelength longer than the red part of the visible spectrum in increasing order of
wavelength are infrared radiations, microwaves and radio waves, while the waves of wavelength
shorter than the violet part of the visible spectrum in decreasing order are ultraviolet rays, X-rays and
gamma rays.


 The speed of these waves is equal to the speed of light, i.e. c = 3 × 108 m s−1.
 The speed, frequency and wavelength of electromagnetic waves are related as
c  
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
 These waves do not require any material medium for their propagation.
 They travel with the same speed in vacuum (or air) which is same as the speed of light, i.e. c = 3 × 108
m s−1.
 They exhibit the properties of reflection and refraction.
 These waves are not affected by electric and magnetic fields.
 These waves are transverse waves.

Properties and Uses of Radiations of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Gamma rays
Properties
 These are the most energetic electromagnetic radiations of wavelengths less than 0·1 Å (0·01 nm).
 They are obtained in emissions from radioactive substances due to energy change in the nucleus of
their atoms.
 Like X-rays, they cause fluorescence when they strike fluorescent materials such as zinc sulphide.
 They can easily penetrate through thick metallic sheets.
 They can easily penetrate through the human body and cause immense damage.

Uses:
In medical science, to kill cancer cells.
In industry, to check welding.

X-rays
Properties
 X-rays are produced when highly energetic cathode rays are stopped by a heavy metal target of high
melting point.
 They have wavelengths in the range of 0·1 Å to 100 Å (or 0·01 nm to 10 nm).
 They are chemically more active radiations than ultraviolet radiations.
 They strongly affect a photographic plate.
 They cause fluorescence in materials such as zinc sulphide.
 They can penetrate through the human body, but they are stopped by the bones.

Uses:
i. Because they are stopped by the bones, they are used to detect fractures in bones, teeth etc., and
for diagnostic purposes such as CAT scan in medical science.
ii. They are also used for studying atomic arrangement in crystals as well as in complex molecules.
iii. They are used by detective agencies to detect concealed precious metals.
Ultraviolet Radiations
Properties
 Ultraviolet radiations can pass through quartz, but they are absorbed by glass.
 These radiations travel in a straight line with a speed of 3 × 108 m s−1 in air (or vacuum).
 They are usually scattered by dust particles present in the atmosphere.
 They obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
 They strongly affect a photographic plate as they are chemically more active.
 They produce fluorescence on striking a zinc-sulphide screen.
 They cause health hazards such as skin cancer if the body is exposed to them for long.

Uses:
i. For sterilising purposes.
ii. For detecting the purity of gems, eggs, ghee etc.
iii. In producing Vitamin D.
iv. In producing food of plants and animals.

Visible Light
Properties
 The electromagnetic radiations of wavelengths from 4000 Å to 8000 Å are called visible radiations.
 The Sun, an electric bulb, a flame and hot bodies are the main sources of visible light.
 The prominent colours of visible light are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red.

Uses: Visible light is used in photography, in photosynthesis and to see the objects around us.

Infrared Radiations
Properties
 They travel in straight lines as light does, with a speed equal to 3 × 108 m s−1 in vacuum (or air).
 They obey the laws of reflection and refraction. When a source of heat (an infrared lamp) is placed at
the focus of a parabolic mirror, a parallel infrared beam is obtained.
 They do not affect an ordinary photographic film. However, they affect a specially treated photographic
film.
 They are absorbed by glass, but they are not absorbed by rock salt.
 They are detected by their heating property using a thermopile or a blackened bulb thermometer. High
doses of infrared radiations may cause skin burns.
 They are scattered in the atmosphere because of their long wavelengths and can even penetrate fog.

Uses:
i. They are used for therapeutic purposes by doctors.
ii. They are used in photography at night and also in mist and fog because they are not scattered
much, so they can penetrate appreciably through these.
iii. Infrared lamps are used in dark rooms for developing photographs because they do not affect
photographic film chemically, but they provide some visibility.
iv. They are used as signals during war as they are not visible and they are not absorbed much in the
medium.
v. They are used in the remote control of the television and other gadgets.
Microwaves
Properties
 These waves are produced by electronic devices such as a klystron tube.
 They have wavelengths ranging from 107 Å to 1011 Å (or 1 mm to 10 m) or frequency in the range of 3
× 1011 Hz to 3 × 107 Hz.

Uses: They are used for satellite communication, for analysis of atomic and molecular structure, for
cooking in microwave ovens and in radar communication.

Radio Waves
Properties
 These waves have the longest wavelength among all the electromagnetic waves.
 They have wavelength above 1011 Å (or 10 m) or frequency below 3 × 107 Hz.
 They show all the properties of electromagnetic waves.

Uses: They are mainly used in radar communication and in radio and television transmission.
 Sound
Sound Waves

 Sound is produced and is heard when a body vibrates in a medium.

 When the vibrations reach our ear, a sound is heard.
 Our ears are sensitive only to a limited range of frequencies, from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
 Sound of frequency above 20,000 Hz is called ultrasonic, while sound of frequency below 20 Hz is
called infrasonic.
 The wave velocity V, frequency f and wavelength λ are related as V = fλ. The time period and
frequency of a wave are related as f = 1/T.
 Sound is a mechanical wave and needs a material medium to propagate. It cannot travel through
vacuum.
 Sound waves are of two kinds—longitudinal waves and transverse waves.
 When the vibrations of medium particles are along the direction of propagation of the wave, the wave
is called a longitudinal wave, which has compressions and rarefactions in the medium. The
longitudinal waves travel in solid, liquid and gas.
 On the other hand, if the medium particles vibrate normal to the direction of propagation of the wave,
forming crests and troughs, the wave is called a transverse wave.

Echo

 The repetition of sound caused by the reflection of sound waves from an obstacle after the original
sound has ceased is known as echo.

Condition for forming an echo

 The sensation of sound persists in our brain for about 0.1 s. To hear a distinct echo, the time interval
between the original sound and the reflected one must be at least 0.1 s.
 If d is the distance between the observer and the obstacle and V is the speed of sound, then the total
distance travelled by the sound to reach the obstacle and then to come back is 2 d and the time taken
is
Total distance travelled 2d
t 
Speed of sound V
Vt
d 
2
 For hearing distinct echoes, the minimum distance of the obstacle from the source of sound must be
17 m.
 The speed of sound on a hot day is more than that on a cold day. Thus, the echo will reach sooner on
a hot day.
Use of echoes
 Bats, dolphins and fisherman:
 The sounds produced by flying bats get reflected from an obstacle in front of it. By hearing the
echoes, bats are able to detect obstacles in the dark. Hence, they can fly safely without colliding
with the obstacles. This process of detecting obstacles is called sound ranging.
 Dolphins detect their enemy and obstacles by emitting ultrasonic waves and hearing their echo.
They use ultrasonic waves for hunting their prey.
 A fisherman sends a pulse of ultrasonic waves from a source into the sea and receives the waves
reflected from the shoal of fish via a detector.

 By sonar:
o SONAR stands for sound navigation and ranging.
o It consists of a transmitter and detector. The transmitter transmits the ultrasonic sound. These
waves travel through water, and after striking an underwater object (e.g. submarine, iceberg,
sunken ship), reflect and are detected by a detector.

 In medicine:
o Ultrasonic waves are made to reflect from various parts of the heart and form the image of the
heart. This technique is called Echocardiography.
o Ultrasonography is used to obtain the images of patient’s organs such as the liver, kidneys etc. It
helps to detect stones in the kidneys.

Free (or Natural) Vibrations

 Free vibrations are the periodic vibrations of a body of constant amplitude in the absence of any
external force on it.
 The time period of a freely vibrating body is called free (or natural) period, and the frequency of the
freely vibrating body is called its natural frequency.
 The amplitude of an isolated, freely vibrating body remains constant.
 The free vibrations of a body actually occur only in vacuum because the presence of a medium offers
some resistance due to which the amplitude of vibration does not remain constant and decreases
continuously.
Examples of Free or Natural Vibrations
 When the bob of a simple pendulum is displaced slightly from its mean (or resting) position, it starts
vibrating with its natural frequency which is determined by the length of the pendulum and the
acceleration due to gravity at that place.
 When a tuning fork is struck against a hard rubber pad, it vibrates with its natural frequency.
 When we strike the keys of a piano, various strings are set in vibration at their natural frequencies.
 When the strings of instruments such as the sitar, guitar and violin are plucked, transverse vibrations
of a definite natural frequency are produced in the string.

Nature of Free Vibrations

 The amplitude and frequency of a freely vibrating body should remain constant. When a body starts
vibrating, it should continue with the same amplitude and same frequency forever.
 In actual practice, this does not happen because the surrounding medium offers resistance (or friction)
to the motion. Thus, the vibrating body continuously loses energy due to which the amplitude of motion
gradually decreases.

Damped Vibrations

 Damped vibrations are the periodic vibrations of a body of decreasing amplitude in the presence of
resistive force.
 The amplitude of motion decreases due to the frictional (or resistive) force which the surrounding
medium exerts on the body vibrating in it. The frictional force at any instant is proportional to the
velocity of the vibrating body and it has the tendency to resist the motion.
 The rate at which the energy is lost to the surroundings (or the rate of decrease of amplitude) depends
on the nature (i.e. viscosity, density etc.) of the surrounding medium and also on the shape and size of
the vibrating body.
Examples of Damped Vibrations
1. When a slim branch of a tree is pulled and then released, it produces damped vibrations.
2. A tuning fork vibrating in air produces damped vibrations as its prongs stop vibrating after some time.
3. A simple pendulum oscillating in air produces damped vibrations.

Forced Vibrations

 Forced vibrations are the vibrations of a body which occur under the influence of external periodic
force acting on it.
 When an external periodic force is applied on a vibrating body, the body no longer vibrates with its
own natural frequency, but it gradually acquires the frequency of the applied periodic force.
 The external applied force is called the driving force.
 When the frequency of the external force is different from the natural frequency of the body, the body
oscillates with small amplitude. However, when the frequency of the external force is exactly equal to
the natural frequency of the vibrating body, the body oscillates with large amplitude.

Examples of Forced Vibrations

1. The vibrations produced in the diaphragm of a microphone sound box with frequencies corresponding
to the speech of the speaker are forced vibrations.
2. When a guitar is played, the artist forces the strings of the guitar to produce forced vibrations.
3. All stringed instruments are provided with a hollow sound box which contains air. In these instruments,
when the strings are made to vibrate by plucking, vibrations are produced in the air present in the
sound box which are forced vibrations. Because the surface area of the air in the sound box is large,
the forced vibrations of air cause a loud sound.
Resonance

 When the frequency of an externally applied periodic force on a body is equal to its natural frequency,
the body readily begins to vibrate with increased amplitude. This phenomenon is known as
resonance.
 The vibrations of large amplitude are called resonant vibrations.

Experiment 1: Resonance with Tuning Forks

 When the prong of one of the tuning forks is struck on a rubber pad, it starts vibrating. On putting the
tuning fork A on its sound box, we find that the other tuning fork B also starts vibrating and a loud
sound is heard. The vibrations produced in the second tuning fork B are forced vibrations, and the
sound is loud due to resonance.

Experiment 2: Forced and resonant vibrations of pendulums

 When the pendulum A is set into vibration by displacing it to one side normal to its length, pendulum B
also starts vibrating initially with small amplitude and in some time it acquires the same amplitude as
A. When the amplitude of pendulum B becomes maximum, the amplitude of pendulum A becomes
minimum because the total energy is constant. After some time, the amplitude of pendulum B
decreases and that of pendulum A increases.
Experiment 3: Resonance in air column
 The vibrating source (i.e. tuning fork) is kept at the mouth of tube A so that it works as a closed end air
pipe with the water surface in it forming the closed end (i.e. the reflecting surface). Thus, an air column
is formed in the tube A between the water surface and its mouth. When this air column is made to
vibrate, it will vibrate with its natural frequency which depends on the length of the air column.

Examples of Resonance

1. When two pendulums of same lengths are suspended from a rubber string and one pendulum is made
to vibrate, the other pendulum also starts vibrating with the large amplitude and in the same phase
because of resonance.
2. When a vehicle is driven, the piston of the engine moves in and out at a frequency depending on the
speed of the vehicle. Some parts of the vehicle may have natural frequency of vibration equal to the
frequency of the to-and-fro movement of the piston. The part of the vehicle starts vibrating vigorously
due to resonance, and a rattling sound is heard.
3. When a troop crosses a suspension bridge, the soldiers are asked to break steps.
Characteristics of Sound

 Two sounds are distinguished by the following characteristics:

1. Loudness
2. Pitch or shrillness
3. Quality or timbre

1. Loudness
 Loudness is the property by which a loud sound can be distinguished from a faint one, both having
the same pitch and quality.

 The loudness or softness of a sound is determined by the amplitude (or intensity) of the wave.
 However, loudness is not the same as intensity. Intensity is a measurable quantity, while loudness
is a sensation.
 The intensity at any point of the medium is measured as the amount of sound energy passing per
second normally through the unit area at that point. Its unit is microwatt per metre squared.
 The intensity of a sound wave in air is proportional to (i) the square of the amplitude of vibration, (ii)
the square of the frequency of vibration and (iii) the density of air.

Factors affecting the loudness of sound

The loudness of sound heard at a place
1. Is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
2. Varies inversely as the square of the distance.
3. Depends on the surface area of the vibrating body.
4. Depends on the density of the medium.
5. Depends on the presence of resonant bodies.
Units of loudness and sound level
The unit of loudness is phon. The loudness of a sound in phon is the loudness in decibel (dB) of an
equally loud pure sound of frequency 1 kHz. The sound level is usually expressed in decibel (dB).
The difference in loudness is
L  L1  L0
 K  log10 I1  L1  K log10 I0 
I1
 K log10
I0
I1
L  10log10 decibel
I0
 Now, if L = 1 dB, then we have
I1
 1.26
I0
 Thus, we can define 1 dB as the change in level of loudness when the intensity of sound is changed
by 26%.

Noise Pollution
The disturbance produced in the environment due to undesirable loud and harsh sound of level above 120
dB from various sources such as loudspeakers, sirens, moving vehicles etc. is called noise pollution.
A constant hearing of sound of level above 120 dB can cause headache and permanent damage to the
ear/hearing in a listener. The sound of level 10 dB to 30 dB has a soothing sensation, while the level 0 dB
of loudness of sound represents the limit of hearing.

2. Pitch or Shrillness
 How our brain interprets the frequency of an emitted sound is called its pitch. The faster the
vibration of the source of sound, higher is the frequency and higher is the pitch.
  Pitch is that characteristic of sound by which an acute (or shrill) note can be distinguished from a
grave or flat note.
 Pitch refers only to musical sounds, and each musical note has a definite pitch. If the pitch is
higher, then the sound is said to be shrill, and if the pitch is lower, then the sound is flat.
 The pitch of a note depends on the wavelength or frequency of wave.

Examples of Change in Pitch

1. Instruments such as a piano, violin and guitar have several strings of different thickness under
different tensions which vibrate to produce notes.
2. In a flute, a lower note is obtained by closing some more holes so that the length of the vibrating air
column increases.
3. As the water level in a pitcher kept under a water tap rises, the height of the air column decreases,
so the frequency of sound produced increases, i.e. the sound becomes shriller. Thus, by hearing
the sound from a distance, one can get the idea of water level in the pitcher.
4. The voice of women is usually of higher pitch than that of men.

3. Quality or Timbre
 Quality or timbre of a sound is a characteristic which distinguishes two sounds of the same
loudness and same pitch but emitted by two different instruments.
 The sound from an instrument does not contain a note of single frequency, but it contains a
combination of vibrations of different frequencies and different amplitudes. The vibration of lowest
frequency and maximum amplitude is called the principal (or fundamental) vibration and
vibrations of frequency integer multiples of it are called subsidiary (or secondary) vibrations.
 The resultant vibration obtained by the superposition of all these vibrations gives the wave form of
sound which we hear.
 A note played on a piano has a large number of subsidiary notes, while the same note when
played on a flute contains only a few subsidiary notes. Thus, we can easily distinguish between the
sounds of a piano and a flute by their different wave forms, though they may be of exactly the
same loudness and same pitch.

Music and Noise

 All sounds, which produce the sensation of hearing, can be roughly divided into two categories music
and noise.
 Music: It is a pleasant, continuous and uniform sound produced by regular and periodic vibrations. For
example, the sounds produced by a violin, piano, flute, tuning fork etc. are musical sounds. Their
sound level is usually between 10 dB and 30 dB.
 Noise: Sounds other than musical sounds are called noise. It is a sound produced by an irregular
succession of disturbances, and it is a discontinuous sound. For example, the sound produced when a
stone is thrown on a tin sheet is noise. Usually all sounds above 120 dB are termed noise.
 Current Electricity
Current

 Current is the rate of flow of charge across a cross-section normal to the direction of flow of current.
Charge Q 
Current  I  
Time  t 
 It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is ampere (A).
 Current is one ampere if the rate of flow of charge is one coulomb per second.
 If n electrons pass through the cross-section of a conductor in time t, then the total charge passed
through the conductor is given as Q = ne, and current in the conductor is given as
Q ne
I 
t t

Concept of Potential and Potential Difference

 The conductor with higher concentration of electrons is said to be at a lower potential, and the
conductor with lower concentration of electrons is said to be at a higher potential.
 The electrons flow from a body at a lower potential to a body at a higher potential.
 Potential is the electrical state of a conductor which determines the direction of flow of charge when
the two conductors are either kept in contact or joined by a metallic wire.
 The electric current flows from a body at a higher potential to a body at a lower potential, and this is
called conventional current. This direction is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons which is
called electronic current.

Measurement of Potential as Work Done Per Unit Charge

 The potential at a point is defined as the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to
that point.
Work done
Potential difference 
Charge
W
V
Q
 The potential difference between two points is said to be 1 volt if the work done in bringing 1 coulomb
of charge from infinity to the point is 1 joule.
 The potential difference between two points is equal to the work done in moving a unit positive charge
from one point to the other.
W
VA  VB 
Q
 It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is also volt (V).
Concept of Resistance

 There is always some obstruction in the current which flows through a conductor like a metal wire, and
this obstruction is called its electrical resistance.
 The current in the circuit flows due to the drift of electrons. The metal wire has free electrons which
move in a random manner.
 When the ends of a wire are connected to a cell, the electrons start moving from the negative terminal
to the positive terminal. In this process, they collide with the positive ions, and due to this, the speed of
electrons decreases. Thus, the metal offers resistance to the flow of electrons because of these
collisions.

The resistance of a conductor depends on four factors:

1. Length of the conductor:
Resistance  R   length  l 
2. Thickness of the conductor:
1
Resistance  R  
Area of cross-section  A 
3. Nature of the conductor: The resistance depends on the material of the wire as there is different
concentration and different arrangement of atoms in different materials.
4. Temperature of the wire: A higher temperature of the wire causes the ions in it to vibrate more
rapidly. As a result, the number of collisions increases, and hence, the resistance increases.
Ohm’s Law

 Ohm’s law: The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
V across its ends provided the temperature and physical conditions of the conductor remain the same.
I V
V  IR
 R is constant for a given metallic wire at a given temperature, and this constant is named as
resistance.
 Its SI unit is ohm and is denoted as Ω.
 If we plot the I–V graph for a conductor, then it shows a linear nature.

 The slope of the graph is the reciprocal of the resistance of the conductor.
I 1
Slope  
V Resistance of conductor
 Conductance: It is defined as the reciprocal of resistance.
1
Conductance 
Resistance
 Hence, the slope of the I–V graph gives the conductance of the conductor.
Ohmic and Non-ohmic Resistors

 Ohmic resistors: The conductors which obey Ohm's law are called ohmic resistors or linear
resistances.
For such resistors, a graph plotted for the potential difference V against the current I is a straight line,
and the value of resistance R is the same irrespective of the value of V or I.

 Non-ohmic resistors: The conductors which do not obey Ohm's law are called non-ohmic resistors or
non-linear resistances.
For these devices, the graph plotted for the potential difference V against the current I is not a straight
line, but it is a curve.

 Superconductors: A superconductor is a substance of zero resistance (or infinite conductance) at a

very low temperature.
The superconductors can be very useful provided it is possible to obtain them at room temperature.
The size of computers could then be reduced to a few centimetres and power lines could then be
made as thin as a single cable.

Specific Resistance or Resistivity

 The resistance of a wire depends on the following factors:

i. Directly proportional to the length (l) of the wire
ii. Inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the wire
iii. Nature of the material of the wire
l
R
A
l
R =ρ 2
πr
 Here, ρ is the constant of proportionality and is called the electrical resistivity or specific resistance of
the material of the wire.
 The resistivity will be given as
RA
ρ=
l
 Resistivity is the resistance of a wire of that material of unit length and unit area of cross-section.
 Its SI unit is ohm-metre (Ω m).

 Conductivity: The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity. It is represented by .

1 l
= =
ρ RA
 Its SI unit is ohm−1 metre−1 or siemen metre−1.

Choice of Material of Wire

The choice of material of a wire depends on the purpose for which the wire is to be used.
1. The wires which are used for electrical connections and power transmission should possess negligible
resistance.
2. The resistance wires (or standard resistors) are made of materials such as nichrome, manganin,
constantan etc., for which the resistivity is quite large and the effect of change in temperature on their
resistance is negligible.
3. A fuse wire is made from an alloy of lead and tin because its resistivity is high and melting point is low.
4. A wire made of tungsten is used for the filament of an electric bulb because it has a high
melting point and high resistivity.
5. A nichrome wire is used as the heating element in appliances such as a heater, toaster and oven,
because the resistivity of nichrome is very high and increase in its value with increase in temperature
is also high.

Electromotive Force, Terminal Voltage and Internal Resistance of a

Cell

 When no current is drawn from a cell, i.e. when the cell is in open circuit, the potential difference
between the terminals of the cell is called its electromotive force (emf).
 The emf of a cell is denoted by the symbol  (epsilon). Its unit is volt (V).

Factors Affecting the EMF of a Cell

 The emf of a cell is the characteristic of the cell. It is different for different kinds of cells.
 The emf of a cell depends on
o Material of the electrodes
o Electrolyte used in the cell
 It is independent of
o Shape of electrodes
o Distance between the electrodes
o Amount of electrolyte
 The emf of a cell is also defined as the energy spent (or work done) per unit charge in taking a positive
charge around the complete circuit of the cell.
 W

q0

Terminal Voltage of a Cell

 When current is drawn from a cell, i.e. when the cell is in a closed circuit, the potential difference
between the electrodes of the cell is called its terminal voltage.
 The terminal voltage of a cell is denoted by the letter V. It is also expressed in volt (V).
 The terminal voltage of a cell is defined as the work done per unit charge in carrying a positive charge
around the circuit connected across the terminals of the cell.
W'
V
q0
 The terminal voltage V of a cell is less than its emf  by the amount of energy spent in the flow of unit
positive charge (taking q0 = 1 C) through the electrolyte inside the cell.
Vv
 When a larger current is drawn from the cell, a greater number of charge carriers flows through the
electrolyte, and hence, more work is done. This results in more voltage drop v and hence less terminal
voltage V.

Internal Resistance of a Cell

 When current is drawn from a cell, it flows from the anode to the cathode in the external circuit and
from the cathode to the anode inside the cell through the electrolyte so as to maintain a continuous
flow.
 The resistance offered by the electrolyte inside the cell to the flow of current is called the internal
resistance of the cell. It is denoted by r. Its unit is ohm .
 When current I is drawn from the cell of which the internal resistance is r, the voltage drop is
v  Ir

Relationship between the emf, terminal voltage and internal resistance

v V V   
r      1 R
I I V V 
R
Factors affecting the internal resistance of a cell: The internal resistance of a cell depends on the
following four factors:
1. Surface area of the electrodes
2. Distance between the electrodes
3. Nature and concentration of the electrolyte
4. Temperature of the electrolyte
Resistors in Series

 The current in series remains the same across all the resistors.
 The resultant resistance of the circuit is given as
Rs  R1  R2  R3
 Here, Rs is the resultant resistance. The resultant resistance is greater than all the resistances.

Resistors in Parallel

 The potential difference in parallel remains the same across all the resistors.
 The resultant resistance of the circuit is given as
1 1 1 1
  
Rp R1 R2 R3
 Here, Rp is the resultant resistance. The resultant resistance is lesser than all the resistances.
 Electrical Power and Household Circuits

Measurement of Electrical Energy

 Let a current I flow through a conductor of resistance R for time t when a source of potential difference
V is applied across its ends.

 One joule of work is done when one coulomb of electric charge flows from higher potential to lower
potential through a potential difference of one volt.
 Hence, when Q coulomb of electric charge flows through a potential difference of V volt, the work done
W is given by
W  QV
But we know that Q = It. Thus, we have
W  VIt joule
 This work W measures the electrical energy supplied by the external source in providing I ampere
current for t seconds in the conductor under a potential difference of V volt.

Other expressions for electrical energy by using Ohm's law

W  VIt  I2Rt
2
V V2t
W    Rt 
R R
 The SI unit of electrical energy is joule (J).

Electrical Power

 Power is the rate of doing work, i.e. it is the work done (or energy consumed) in 1 s. In an electrical
circuit, we define power as the rate at which electrical energy is supplied by the source.
Energy supplied
Power 
Time
W

t
VIt
Power   VI
t
 V2
Power 
R
OR
IR 
2

Power   I2R
R

Units of Electrical Power

 The SI unit of power is watt (W) or J s−1.
 One watt is the power consumed when a current of 1 ampere flows through a circuit with a potential
difference of 1 volt.
 The bigger units of power are
 1 kilowatt (1 kW) = 1000 W
 1 megawatt (1 MW) = 106 W
 1 horsepower (1 hp) = 746 W

Commercial Unit of Energy

 In practice, the unit used for energy is watt hour and its bigger form is kilowatt hour.
 One watt hour is the electrical energy consumed when an appliance of one watt power is used for one
hour.
 One kilowatt hour is the energy consumed by an electrical appliance of power 1 kW when it is used for
one hour. It is termed unit.
1 kW h  3.6  106 J
 The electricity bill which one pays is the bill for consuming energy which is needed to keep the
electrons flowing in the circuit.

Power Rating of Common Electrical Appliances

 An electrical appliance such as an electric bulb, geyser or heater is rated with power and
voltage.
 The following two quantities can be calculated from this rating:
i. Resistance of filament of the bulb when it is glowing
ii. Safe limit of current which can flow through the bulb while in use
 Resistance of the filament of the bulb as
V2
R
P
 Voltage rating on appliance 
2


Power rating on the appliance
 The safe limit of the current through the filament of the bulb is
P
I
V
Power rating on appliance

Voltage rating on the appliance

Household Consumption of Electrical Energy

 The electrical energy consumed by an appliance in a certain time can be calculated in kWh by the
following relation:
Energy in kWh   Power in kW   time in h 
Power in W   time in h 

1000
Voltage in volt   Current in ampere   time in hours 

1000
 The cost of electricity will then be the product of energy consumed in kWh with the rate
per kWh.

Heating Effect of Electric Current

 When an electric current is passed through a metallic wire, the wire gets heated up. This shows that
electrical energy is converted into heat energy. The amount of heat produced in the wire depends on
three factors:
i. Amount of current passing through the wire: H  I2
ii. Resistance of wire: H  R
iii. Time for which the current is passed in the wire: H  t
Thus, we have the heat H as
H  I2Rt
The above equation is also known as Joule's law of heating.
Transmission of Power from the Generating Station to Consumer

 At the generating station, the electric power is generated at 11,000 volt because voltages higher than
this cause insulation difficulties, while voltages lower than this involve high current.
 The voltage is an alternating voltage of frequency 50 Hz.
 For a given electric power, the current becomes low at a high voltage, and therefore, the loss of
energy due to heating (H = I2Rt) in the line wires becomes less.
 Thus, the alternating voltage generated is first stepped up from 11 kV to 132 kV at the generating
station (or called the grid sub-station) using a step up transformer. It is then transmitted to the main
sub-station.
 The transmission of electricity from the generating station is shown in the figure below.

Power Distribution in a House

 The electric connections for the supply of electric power from the city sub-station to the
distribution box of a house through a meter, main fuse and main switch are shown below.

 The neutral and earth wires are connected together at the local sub-station so that they are at the
same potential.
 The live wire is also called the phase wire. The live wire carries current from the source to the
distribution board, while the neutral wire is for the return path of the current.
 Before the electric line is connected to the meter in a house, a fuse of high rating is connected in the
live wire at the pole or just before the meter. This fuse is called the company fuse or pole fuse.
 The cable is then connected to a kWh meter. The kWh meter is usually mounted on the front or
outside wall of the house.
 The main fuse is connected in the live wire, while the main switch is connected in the live and neutral
wires. The main switch is a double pole switch.
 The covering is earthed.
 The earth wire from the meter is locally earthed.

House Wiring

 In a house, the wiring is commonly done by either of the following two systems:
1. Tree system
2. Ring system

The Tree System

 In this system of wiring, different branch lines (or distribution circuits) are taken from the distribution
board to the different parts of the house. These distribution circuits look like the different branches of a
tree.
 The figure below shows the fuses F, F, F connected in the live wire at the distribution board in each
distribution circuit leading to the different rooms.

 The number of distribution circuits from the distribution board depends on the total power consumption
in different portions of the house.
 The total load of all the circuits together must not exceed the specified value for which the connection
is taken from the company, otherwise the pole or main fuse will burn.
 The different distribution circuits through their live wires are connected in parallel at the distribution
board so that if there is a short circuit in one distribution circuit, its fuse will blow off without affecting
the electric supply in the other circuits.
Disadvantages of the Tree System
 The tree system has the following disadvantages:
i. It requires plugs and sockets of different sizes for different current-carrying capacities.
ii. When the fuse in one distribution line blows, it disconnects all the appliances from the supply
connected in that distribution circuit.
iii. This type of wiring is expensive.
iv. If a new appliance requiring higher current, say 15 A, is to be installed in a distribution circuit which
is initially for 5 A rating, then it is necessary to put the new line wires from the appliance up to the
distribution box. This makes it expensive and inconvenient.

The Ring System

 The ring system of electric wiring is shown in the figure below.

 This system has a ring circuit. The wires starting from the main fuse box run around all the main rooms
of the house and then come back to the fuse box again forming a ring.
 One terminal of the appliance is connected to the live wire through a separate fuse and a separate
switch and the other terminal to the neutral wire. The earth terminal or metal covering of the appliance
is connected to the earth wire.

Advantages of the ring system: The ring system has the following advantages:
i. In the ring system, the current can travel to an individual appliance through two separate paths.
Thus, the connection for each appliance effectively comes through a thick wire. Therefore, the wire
required for the main ring is of a lower current-carrying capacity. This reduces the cost of wiring.
ii. In this system, plugs and sockets of the same size can be used, but each socket should have its own
fuse of rating suitable for the appliance to be connected with it.
iii. While installing a new appliance in a room, a new line up to the distribution box is not required. The
appliance can be directly connected to the ring circuit in that room. The only consideration is that the
total current drawn from the mains in the ring circuit should not exceed the main fuse rating.
iv. Each appliance has a separate fuse. Therefore, if due to some fault, the fuse of one appliance burns,
it does not affect the other appliances.
Advantages of Connecting the Appliances in Parallel
i. Each appliance is connected to 220 V supply for its normal working.
ii. Each appliance works independently without being affected whether the other appliance is switched
on or off.

Disadvantages of Connecting the Appliances in Series

i. The voltage of the source is divided in all the appliances connected in series in ratio of their
resistances, so each appliance does not operate at its rated voltage.
ii. On connecting one more appliance in the same circuit, the resistance of the circuit will increase.
Hence, it will reduce the current in the circuit, so each appliance will get less power.
iii. All appliances connected in series operate simultaneously. None of the appliance can be operated
independently.

Fuse

 An electric fuse is a safety device which is used to limit the current in an electric circuit. The use of a
fuse safeguards the circuit and the appliances connected in that circuit from being damaged.
 A fuse is a short piece of wire made of a material of high resistivity and low melting point.
 An alloy of lead and tin is used as the material of the fuse wire. A copper wire is unsuitable for use as
fuse wire because copper has low resistivity and high melting point.
 A fuse wire permits the flow of current through it only up to a definite limit which is called the current
rating of the fuse.

Working:
 When the current in the circuit exceeds the specified value, the fuse wire gets heated up and it melts.
Now, current does not flow through the live wire and the appliance (or the circuit) is saved.
 The fuse is always connected in the beginning of the circuit of the appliance in the live wire, so that the
fuse may melt first, before the current reaches the appliance.
Reason for Connecting the Fuse in the Live Wire
 The fuse is always connected in the live wire of the circuit.
 Due to voltage fluctuation (or short circuiting), the fuse F blows off, the circuit becomes incomplete and
no current flows in the appliance.
 If the fuse is put in the neutral wire and due to a faulty appliance an excessive current flows in the
circuit, then the fuse burns, and the current stops flowing in the circuit, but the appliance remains
connected to the high potential point of the supply through the live wire.
 Now, if a person touches the faulty appliance, he may get a shock as he will come in contact with the
live wire through the appliance.

Current Rating of a Fuse

 The current rating of a fuse in a circuit can be obtained from the following relation
Total power of appliances in circuit
Current rating of fuse 
Voltage of the supply

MCB
 Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are used for each individual circuit these days. They switch off the
circuit in very short time duration ( 25 ms).
 After repairing the fault in the circuit, the MCB is again switched on. Thus, the use of MCB is better
than a fuse because it avoids the inconvenience of connecting a new fuse wire and it is much safer
due to its quick response.

Switches

 A switch is an on–off device for the current in a circuit. It is connected in the live wire.
 It is classified in two groups—single pole switch and double pole switch.
 The main switch at the distribution board used to switch on or off the mains is the double pole switch.
 The switch used with an appliance to start or stop the flow of current in it is the single pole switch.
 A single pole switch disconnects only the live wire, while a double pole switch disconnects both the
live and neutral wires.
 The switch should always be connected in the live wire.

Circuits with Dual Control Switches (Staircase Wiring)

 Ordinary switches used in the live wire to switch the appliance on and off are single pole type
switches. Dual control switches are the double pole type switches which are generally used at the top
and bottom of a staircase or at the opposite ends of a long corridor.
 With such switches, the appliance can be switched on or off from two different places.
Earthing (Grounding)

 Local earthing: In a house, the local earthing is made near the kWh meter.

Safety by the local earthing: If due to some reason such as short circuiting, excessive current flows
through the line wires which will pass to earth through the earth wire if there is local earthing, otherwise
the line wires may get over heated and it may cause a fire.

 Earthing of an appliance: For earthing of an electrical appliance which we handle physically, the
earth wire of the cable is connected to the outer metallic case of the appliance.

Safety by Earthing of an Appliance

 If the metallic case of the appliance is properly earthed, then as soon as the live wire comes in contact
with the metallic case of the appliance, a heavy current flows through the case of the appliance to the
earth and the fuse connected in the circuit of the appliance (or in line) blows off, so the appliance gets
disconnected.
 Hence, for safety, it is essential that the fuse is connected in the live wire only.
Three-pin Plug and Socket

 Three-pin plug: It is a fixture provided with three metallic (usually brass) pins in an ebonite case.

 In a three pin plug, the top pin is for earthing, the pin on the left is for live and the pin on the right is for
neutral. In good quality plugs, these are marked as E, L and N, respectively.
 The earth pin is thicker and longer than the other two. The earth pin is made long so that the earth
connection is made first. The earth pin is thicker so that even by mistake it cannot be inserted into the
hole for the live or neutral connection of the socket.

 Socket: A socket is a fixture in an electric circuit in which the plug is inserted. The socket has three
holes whose inner walls are made of hollow metallic tubes usually of brass, forming the terminals at
their back, which are connected to the live, neutral and earth wires of the line.

Safety Precautions while Using Electricity

Two major dangers while using electricity are (i) a fire and (ii) an electric shock.
i. A fire is caused by over-heating of line wires (or cable) for various reasons such as break of
insulation or short circuiting. To avoid it, one must use wires (or cables) of current-carrying capacity
higher than the total current which can flow through the circuit when using all the appliances at the
same time.
ii. An electric shock may be caused either due to poor insulation of wires or when the electric
appliances are touched with wet hands. To avoid it, the insulation of wires must be of good quality
and it should be checked from time to time, particularly when they become old, so that no wire is left
naked. Apart from this, an electrical appliance such as a switch, plug, socket or electric wire should
never be operated (or touched) with wet hands, and they should always be kept in a dry condition.
 Electro-Magnetism

Oersted’s Experiment on the Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

 The following observations were made by Hans Oersted:

 The experiment suggests that a current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field around it. This is
called the magnetic effect of electric current.
Magnetic Field and Field Lines due to a Current in a Straight
Conductor

 The magnetic field lines form concentric circles around the wire with their plane perpendicular to the
straight wire and with their centres lying on the wire.
 When the direction of current in the wire is reversed, it is seen that the pattern of iron filings does not
change, but the direction of deflection of the compass needle gets reversed.
 On increasing the current in the wire, the magnetic field lines become denser and the iron filings get
arranged in circles up to a larger distance from the wire, showing that the magnetic field strength has
increased, and so, it is effective up to a larger distance.

Rule to Find the Direction of Magnetic Field

 The direction of magnetic field is given by the right-hand thumb rule.

 Imagine that you are holding a current-carrying straight conductor in your right hand such that the
thumb points towards the direction of current. Then, your fingers will encircle the conductor in the
direction of the field lines of the magnetic field.
Magnetic Field due to Current in a Loop

 When a current is passed through the coil by closing the key and the cardboard is gently tapped, the
iron filings get arranged in a definite pattern representing the magnetic field lines due to the current-
carrying loop.

 The direction of the magnetic field at a point is in the direction in which the north pole of the compass
needle rests at that point.
 From the pattern of magnetic field lines, it is observed that
i. Near wire at P and Q, the magnetic field lines are nearly circular.
ii. Within the space enclosed by the wire, the magnetic field lines are in the same direction.
iii. Near the centre of the loop, the magnetic field lines are nearly parallel and the magnetic
field is assumed to be nearly uniform in a small space near the centre.
iv. At the centre, the magnetic field lines are along the axis of the loop and normal to the plane of the
loop.
v. The magnetic field lines become denser if
a. The strength of the current in the loop is increased.
b. The number of turns in the loop is increased.

 One face of the loop acts as a north pole because the magnetic field lines emanate from it, and the
other face of the loop acts as a south pole because the magnetic field lines enter at it.
 The polarity at the faces of a loop depends on the direction of current in the loop. On reversing the
direction of current in the loop, the polarity at the faces of the loop gets reversed.
Clock rule (clockwise current - south pole and anticlockwise current - north pole)
 When the current at the face of the loop is anticlockwise, it behaves as the north pole, whereas when
the current at the face of the loop is clockwise, it behaves as the south pole.

Magnetic field due to a Cylindrical Coil (or Solenoid)

 When a conducting wire is wound in the form of a cylindrical coil whose diameter is less in comparison
to the length, the coil is called a solenoid. It looks like a helical spring.

 The direction of the magnetic field at a point can be determined by using a compass needle, and
arrows can be marked on these lines in the direction in which the north pole of the compass needle
points.

 From this experiment, it is observed that

i. The magnetic field lines inside the solenoid are nearly straight and parallel to the axis of the
solenoid.
ii. The magnetic field lines become denser on increasing the current in the solenoid.
iii. The magnetic field is increased if the number of turns in the solenoid of a given length is increased.
iv. The magnetic field is increased if a soft iron core is placed along the axis of the solenoid.
Similarities between a current-carrying solenoid and a bar magnet
 The magnetic field lines of a current-carrying solenoid are similar to the magnetic field lines of a bar
magnet.
 A current-carrying solenoid when suspended freely will set itself in the north–south direction exactly in
the same manner as a bar magnet.
 A current-carrying solenoid acquires the attractive property of a magnet. When iron filings are brought
near the solenoid, it attracts them when current flows through the solenoid.

Dissimilarities between a current-carrying solenoid and a bar magnet

 The magnetic field strength due to a solenoid can be altered by altering the current in it, while the
magnetic field strength of a bar magnet cannot be changed.
 The direction of the magnetic field due to a solenoid can be reversed by reversing the direction of the
current in it, but the direction of the magnetic field of a bar magnet cannot be changed.

Electromagnet

 An electromagnet is a temporary strong magnet made of a piece of soft iron when current flows in the
coil wound around it. It is an artificial magnet.

(a) I-shaped electromagnet (or bar magnet)

 An I-shaped electromagnet is constructed by winding a thin insulated copper wire in the form of a
solenoid around a straight soft iron bar. The ends of the wire are connected to a battery through
an ammeter, rheostat and key.

 When current is passed through the winding of a solenoid by closing the key, one end of the bar
becomes the South Pole (S) because the current at this face is clockwise, while the other end at
which the current is anticlockwise becomes the North Pole (N).
 The soft iron bar acquires magnetic properties only when an electric current flows through the
solenoid and loses magnetic properties when the current is switched off; thus, it is a temporary
magnet. Such magnets are commonly used in a relay.
 (b) U-shaped (or horseshoe) electromagnet
 To construct a horseshoe electromagnet, a thin insulated copper wire is spirally wound on the arms
of a U-shaped soft iron core, such that the winding on the two arms as seen from the ends is in the
opposite sense.

 When current is passed through the winding by closing the key, one end of the arm becomes the
South Pole (S) as the current at this face is clockwise, and the other end of the arm becomes the
North Pole (N) as the current at this face is anticlockwise.
 Thus, we get a very strong magnetic field in the gap between the two poles. The magnetic field in the
gap vanishes as the current in the circuit is switched off. It is also a temporary magnet. Such magnets
are used in a DC motor, AC generator etc.

Ways of increasing the magnetic field of an electromagnet

 The magnetic field of an electromagnet (I- or U-shaped) can be increased by the following two ways:
 By increasing the number of turns of winding in the solenoid
 By increasing the current through the solenoid

Uses of Electromagnets

Electromagnets are mainly used for the following purposes:

 To lift and transport large masses of iron scrap, girders, plates etc.
 To load furnaces with iron.
 To separate magnetic substances such as iron from debris and raw materials.
 To remove pieces of iron from wounds.
 In several electrical devices such as electric bell, telegraph, electric tram, electric motor, relay,
microphone, loud speaker etc.
 In scientific research, to study the magnetic properties of a substance in a magnetic field.
Permanent Magnet

 A permanent magnet is a naturally occurring magnet.

 A strong permanent magnet is made of steel instead of soft iron.
 These magnets are used in electric meters (e.g. galvanometer, ammeter, voltmeter) and in a magnetic
compass etc.

Electromagnet Permanent magnet

It produces a magnetic field as long as the
It produces a permanent magnetic field.
current flows through its coils.
It is made of soft iron. It is made of steel.
The magnetic field strength cannot be
The magnetic field strength can be changed.
changed.
The polarity of an electromagnet can be The polarity of an electromagnet cannot be
reversed. reversed.
It can be easily demagnetised by switching
It cannot be easily demagnetised.
off the current.

 An electromagnet has the following advantages over a permanent magnet:

 An electromagnet can produce a strong magnetic field.
 The strength of the magnetic field of an electromagnet can easily be changed by changing the
current (or the number of turns) in its solenoid.
 The polarity of the electromagnet can be changed by reversing the direction of current in its
solenoid.

Use of electromagnet in an electric bell

An electric bell is one of the most commonly used applications of an electromagnet.
 The electric bell and its main parts are shown in the figure below:
 The working of an electric bell is based on the magnetic effect of current. When the electric circuit is
closed by pressing the switch K, the current flows through the coil CC and the core of the
electromagnet gets magnetised. The electromagnet therefore attracts the armature A. Due to
movement of the armature A, the hammer H strikes the gong G and the bell rings.

Force on a Current-carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

 When no current flows in the conductor, no force acts on the conductor and the conductor does not
move. The wire is vertically below the support.
 When current is passed in the conductor, a force acts on the conductor in a direction perpendicular to
both the direction of the current and the direction of the magnetic field.
 When the direction of the current through the conductor is reversed, the direction of force is also
reversed.
 On reversing the direction of the magnetic field, the direction of force is reversed.
 When a conductor is placed such that the current in it is in the direction parallel to the direction of the
magnetic field, no force acts on the conductor and it does not move.

Magnitude of force
 The magnitude of force acting on a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field is found
experimentally to depend on the following three factors:
i. The force is directly proportional to the current I flowing in the conductor, i.e. F  I .
ii. The force is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field B, i.e. F  B .
iii. The force is directly proportional to the length l of the conductor, i.e. F  l .
F  IBl
 The unit of magnetic field is given from the above equation as N A−1 m−1.
Direction of force: The direction of force on a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field is
obtained by the Fleming's left-hand rule.
Fleming's left-hand rule: Stretch the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of your left hand mutually
perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field and the middle
finger indicates the direction of the current, then the thumb will indicate the direction of motion of the
conductor.

Simple DC Motor

 An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
 Principle: A DC motor works on the principle that when an electric current is passed through a
conductor placed normally in a magnetic field, a force acts on the conductor as a result of which the
conductor begins to move and mechanical energy (or work) is obtained. The direction of force is
obtained by Fleming's left-hand rule.

Ways of increasing the speed of rotation of a coil: The speed of rotation of a coil can be increased by
i. Increasing the strength of the current in the coil
ii. Increasing the number of turns in the coil
iii. Increasing the area of the coil
iv. Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
Electromagnetic Induction

 Whenever there is a change in the number of magnetic field lines associated with a conductor, an
electromotive force (emf) is developed between the ends of the conductor which lasts as long as the
change is taking place. This phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction.

Conclusion
 A current flows in the coil only when there is a relative motion between the coil and the magnet due to
which the galvanometer connected with the coil shows deflection.
 The direction of deflection in a galvanometer is reversed if the direction of motion (or polarity of the
magnet) is reversed.
 The current in the coil is increased
i. By the rapid motion of the magnet (or coil)
ii. By using a strong magnet
iii. By increasing the area and the number of turns in the coil
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

i. Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a coil, an emf is induced. The induced
emf lasts as long as there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with the coil.
ii. The magnitude of the emf induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux
linked with the coil. When the rate of change of the magnetic flux remains uniform, a steady emf is
induced.

Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Induced EMF

The magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux, i.e.
Change in magnetic flux
Induced e.m.f. 
Time in which the magnetic flux changes

Thus, for a given coil and magnet, emf depends on the following two factors:
(i) Change in the magnetic flux
(ii) Time in which the magnetic flux changes

Direction of Induced EMF

The direction of induced emf (and hence the direction of induced current) can be obtained by any of the
following two rules:
 Fleming's right-hand rule: Stretch the thumb, middle finger and forefinger of your right
hand mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field
and the thumb indicates the direction of the motion of the conductor, then the middle finger will
indicate the direction of the induced current.

 Lenz's law: The direction of induced emf (or induced current) always tends to oppose the cause which
produces it.
AC Generator

 An AC generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy using the
principle of electromagnetic induction.
 In a generator, a coil is rotated in a magnetic field. Due to rotation, the magnetic flux linked with the
coil changes and therefore an emf is induced between the ends of the coil. Thus, a generator acts like
a source of current if an external circuit containing a load is connected between the ends of its coil.

 The figure below represents the emf induced between the ends of the coil with respect to the position
of the coil in the magnetic field when seen along the axis of rotation from the position of slip rings.

Frequency of Alternating Current

 In one complete rotation of the coil, we get one cycle of alternating emf in the external circuit.
 The alternating emf thus produced has a frequency which is equal to the frequency of rotation of the
coil.
 If the coil makes n rotations per second, then the magnitude of induced emf is given as
e  e0 sin2nt
and the current is expressed as
i  i0 sin2nt
AC and DC
A current of constant magnitude and unique direction is called DC, while a current of changing magnitude
and direction is called AC. A battery is a DC source, while an AC generator and the mains are AC
sources.

Differences between AC and DC

Direct current (DC) Alternating current (AC)

It is the current of constant magnitude.
It flows in one direction in the circuit.
It is obtained from a cell (or battery).
It is the current of magnitude varying with time.
It reverses its direction while flowing in the
circuit.
It is obtained from an AC generator or the
mains.

Advantages of AC over DC

 The use of AC is advantageous over DC because the voltage of AC can be stepped up by using a
step-up transformer at the power generating station before transmitting it over long distances. This
reduces the loss of electrical energy as heat in the transmission line wires.
 The AC is then stepped down to 220 volt by using step-down transformers at the successive sub-
stations before supplying it to the houses or factories.
 If DC is generated at the power generating station, then its voltage cannot be increased for
transmission. Due to the passage of high current in the transmission line wires, there will be a huge
loss of electrical energy as heat in the line wires.

Distinction between an AC Generator and DC Motor

AC generator
It is a device which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
It works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
In a generator, the coil is rotated in a
magnetic field to produce electric current.
It makes use of two separate coaxial slip
rings.
DC motor
It is a device which converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy.
It works on the principle of force acting on a
current-carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field.
In a DC motor, the current from the DC
source flows in the coil placed in a magnetic
field due to which the coil rotates.
It makes use of two parts of a slip ring which
acts as a commutator.
Transformer

 A transformer is a device by which the amplitude of an alternating emf can be increased or decreased.
 A transformer does not affect the frequency of the alternating voltage. The frequency remains
unchanged (= 50 Hz).
 A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction and makes use of two coils. When
there is a change of magnetic field lines due to varying current in one coil, an induced varying current
of the same frequency flows in the other coil.
 A transformer cannot be used with a direct current (DC) source.

 The ratio of number of turns Ns in the secondary coil to the number of turns Np in the primary coil (i.e.
Ns/Np) is called the turns ratio.
Number of turns in secondary coil Ns
Turns ratio  n 
Number of turns in primary coil Np
 The advantage of using a closed core is that it gives a closed path for the magnetic field lines and
therefore almost all the magnetic field lines caused by the current in the primary coil remain linked with
the secondary coil.
 When the terminals of the primary coil are connected to the source of alternating emf, a varying
current flows through the primary coil. This varying current produces a varying magnetic field in the
core of the transformer. Thus, the magnetic field lines linked with the secondary coil vary.
 The change of magnetic field lines through the secondary coil induces an emf in it. The induced emf
varies in the same manner as the applied emf in the primary coil varies and thus has the same
frequency as that of the applied emf.

For a transformer, we have

E.m.f. across the secondary coil Es Number of turns in secondary coil Ns

E.m.f. across the primary coil Ep Number of turns in primary coil Np
Es Ns
 n
Ep Np
For an ideal transformer, when there is no energy loss, the output power will be equal to the input power,
that is
EsIs  EpIp
Types of Transformers
The two types of transformers are the step-up transformer and the step-down transformer.
 Step-up transformer: The transformer used to change a low voltage alternating emf to a high voltage
alternating emf (of same frequency) is called a step-up transformer. In a step-up transformer, the
number of turns in the secondary coil is more than the number of turns in the primary coil.
 Step-down transformer: The transformer used to change a high voltage alternating emf to a low
voltage alternating emf (of same frequency) is called a step-down transformer. In a step-down
transformer, the number of turns in the secondary coil is less than the number of turns in the primary
coil.
 Calorimetry

Concept of Heat and Temperature

 When two bodies at different temperatures are kept in contact, heat flows from the body at a higher
temperature to the body at a lower temperature.
 The measurement of heat is called calorimetry.

Units of Heat
 The SI unit of heat is joule (J). The other most commonly used unit of heat is calorie (cal).
 The heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water through 1°C is known as calorie.
 The unit calorie is related to the SI unit joule as follows:
1 calorie (or 1 cal) = 4·186 J or 4·2 J

Factors affecting the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body
 The quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a body depends on three factors:
i. Mass of the body
ii. Nature of the material of the body
iii. Rise in temperature of the body

Few observations through experiments

i. The amount of heat energy required is found to be directly proportional to the mass of the
substance.
Q  m
ii. The amount of heat energy required is found to be directly proportional to the rise in temperature.
Q  T
Therefore,
Q  cmT
where c is the constant of proportionality and is called the specific heat capacity of the substance. It
is the characteristic of the substance.

Heat Capacity

 The heat capacity of a body is the amount of heat energy required to raise its temperature by 1°C or 1
K.
 It is denoted by the symbol C′.
Amount of heat energy supplied Q
C'  
Rise in temperature T
 The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per Kelvin (or J K−1). It is also written as joule per degree C (or J
°C−1).
 The other common units of heat capacity are calorie °C−1 (or cal K−1) and kilo-calorie °C−1
(or kilo-calorie K−1).
1 kilo calorie C-1  1000 calorie C-1
And 1 cal K -1  4.2 J K -1
Specific Heat Capacity
 The specific heat capacity of a substance (or a body) is defined as the heat capacity per unit mass of
that body.
Heat capacity of the body C'
c
Mass of the body m
 The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to raise
the temperature of a unit mass of that substance through 1°C (or 1 K).
Amount of heat energy supplied
c
Mass  Rise in temperature
Q

m  T
 The SI unit of specific heat capacity is joule per kilogram per Kelvin (or J kg−1 K−1) or joule per kilogram
per degree Celsius (or J kg−1 C−1).

Calorimeter

Calorimeter
 A calorimeter is a cylindrical vessel which is used to measure the amount of heat gained or lost by a
body when it is mixed with another body.

 It is made up of thin copper sheets because

i. Copper is a good conductor of heat, so the vessel soon acquires the temperature of its contents.
ii. Copper has low specific heat capacity, so the heat capacity of the calorimeter is low and the
amount of heat energy taken by the calorimeter from its contents to acquire the temperature of its
contents is negligible.

Principle of Calorimetry

 When a hot body is mixed (or is kept in contact) with a cold body, heat energy passes from the hot
body to the cold body, till both the bodies attain the same temperature. If no heat energy is exchanged
with the surroundings, i.e. if the system is fully insulated, then
Heat energy lost by the hot body  Heat energy gained by the cold body
 This is called the principle of mixtures or the principle of calorimetry.
m1c1  T1  T   m2c 2  T  T2 
Measurement of Specific Heat Capacity of a Solid

Let c J kg−1 K−1 be the specific heat capacity of the solid submerged in a calorimeter, while Cc J kg−1 K−1
and Cw J kg−1 K−1 be the specific heat capacities of the material of the calorimeter and of water,
respectively.
m  m1  c w  T  T1   m1c c  T  T1  J kg-1 K -1
c 2
m  T2  T 

Measurement of Specific Heat Capacity of a Liquid

In this case, we take a solid of known specific heat capacity c. The solid must not react chemically with
the given liquid whose specific heat capacity is to be determined. The liquid is put in the calorimeter in
place of water. If cL J kg−1 K−1 is the specific heat capacity of liquid, then
mc  T2  T   m1c c  T  T1 
cL  J kg-1 K -1
 2 1 
m  m T  T 1

Measurement of Specific Heat Capacity: Electrical Method

 Heat energy is supplied by an electric heater of known power P. The rise in temperature T in time t
for a known mass m of the given substance is noted.
 Assuming that there is no loss of heat, the energy supplied by the heater (= Pt) is equal to the energy
used (= mcT) in raising the temperature of the substance. Thus,
Pt
c J kg-1 K -1
mT
 This method is suitable for good conductors of heat such as copper, silver, aluminium and mercury
because they get heated uniformly.

Consequence of High Specific Heat Capacity of Water

 The climate near the seashore is moderate.

 Hot water bottles are used for fomentation: Water does not cool quickly due to its large specific
heat capacity, so a hot water bottle provides heat energy for fomentation for a longer period.
 Water is used as an effective coolant.
 Farmers fill their fields with water to protect the crops from frost.
 All plants and animals have a high content of water in their bodies.
Change of Phase
.
 The process of change from one state to another at a constant temperature is called the
change of phase.

Melting and fusion

 The change from solid to liquid on heating at a constant temperature is called melting.
 The constant temperature at which a solid changes to liquid is called the melting point of the solid.
 The reverse change from liquid to solid with the rejection of heat at a constant temperature is called
freezing (or fusion), and the temperature at which a liquid freezes to solid is called its freezing point.

Exchange of Heat during the Change of Phase

i. Change of phase from ice to water

 The temperature of ice remains constant (equal to 0°C) in the part AB till the whole ice melts. The heat
supplied during this time is used in melting the ice. After this, the temperature of water formed by
melting of ice begins to rise in the part BC. The constant temperature at which the ice melts is the
melting point of ice.
ii. Change of phase from solid to liquid and liquid to solid in naphthalene

Heating Curve for Naphthalene

Cooling Curve for Naphthalene

 The temperature does not change when the change of phase occurs, although heat energy is
absorbed during melting and heat energy is rejected while freezing.
 The melting point of naphthalene is 80°C. At point C, the entire solid has completely melted and the
temperature has started increasing once again as shown by the part CD of the heating curve.
 During freezing, the temperature remains constant at 80°C, although naphthalene is losing heat
energy continuously by radiating it to the surrounding. Thus, the freezing point of naphthalene is 80°C.
Part CD indicates that the temperature of solid is decreasing.
 Thus, the melting point and the freezing point are the same.

(a) Effect of pressure on the melting point

 The melting point of the substances which contract on melting (e.g. ice) decreases with an increase in
pressure.
 On the other hand, the melting point of the substances (e.g. wax, lead) which expand on melting
increases with an increase in pressure.

(b) Effect of impurities on the melting point

 The melting point of a substance decreases by the presence of impurities in it. Thus, in making a
freezing mixture, salt is added to ice. The freezing mixture is used in preparing 'kulphies'.
Vaporisation and Boiling

Heating curve for water (absorption of heat energy during vaporisation)

Change in Volume on Boiling

 All liquids expand on boiling.
 The boiling point of a liquid depends on (a) the pressure on its surface and (b) the presence of
impurities in it.

(a) Effect of pressure on the boiling point

 The boiling point of a liquid increases with an increase in pressure and decreases with a decrease in
pressure.

(b) Effect of impurities on the boiling point

 The boiling point of a liquid increases by the addition of impurities to it. If a little common salt is added
to water, the water boils at a temperature higher than 100°C. Thus, the addition of salt makes cooking
faster because water provides sufficient heat energy before it boils.

Latent Heat and Specific Latent Heat

 The heat energy exchanged in change of phase is not externally manifested by any rise or fall in
temperature, and hence, it is considered to be hidden in the substance and is called the latent heat.
Latent heat when expressed for unit mass of the substance is called the specific latent heat.
 Specific latent heat is denoted by the symbol L. Thus, specific latent heat
Heat energy exchanged for the change of phase
L
Mass
Q
L
m
Specific Latent Heat of Melting and Fusion

 The specific latent heat of melting of a substance is defined as the heat energy required to convert a
unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid without a change in temperature.
 The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the heat energy released when a unit mass of a
substance changes from liquid to solid without a change in temperature.

Unit of specific latent heat

The SI unit of specific latent heat is J kg−1.
Other common units are cal g−1 and kilo-calorie kg−1.
1 kilo-cal kg-1  1 cal g-1
1 cal g-1  4.2 J g-1
1 cal g-1  4.2  103 J kg-1

Consequences of High Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice

 Snow on mountains does not melt all at once.

 Water in lakes and ponds in cold countries does not freeze all at once.
 Drinks get cooled more quickly by adding pieces of ice at 0°C than the ice-cold water at 0°C.
 When ice in a frozen lake starts melting, its surrounding becomes very cold.
 It is generally more cold after a hail storm (when ice melts) than during or before the hail storm.

Measurement of Specific Latent Heat of Ice

 Electrical method: Heat energy is supplied for a known time t by an electric heater of known power P
to melt the ice at 0°C.
Pt
Specific latent heat of ice L 
m

 Method of mixture:
Heat energy given by water and calorimeter  Heat energy taken by ice on melting and
then by melted ice in rise of temperature
m1c c  t1  t 2   m2  m1  c w  t1  t 2   m3  m2  L  m3  m2  c w t 2
m1c c  m2  m1  c w   t1  t 2 
L   c w t2
m3  m2
 Radioactivity

Introduction

 An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons revolving around the
nucleus in different orbits of some definite radii.
 The neutrons are uncharged particles.
 The atom is electrically neutral.

Structure of Atom and Nucleus

Structure of Atom
 An atom consists of a nucleus at its centre, surrounded by electrons which are revolving in some
specific stationary shells (or orbits).
 Electrons in different shells have different energy values.
 These shells can accommodate at the most 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, 98... electrons.
 The maximum number of electrons in a shell of number n is given as 2n2.
 The size of an atom is determined by the radius of the shell of its outermost electron, and it is of the
order of 10−10 m.
 The electron has a negative charge equal to −1·6 × 10−19 C, and its mass is estimated to be 9·1 ×
10−31 kg which is approximately 1/1840 times the mass of a proton.

Structure of Nucleus
 The nucleus at the centre of an atom, whose size is of the order of 10−15 m to 10−14 m, consists of
protons and neutrons.
 The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number of the element, and it is denoted by
the symbol Z.
 The protons and neutrons which are the main constituents of the nucleus are called nucleons. The
total number of nucleons in the nucleus is called the mass number of the element, and it is denoted by
the symbol A.

Atomic Model
An atom is electrically neutral, and therefore, the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is equal to
the number of electrons revolving around the nucleus of the atom.

Atomic Number
It is the number of protons or electrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Mass Number
It is the total number of nucleons, i.e. number of protons and neutrons, in the nucleus of an atom.
The atom is specified by the symbol ZA X , where X is the chemical symbol for the element.
Isotopes
 The atoms belonging to the same element with the same atomic number Z but differing in their mass
number A are called isotopes.
 The atoms of isotopes have the same number of protons (Z) but different number of neutrons (A − Z)
in their nuclei. Because they have the same number of electrons outside the nucleus, their chemical
properties are also the same.
 Two kinds of isotopes of some elements:
i. Stable isotopes which have the number of neutrons nearly equal to the number of protons in their
nuclei.
ii. Unstable or radioactive isotopes which undergo radioactive decay and are of great medical and
industrial use. They have more neutrons than protons in their nuclei.

Example: Hydrogen has three isotopesprotium 11H (or ordinary hydrogen), deuterium 12 H (or heavy
hydrogen) and tritium 13 H . Each isotope in its nucleus has one proton (Z = 1), but protium has no neutron,
deuterium has one neutron and tritium has two neutrons. The number of electrons outside the nucleus in
each isotope is one.

Isobars
 The atoms of different elements which have the same mass number A but differ in their
atomic number Z are called isobars.
 The atoms of isobars have the same number of nucleons (A) in their nuclei, but different number of
protons (Z) and different number of neutrons (A − Z). The number of electrons outside the nucleus is
always equal to the number of protons, so isobars have different number of electrons.
23 23
Example: 11 Na and 12 Mg are isobars. Na contains 11 protons and 12 neutrons inside its nucleus and 11
electrons outside the nucleus, while Mg contains 12 protons and 11 neutrons inside its nucleus and 12
electrons outside the nucleus. The total number of protons and neutrons is 23 in each.

Isotones
 The atoms with different number of protons but the same number of neutrons, i.e. different Z and A,
but same A − Z, are called isotones. They have different number of electrons.
23 23
Example: 11 Na and 12 Mg are isotones. Each nucleus has 12 neutrons. Na nucleus has 11 protons, while
Mg nucleus has 12 protons.
Radioactivity

 The substances which disintegrate (or decay) by the spontaneous emission of radiations are called
radioactive substances.
Examples: Uranium, radium, polonium, thorium, actinium etc.
 The isotopes of nearly all the elements of atomic number higher than 82 (i.e. lead) are radioactive.
These are called natural radioactive substances.
 The phenomenon of radioactivity cannot be due to the orbital electrons which could easily be affected
by such changes. It should therefore be the property of the nucleus.
 Thus, radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. It is the process of spontaneous emission of α, β and γ
radiations from the nuclei of atoms during their decay.

Radioactivity as Emission of Alpha, Beta and Gamma Radiations

 Rutherford experimentally found that on subjecting the radiations given out by a radioactive substance
to a magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to their path, they separate out into three distinct
constituents.

 Those which turn to the left (as given by Fleming’s left-hand rule) must be positively charged and are
called alpha (α) particles.
 Those which turn to the right must be negatively charged and are called beta (β) particles. The β
particles are deviated more than the α particles.
 Those which pass undeviated must be uncharged (or neutral) and are called gamma (γ) radiations.
γ-radiations are electromagnetic waves similar to light and are therefore not affected by the magnetic
field.
 Similarly, if the radiations given out by a radioactive substance are subjected to an electric field in a
direction perpendicular to their path, they again separate out into three constituents.
Properties of Alpha Particles

 An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons. It is the same as a doubly ionised helium
atom. It is represented as 24 He or He++.

 The mass of an alpha particle is roughly four times the mass of a proton, and its charge is twice the
charge of a proton.
 Their speed is of the order of 107 m s−1.
 An alpha particle strongly ionises the gas through which it passes. The ionising power of α-particles is
roughly 100 times that of β-particles and roughly 104 times that of γ-radiation.
 An α-particle rapidly loses its energy as it moves through a medium and therefore its
penetrating power is quite small. Its penetrating power is roughly 1/100 times that of a β-particle and
10−4 times that of γ-radiation.
 They are positively charged, so they are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
 They affect a photographic plate.
 They cause fluorescence on striking a fluorescent material.
 They destroy the living cells and cause biological damage.

Properties of Beta Particles

 Beta particles are fast-moving electrons emitted from the nucleus of an atom and represented as 0
1 
1
or 0 e.
 Although β-particles and cathode rays are both fast-moving electrons, they differ in their origin.
β-particles are given out from the nucleus, while the cathode rays are given out from the orbital
electrons.
 The speed of beta particles is of the order of 108 m s−1 (but less than 3 × 108 m s−1).
 Beta particles ionise the gas through which they pass. Their ionising power is roughly 1/100 times that
of α-particles but nearly 100 times that of γ-radiation.
 Their penetrating power is more than that of α-particles.
 Beta particles are negatively charged, so they get deflected by electric and magnetic fields. The
deflection of a β-particle is more than that of an α-particle because a β-particle is lighter than an
α-particle.
 They affect a photographic plate.
 They cause fluorescence on striking a fluorescent material.
 They produce X-rays when they are stopped by metals of high atomic number and high melting point
such as tungsten.
Properties of Gamma Particles

 They are electromagnetic waves such as X-rays and light, but they differ from X-rays and light in
wavelength.
 The speed of γ-radiations is the same as the speed of light.
 The ionising power of γ-radiations is low. It is 10−4 times that of α-particles and 10−2 times that of β-
particles.
 Their penetrating power is high. It is about 104 times that of α-particles and 102 times that of
β-particles.
 Like X-rays and light, gamma radiations are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields because they
are not charged particles.
 They affect a photographic plate.
 They cause fluorescence when they strike a fluorescent material.
 Like X-rays, γ-radiations are also diffracted by crystals.
 Gamma radiations are useful in the treatment of cancer.

Changes within the Nucleus in Emission of Alpha, Beta and Gamma

Particles

Alpha Emission
 If an unstable nucleus contains more neutrons than the number of protons, then it may emit two
protons and two neutrons tightly bound together in a single particle, known as an alpha particle. A
stream of α-particles is called α-rays.
A 4
A
Z X  Z 2Y  4
2 He
Parent nucleus Daughter nucleus particle

Beta Emission
 In emitting a β-particle, the number of nucleons in the nucleus remains the same, but the number of
neutrons is decreased by one and the number of protons is increased by one.
 In other words, by the emission of a β-particle, the mass number A does not change, but the atomic
number Z is increased by one.
A 4
A
Z X  Z 2Y  4
2 He
Parent nucleus Daughter nucleus particle

Gamma Emission
 The γ-rays take no mass and no electric charge from the nucleus, i.e. no neutrons or protons are lost,
and hence, the nucleus does not decay into a different nucleus, i.e. there is no change in the mass
number A and atomic number Z of the nucleus in gamma emission.
A
Z X*  A
Z X  
Parent nucleus Daughter nucleus radiation

 Here, the star (*) indicates the excited state of the nucleus.
Uses of Radioactivity  Radio Isotopes

Medical Use
 Diseases such as leukaemia and cancer are cured by radiation therapy. Radiations from cobalt-60
(~Co) are used to treat cancer by killing the cells in the malignant tumour of the patient.
 The salts of weak radioactive isotopes such as radio-sodium chloride, radio-iron and radio-iodine are
used for diagnosis. Such radio isotopes are called tracers.
 γ-rays emitted by radio isotopes are used to sterilise bandages, dressings, syringes and other
equipment to make them free of germs. This method is quicker, more reliable and cheaper than
sterilisation by heat.

Scientific Use
 Alpha particles emitted from radio isotopes are used as projectiles for nuclear reactions. The
scattering of alpha particles from the nucleus helps in estimating the size of the nucleus and in
understanding the nature of nuclear forces.
 The radioactive tracers are used in agricultural science to study the growth of plants with respect to
the chemical manure used.
 The age of rocks and hence buried plants is estimated by the study of the rate of decay of 146 C in the
remains of dead plants. The process is called carbon dating.

Industrial Use
 Radio isotopes are used as fuel for atomic energy reactors.
 Radio isotopes are used by engineers in factories to avoid the accumulation of charge on moving parts
due to friction.
 The ionising effect of radiations from radio isotopes is used in making certain luminescent signs.
 The thickness of paper, plastic and metal sheets is controlled during manufacture when the
penetrating power of β-radiations emitted from radio isotopes is known.

Harmful Effects and Safety Precautions of Radiation

Harmful Effects of Radiation

(a) Radioactive fallout from nuclear plants and other sources
(b) Disposal of nuclear waste

Biological Effects of Nuclear Radiations are of Three Types

 Short-term recoverable effects such as diarrhoea, sore throat, loss of hair and nausea
 Long-term irrecoverable effects such as leukaemia and cancer
 Genetic effects

Safety Rules for Handling Radioactive Materials

 Personnel should put on special lead-lined aprons and lead gloves.
 They should handle radioactive materials with long lead tongs.
 The safety limit for each type of radiation is known; therefore, care must be taken so that no one is
exposed beyond the safety limit in any case.
 Radioactive substances must be kept in thick lead containers with a narrow opening, so as to stop
radiations coming out from other directions.
Safety Measures in Establishment of Nuclear Power Plants
 The nuclear reactor of the power plant must be shielded with lead and steel walls so as to stop
radiations from escaping out to the environment during its normal operation.
 The nuclear reactor must be housed in an airtight building of strong concrete structure which can
withstand earthquakes, fires and explosion.
 There must be a back-up of the cooling system for the reactor core, so that in the case of failure
of one system, the other cooling system can take its place, and the core is saved from over-heating
and melting.

Safe Disposal of Nuclear Waste

 The radioactive material after its use is known as nuclear waste. The nuclear waste obtained from
laboratories, hospitals, scientific establishments or power plants must be kept in thick casks and then
they must be buried in specially constructed deep underground stores. These stores must be made far
from populated areas. The casks can also be buried in useless mines, and these mines must be
sealed after storing the casks.

Nuclear Energy

 The total sum of masses of product nuclei is always less than the total sum of the masses of
reactant nuclei in a nuclear change due to radioactive phenomena. This implies that there is a loss
in mass.
 In 1905, Einstein suggested that mass and energy are interchangeable. The energy E released
due to the loss in the mass m is E  mc2, where c is the speed of light.
 1 kg mass is equivalent to 9  1016 J or 2.5  1010 kWh of energy. 1 a.m.u. of mass is equivalent to
931 MeV of energy.

Nuclear Fission

 Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy nucleus is splits into two light nuclei nearly of the same
size by bombarding it with slow neutrons. In each fission reaction, a tremendous amount of energy of
approximately 190 MeV is released.
 It was first observed by German Scientist Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1983 in nuclear fission
heavy nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei with liberation of energy.
 When uranium with Z  92 is bombarded with neutron, it splits into two fragments namely barium (Z 
56) and krypton (Z  36) and a large amount of energy is released which appears due to decrease in
the mass.
235
92 U  10 n   236
92 
U  144
56 Ba  36 Kr  3 0 n  Energy
89 1
 236
Nuclear Energy Obtained in One Fission Reaction of 92 U nucleus
235
U 235
U  10 n  144
56 Ba  36 Kr  3 0 n  Energy
89 1
Let us consider the fission reaction of 92 nucleus: 92
We consider the mass of neutron = 1.01 a.m.u., mass of uranium235 nucleus  234.99 a.m.u., mass of
barium144 nucleus = 143·87 a.m.u., mass of krypton89 nucleus  88·90 a.m.u.
Loss in mass in fission reaction of one nucleus is
235 144 89
U Ba Kr
m  (mass of 92 nucleus + mass of 1 neutron)  (mass of 56 nucleus + mass of 36 nucleus +
mass of 3 neutrons)
 [(234·99 + 1·01)  (143·87 + 88·90 + 3  1·01)] a.m.u.
 (236·00  235·80) a.m.u
 0·20 a.m.u.
But from the mass-energy equivalence E  (m)c2
∴ Energy released E  0·20  931 MeV  190 MeV
235
92 U
Thus in the fission of one nucleus, nearly 190 MeV energy is released.
The major part of this energy is obtained in form of the kinetic energy of the fragments obtained from the
fission and the remaining part is obtained in the form of the kinetic energy of the neutrons emitted, -rays,
heat and light.

Controlled and uncontrolled chain reactions

 The energy obtained from the nuclear fission continuously increases. This chain reaction leads to a
strong explosion of entire uranium in a very short interval of time along and also tremendously high
amount energy is released which can be very harmful. This is the uncontrolled chain reaction.
 The basic principle of a nuclear bomb is based on uncontrolled chain reaction.
 If the chain reaction is controlled by absorbing some of the neutrons emitted in the fission process by
means of moderators like graphite, heavy water, etc. then the energy obtained in fission can be
utilized for the constructive purposes. A nuclear reactor works on this principle.

Uses of energy released in the process of fission

 Constructive Use: In nuclear reactor where the rate of release of energy is slow and controlled which
is used to generate the electric power
 Destructive Use: In nuclear bomb where the energy released is fast and uncontrolled

Nuclear Fusion

 Nuclear fusion is the process in which two light nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus and release a
huge amount of energy. This is because the mass of the product nucleus is less than the sum of
masses of the two combining nuclei.
 According to the massenergy equivalence relation this loss in mass is released in form of energy
E  (m)c2
Example: When two deuterium nuclei ( 12 H ) fuse, nucleus of helium isotope 32 He is formed and 3·3 MeV
energy is released. This helium isotope again gets fused with one deuterium nucleus to form a helium
nucleus 42 He and 18·3 MeV of energy is released in this process.

H 
2
1
2
1 H  3
He
2  1
0n  3.3MeV
 deuterium  deuterium  helium isotope  neutron 

3
He
2  2
H
1  42 He  1
1 H  18.3MeV
 helium isotope  deuterium  helium   proton 

 Thus in all, three deuterium nuclei fuse to form a helium nucleus with a release of 21·6 MeV energy. A
part of this energy is obtained in form of the kinetic energy of neutron and proton.
 When two nuclei approach each other, due to their positive charge, the electrostatic force of
repulsion between them becomes too strong that they do not fuse. Thus, nuclear fusion is not possible
at ordinary temperature and ordinary pressure.

Distinction between the Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

A heavy nucleus splits in two nearly equal light Two light nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus at
fragments when bombarded with neutrons. very high temperature and high pressure.
Possible at very high temperature and high Possible only at a very high temperature (107 K)
pressure. and a very high pressure.

Nearly 190 MeV of energy is released in one fission
reaction.
For same mass, the amount of energy released in
fission is much lower than energy released in
fusion.
The fissionable substance being radioactive gives
out harmful radiations and thus creates problem in
disposal of its waste.
The fissionable substance is found within limit.
Fission process can be controlled. Nuclear reactor
is based on the controlled fission reaction.
Nuclear bomb is based on the uncontrolled fission
reaction.
Nearly 24·7 MeV of energy is released in one
fusion reaction.
For same mass, the release of energy in fusion
is way higher than that of fission reaction.
The fusionable substance is not radioactive, so it
does not give out any harmful radiation and
disposal of its waste is also not difficult.
The fusionable substance is found in abundance.
Fusion reaction cannot be controlled. This is why
fusion reactor could not be constructed so far.
Hydrogen bomb is based on the uncontrolled fusion
reaction.