Linear models

Linear communication model

Linear models of communication suggest that communication takes place only in one direction.

The main elements in these models are:

• The channel,

• The sender, and

• The receiver.
1. Aristotle’s Model

Aristotle’s communication model

This is the oldest communication model that dates back to 300 BC.

Aristotle’s model was designed to examine how to become a better and more persuasive communicator.

It is a foolproof way to excel in public speaking, seminars, and lectures, where the sender (public speaker, professor, etc.) passes on their
message to the receiver (the audience). So, the sender is the only active member in this model, whereas the audience is passive.

Aristotle identified three elements that improve communication:

• Ethos — defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility, authority, and power by being an expert in a field of their
choice.

• Pathos — connects the speaker with the audience through different emotions (anger, sadness, happiness, etc.)

• Logos — an important element that signifies logic. It is not enough for the speech to be interesting — it needs to follow the rules of
logic.

Aside from that, Aristotle suggested that we look at five components of a communication situation to analyze the best way to
communicate:

• Speaker

• Speech

• Occasion

• Target audience

• Effect

2. Laswell’s Model
 Laswell’s communication model

The next linear model on our list is Laswell’s Model of mass communication.

According to this model, communication is the transmission of a message with the effect as the result.

The effect is the measurable and obvious change in the receiver of the message, that is caused by the elements of communication. If any
of the elements change, the effect also changes.

Laswell’s model aims to answer the following 5 important questions regarding its elements:

1. Who created the message?

2. What did they say?

3. What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?

4. To whom did they say it?

5. What effect did it have on the receiver?

The answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model:

• Communicator

• Message

• Medium

• Audience/Receiver

• Effect
3. The Shannon-Weaver Model

The Shannon-Weaver communication model

Maybe the most popular model of communication is the Shannon-Weaver model.

Strangely enough, Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed their work during the Second World War
in the Bell Telephone Laboratories. They aimed to discover which channels are most effective for communicating.

So, first, let’s consider the components of the Shannon-Weaver model of communication. These are:
 • Sender
• Encoder
• Channel
• Decoder
• Receiver

Shannon and Weaver were the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication process. In his book Introduction
to Communication Studies, John Fiske defines noise as “anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and
reception that is not intended by the source.”

The noise appears in the form of mishearing a conversation, misspelling an email, or static on a radio broadcast.

Updated version of the Shannon-Weaver Model

Since the original version didn’t include it, the principle of feedback was added to the updated version, so the model
provided a more truthful representation of human interaction. The concept of feedback was derived from the studies of
Norbert Wiener, the so-called father of cybernetics.

Simply put, feedback is the transfer of the receiver’s reaction back to the sender.

It allows the speaker to modify their performance to the reaction of an audience.

Maybe the most important function of feedback is the fact that it helps the receiver feel involved in the communication
process.

That makes the receiver more receptive to the message because they feel their opinion is being taken into account.

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model

Berlo’s model of communication is unique in the sense that it gives a detailed account of the key elements in each step.

This model explains communication in four steps:

1. Source
2. Message
3. Channel
 4. Receiver

Let’s consider the key elements that affect how well the message is communicated, starting with the source.

The source

The source or the sender carefully puts their thoughts into words and transfers the message to the receiver.

So, how does the sender transfer the information to the receiver?

With the help of:

• Communication skills — First and foremost, the source needs good communication skills to ensure the
communication will be effective. The speaker should know when to pause, what to repeat, how to pronounce a
word, etc.
• Attitude — Secondly, the source needs the right attitude. Without it, not even a great speaker would ever emerge
as a winner. The source needs to make a lasting impression on the receiver(s).
• Knowledge — The third element on our list is knowledge. Here, knowledge does not refer to educational
qualifications. It refers to the clarity of the information which the source wants to transfer to the receiver.
• Social system — Moving on to the fourth element on the list — the social system. The source should be familiar
with the social system in which the communication process takes place. That would help the source not to offend
anyone.
• Culture — Last but not least, culture. To achieve effective communication, the source needs to be acquainted with
the culture in which the communication encounter is taking place. This is especially important for cross-cultural
communication.

The message

The speaker creates the message when they transform their thoughts into words.

Here are the key factors of the message:

 • Content — Simply put, this is the script of the conversation.
• Elements — Speech alone is not enough for the message to be fully understood. That is why other elements have
to be taken into account: gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc.
• Treatment — the way the source treats the message. They have to be aware of the importance of the message so
that they can convey it appropriately.
• Structure — The source has to properly structure the message to ensure the receiver will understand it correctly.
• Code — All the elements, verbal and nonverbal, need to be accurate if you do not want your message to get
distorted and misinterpreted.

The channel

To get from the source to the receiver, the message goes through the channel.

All our senses are the channels that help us communicate with one another.

Our sense of hearing lets us know that someone is speaking to us.

Through our sense of taste, we gather information about the spiciness of a sauce we are eating.

Our sense of sight allows us to decipher traffic signs while driving.

We decide whether we like a certain perfume or not by smelling it.

By touching the water we feel whether it is too cold for a swim.

The receiver

A receiver is a person the source is speaking to — the destination of the conveyed message.

To understand the message, the receiver should entail the same elements as the source. They should have similar
communication skills, attitudes, and knowledge, and be acquainted with the social system and culture in which they
communicate.
Interactive models

Interactive
communication model

As more dynamic models, interactive models of communication refer to two-way communication with feedback.

However, feedback is not simultaneous, but rather slow and indirect.

Interactive models are used in internet-based and mediated communication (telephone conversations, letters, etc.).
Let’s take a look at the main elements of these models:

• Sender
• Message
• Receiver
• Feedback
• Field of experience

The field of experience represents a person’s culture, past experiences, and personal history.

All of these factors influence how a sender constructs a message, as well as how the receiver takes it. Every one of us
brings a unique field of experience into communication situations.

5. The Osgood-Schramm Model

The Osgood-Schramm communication model

In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications-Routledge, Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl
say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear break with the traditional linear/one-way picture of communication.”

This model is useful for describing interpersonal, synchronous communication, but less suitable for cases with little or
no feedback.

The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which messages go in two directions.
There are four principles in this model:

1. Communication iscircular— individuals involved in the communication process are changing their roles as
encoders and decoders.
2. Communication isequalandreciprocal— both parties are equally engaged as encoders and decoders.
3. The message requiresinterpretation— the information needs to be properly interpreted to be understood.
4. There arethree stepsin the process of communication:

• Encoding
• Decoding
• Interpreting

In this model, there is no difference between a sender and a receiver. Both parties are equally encoding and decoding the
messages. The interpreter is a person trying to understand the message.

6. The Westley and Maclean Model

The Westley and Maclean communication model

The Westley and Maclean model is primarily used for explaining mass communication.

This model introduces environmental and cultural factors to the process of communication. Namely, according to this
model, the communication process does not start with the source/sender, but rather with environmental factors.

The Westley and Maclean model also takes into account the object of the orientation (background, culture, and beliefs) of
the sender and the receiver of messages.
The very process of communication starts with environmental factors which influence the speaker — the culture or society
the speaker lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or private space, etc.

Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant.

This model consists of nine crucial components:

1. Environment (X)
2. Sensory experience (X¹)
3. Source/Sender (A)
4. The object of the orientation of the source (X²)
5. Receiver (B)
6. The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³)
7. Feedback (F)
8. Gatekeepers (C)
9. Opinion leaders

Now that we have seen what the elements of communication in this model are, let’s look at all of them in greater detail.

9 Key elements of communication in the Westley and Maclean Model

As mentioned above, this model shows that the communication process does not start from the sender of the message,
but rather from the environment.

So, we will start with this element.

Environment (X)
According to the Westley and Maclean Model, the communication process starts when a stimulus from the environment
motivates a person to create and send a message.

Sensory experience (X¹)

When the sender of the message experiences something in their environment that nudges them to send the message, we
are talking about sensory experience as an element of communication.

In the example above, this sensory experience would be witnessing a road accident.

Source/Sender (A)

Only now does the sender come into play.

In the above-mentioned example, you are the sender, as well as a participant in the interpersonal communication
situation.

However, a sender can also be a newscaster sending a message to millions of viewers. In that case, we are talking
about mass communication.

The object of the orientation of the source (X²)

The next element of communication in this model is the object of the orientation of the source.

Namely, the object of the orientation of the source is the sender’s beliefs or experiences.

If we take the previously-mentioned road accident as an example, you (A) are concerned (X²) that you are going to be
late for work because of the accident (X¹), and that is why you are calling your boss.

Receiver (B)

The receiver is the person who receives the message from the sender.
In mass communication, a receiver is a person that watches TV, reads a newspaper, etc.

When speaking about interpersonal communication, a receiver is a person that listens to the message.

In the example with a road accident, mentioned above, receivers of the message are your friends and your boss.

The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³)

The object of orientation of the receiver is the receiver’s beliefs or experiences, which influence how the message is
received.

For example, a skeptical person (B) watching the news is critical (X³) towards the message.

Feedback (F)

Feedback is crucial for this model because it makes this model circular, rather than linear.

As a matter of fact, feedback influences how messages are sent.

That means that a receiver and a gatekeeper are sending messages back to the sender.

After they have received the feedback, the sender modifies the message and sends it back.

Gatekeepers (C)

This element usually occurs in mass communication, rather than in interpersonal communication.

Gatekeepers are editors of the messages senders are trying to communicate to receivers.

For example, these are newspaper editors that edit the message before it reaches the readers.

Opinion leaders
Again, this element of communication refers to mass communication situations.

Namely, opinion leaders have an immense influence as an environmental factor (X) on the sender of the message (A).

These are political leaders, celebrities, or social media influencers.

Transactional models
Transactional communication model

Transactional models are the most dynamic communication models.

Their key components are:

• Encoding
• Decoding
• Communicators
• The message
• The channel
• Noise

In these models, communication is viewed as a transaction, meaning that it is a cooperative process in

which communicators (a new term for senders and receivers, which first appears in these models) co-create the process
of communication, thereby influencing its outcome and effectiveness.

In other words, communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process.

These models also introduced the roles of social, relational, and cultural context.

Moreover, these models acknowledge that there are barriers to effective communication — noise.

7. Barnlund’s Transactional Model

 Barnlund’s
communication model

Barnlund’s Transactional Model explores interpersonal, immediate-feedback communication, and is a multi-layered

feedback system.

That means that the sender and the receiver change their places and are equally important. Feedback for the sender is
the reply for the receiver, and both communicators provide feedback.

At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the communication’s effect and effectiveness.

The main components of Barnlund’s Transactional Model are:

 • Encoding
• Decoding
• Communicators
• The message (including the cues, environment, noise), and
• The channel

This model accentuates the role of cues in impacting our messages. So, Barnlund differentiates between:

• Public cues (environmental cues),

• Private cues (person’s personal thoughts and background), and
• Behavioral cues (person’s behavior, that can be verbal and nonverbal).

All these cues, as well as the environment, and noise, are part of the message. Each communicator’s reaction depends
on their background, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs.

Examples of Barnlund’s Model of communication include:

• Face-to-face interactions,
• Chat sessions,
• Telephone conversations,
• Meetings, etc.
8. Dance’s Helical Model

Dance’s helical
communication model

According to Dance’s Helical Model, communication is seen as a circular process that gets more and more complex as
communication progresses.

That is why it is represented by a helical spiral.

With every cycle of communication, we expand our circle, and each communication encounter is different from the
previous one because communication never repeats itself.

Additionally, in the process of communication, the feedback we get from the other party involved influences our next
statement and we become more knowledgeable with every new cycle.

In their book Communication: Principles for a Lifetime, Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe, and Diana K. Ivy state:

“Interpersonal communication is irreversible. Like the spiral shown here, communication never loops back on itself. Once
it begins, it expands infinitely as the communication partners contribute their thoughts and experiences to the exchange.”