1.

Explain the difference between the following terms:

a- Organic pesticides and Inorganic pesticides, give an example.

b- Conventional pesticides and Biochemical pesticides, give an example.

c- NOAEL, LDso, ICso and Toxicological Profile of pesticide

d- Diffuse, chronic pollution and Accidental, acute pesticide pollution.

e- Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) and Kow.

1a. Organic pesticides are derived from natural sources such as plants, animals, and minerals, while
inorganic pesticides are synthesized in a laboratory using chemicals. An example of an organic pesticide
is pyrethrin, derived from chrysanthemum flowers, while an example of an inorganic pesticide is copper
sulfate.

1b. Conventional pesticides are chemically synthesized and include both inorganic and organic
pesticides, whereas biochemical pesticides are derived from naturally occurring substances and include
pheromones and insect growth regulators. An example of a conventional pesticide is glyphosate, while
an example of a biochemical pesticide is spinosad.

1c. NOAEL (No Observed Adverse Effect Level) is the highest dose of a pesticide that does not cause any
adverse effects in a test population, LD50 (Lethal Dose 50) is the dose of a pesticide that is lethal to 50%
of the test population, IC50 (Inhibitory Concentration 50) is the concentration of a pesticide that inhibits
a specific biological function by 50%, and a toxicological profile of a pesticide is a summary of its
potential health effects based on its chemical properties and toxicity data.

1d. Diffuse pollution is the slow, gradual release of pesticides into the environment that can accumulate
over time, while accidental pollution is the sudden, large-scale release of pesticides due to a spill or
other incident. Chronic pollution refers to long-term exposure to low levels of pesticides, while acute
pollution refers to short-term exposure to high levels of pesticides.

1e. Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) is the ratio of the concentration of a pesticide in an organism to the
concentration in its environment, while Kow is the octanol-water partition coefficient, a measure of a
pesticide's solubility in water and organic solvents.

2. Taking into account the physicochemical parameters of pesticides:

- Explain the difference and the relation between Kd and Koc of a pesticide.

- Explain very briefly by a Graph the effect of different soils' pH on Kd of a pesticide.

- Draw a Graph explaining the relationship between Kd and the adsorption of a pesticide in soil.

Kd is the distribution coefficient of a pesticide between soil solid and soil solution, while Koc is the
organic carbon partition coefficient of a pesticide. Koc takes into account the organic matter content of
the soil, while Kd does not. Koc is typically higher than Kd for most pesticides.

The graph of the effect of different soils' pH on Kd of a pesticide shows that Kd is highest at low and high
pH values and lowest at neutral pH.

The relationship between Kd and the adsorption of a pesticide in soil is an inverse relationship, meaning
that as Kd increases, the adsorption of the pesticide in soil decreases.

3. - Explain very briefly the effect of the temperature, the relative humidity, and the pH on the
degradation of the pesticide in the soil.

- Explain the effect of the adaptation of the soil microflora on the efficiency of pesticides

Temperature, relative humidity, and pH can all affect the degradation of pesticides in soil. Higher
temperatures and higher relative humidity can increase the rate of degradation, while extreme pH
values can decrease the rate of degradation.

The adaptation of the soil microflora can affect the efficiency of pesticides, as some microorganisms
have the ability to degrade certain pesticides, while others do not.

4. Can insects differentiate between the synthetic pesticides and natural pesticides? Give two examples
of natural pesticides.

Insects cannot differentiate between synthetic and natural pesticides. Two examples of natural
pesticides are pyrethrin and neem oil.

5. Using the terms and the keywords below, give your opinion on:

a- Natural pesticides and biopesticides (from plant extracts, or that are produced by certain
microorganisms) are more safe and healthy for human, and are more environmentally friendly than
synthetic pesticides.

b- Organic foods (from organic farming) are more safe and healthy for human and do not contain
pesticide residues than foods from conventional agriculture.

Keywords: Acute Toxicity, Chronic Toxicity, Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), risk of exposure, LDso,
Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ).

You can use as example of pesticides: Copper, Sulfur, Glyphosate.

(Underline the technical words: do not exceed the 20 lines).

5a. Natural pesticides and biopesticides are generally considered to be safer and more environmentally
friendly than synthetic pesticides. However, the acute and chronic toxicity of a pesticide, as well as the
acceptable daily intake (ADI) and risk of exposure, should be taken into account when assessing their
safety.

The Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) is a measure of the overall environmental impact of a
pesticide, taking into account factors such as toxicity, persistence, and potential for runoff. Pesticides
such as copper and sulfur have low EIQ values compared to glyphosate.

5b. Organic foods are generally considered to be safer and healthier than conventionally grown foods, as
they do not contain pesticide residues. However, the use of certain natural pesticides and biopesticides
in organic farming can still pose risks to human health and the environment. The ADI and risk of
exposure should be considered when assessing the safety of organic foods.

The use of pesticides such as copper and sulfur in organic farming can also have environmental impacts,
as they can persist in the soil and potentially contaminate groundwater. The EIQ can be used to assess
the overall environmental impact of these pesticides.

Explain the difference between the following terms:

a- Organic pesticides and Inorganic pesticides, give an example

b- Dissipation of pesticides and Degradation of pesticides

c- Henry's Law Constant and Vapor Pressure

d- Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

e- Pesticides, Biocides and Phytosamitary products (plant protection)

1a. Organic pesticides are derived from natural sources such as plants, animals, and minerals, while
inorganic pesticides are synthesized in a laboratory using chemicals. An example of an organic pesticide
is pyrethrin, derived from chrysanthemum flowers, while an example of an inorganic pesticide is copper
sulfate.

1b. Dissipation of pesticides refers to the loss of pesticides from the target site due to processes such as
degradation, leaching, and runoff, while degradation of pesticides refers specifically to the breakdown of
pesticides into other compounds due to chemical or biological reactions.
1c. Henry's Law Constant is a measure of the tendency of a pesticide to volatilize from water into the air,
while vapor pressure is a measure of the tendency of a pesticide to evaporate from a liquid or solid into
the air.

1d. Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of a pesticide in the tissues of an organism over time,
while biomagnification refers to the increase in concentration of a pesticide as it passes up the food
chain.

1e. Pesticides are substances used to control pests, including insects, weeds, and fungi. Biocides are
substances used to control a wide range of organisms, including bacteria, viruses, and algae.
Phytosanitary products are substances used specifically for the protection of plants from pests and
diseases.

2. Taking into account the physicochemical parameters of pesticides, try to explain what parameters
must be taken into consideration for the choice of a pesticide for the treatments of olives trees intended
for the production of olive oil in order to avoid pesticide residues in oil.

When choosing a pesticide for treating olive trees intended for olive oil production, the physicochemical
parameters that should be considered include the pesticide's solubility in water, its adsorption
coefficient (Kd or Koc), its persistence in the environment, and its toxicity to non-target organisms.
Pesticides with low water solubility and low adsorption coefficients are less likely to result in pesticide
residues in the oil.

3. In studying the fate and behavior of pesticides in the soil:

a- Explain the effect of the pH of the soil on the coefficient of adsorption of pesticides (Kd).

b- Why we must apply more herbicide in a clay soil than in a sandy soil?

c- The clayey soils do they have the same effect on the adsorption of pesticides? Explain with an
example.

d- Does the organic matter of the soil have effect on the adsorption of pesticides? Explain how and give
an example.

C- Can we find a pesticide (which is very slightly soluble in water) in the sediments at the

level of groundwater? Explain.

3a. The pH of the soil can affect the coefficient of adsorption of pesticides (Kd) because it can affect the
charge of the soil particles and the ionization of the pesticide. In general, pesticides tend to be more
strongly adsorbed to soils at pH values closer to their pKa values.
3b. More herbicide may be required in a clay soil compared to a sandy soil because clay soils have a
higher adsorption capacity for herbicides, meaning that more herbicide may be needed to achieve the
desired effect.

3c. Different types of clay minerals can have different effects on the adsorption of pesticides. For
example, smectite clays have a higher adsorption capacity than kaolinite clays.

3d. Organic matter in the soil can have a significant effect on the adsorption of pesticides. Organic
matter has a high adsorption capacity and can also contribute to the formation of pesticide-organic
matter complexes, which can increase the persistence of the pesticide in the soil.

3e. It is possible for a pesticide that is very slightly soluble in water to be found in sediments at the level
of groundwater. This is because the pesticide can adsorb to soil particles, which can then transport the
pesticide to the groundwater through processes such as leaching. The persistence and adsorption
capacity of the pesticide in the soil will also affect its likelihood of being found in groundwater
sediments.

1. Talk briefly about the physical and the chemical properties of mineral oils and their mode of
action on the insects. Briefly explain the difference between the summer mineral oils of and the
winter's mineral oils.

Mineral oils are petroleum-derived substances that can be used as insecticides. They work by
suffocating insects and disrupting their cellular membranes, leading to dehydration and death.
The physical properties of mineral oils, such as their viscosity and boiling point, can affect their
efficacy as insecticides. Summer oils are lighter in viscosity and have a lower boiling point than
winter oils, making them more suitable for use in warm weather conditions.

2. a- Explain the mode of action of organophosphorus insecticides. Give two examples.

b- What are the advantages of pyrethrinoïdes? Give two examples.

2a. Organophosphorus insecticides work by inhibiting the activity of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase,
which is necessary for proper nerve function in insects. Two examples of organophosphorus insecticides
are malathion and chlorpyrifos.

2b. Pyrethroids are a class of insecticides derived from pyrethrins, which are natural insecticides found
in chrysanthemum flowers. They work by disrupting the nervous system of insects. Two examples of
pyrethroids are permethrin and cypermethrin. The advantages of pyrethroids include their low
mammalian toxicity, rapid knockdown of insects, and broad-spectrum activity against a wide range of
insects.

3a. The Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) is the maximum amount of a pesticide that can be consumed daily
over a lifetime without any appreciable health risk. The Dose Without Effect (DSE) is the highest dose of
a pesticide that does not cause any adverse effects in a test population. The Safety Margin is the ratio
between the DSE and the ADI, and the Toxicological Credit is a factor used to account for uncertainties
in the toxicity data when establishing the ADI.

3. To establish the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) of a pesticide:

a- Explain the difference and the link between the following parameters or terms:

Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), Dose Without Effect (DSE, dose sans effet), Safety margin, Toxicological
Credit.

b- Explain the difference between the two approaches used to determine the Maximum Residue Limit:
Maximum Theoretical Daily Intake (A.J.M.T.; Apport Journalier Maximal Théorique) and Estimated Daily
Intake (A.J.E. ; Apport Journalier Estimé). In which cases these two approaches can be used?

c- When it is necessary to study the transfer of pesticide residues in food products of animal origin (milk,
meat, eggs)?

3a. The Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) is the maximum amount of a pesticide that can be consumed daily
over a lifetime without any appreciable health risk. The Dose Without Effect (DSE) is the highest dose of
a pesticide that does not cause any adverse effects in a test population. The Safety Margin is the ratio
between the DSE and the ADI, and the Toxicological Credit is a factor used to account for uncertainties
in the toxicity data when establishing the ADI.

3b. The Maximum Theoretical Daily Intake (AJMT) approach calculates the maximum amount of a
pesticide that can be consumed daily without exceeding the ADI, assuming that all food items contain
the maximum legal residue limit. The Estimated Daily Intake (AJE) approach takes into account actual
residue levels in food items. Both approaches can be used in cases where the actual residue levels are
not known or are difficult to measure.

3c. It is necessary to study the transfer of pesticide residues in food products of animal origin when
pesticides are used on crops that serve as animal feed or when pesticides are used directly on animals
for pest control.

4. In studying and evaluating the toxicity of a pesticide:

Enumerate the three phases of metabolic degradation of a pesticide. bof Explain the difference between
risk index and safety margin.
Define the following terms (abbreviations) and place them on the curve dose/respönse:

DEso; LOEL; NOEL

The three phases of metabolic degradation of a pesticide are activation, detoxification, and excretion.
Activation involves the conversion of a pesticide to a more toxic form by enzymes in the body.
Detoxification involves the breakdown of the pesticide into less toxic metabolites by enzymes in the
liver. Excretion involves the elimination of the pesticide and its metabolites from the body through
urine, feces, or sweat.

The risk index is a measure of the potential harm of a pesticide to human health or the environment,
taking into account factors such as toxicity, exposure, and persistence. The safety margin is the ratio
between the acceptable exposure level and the actual exposure level, and it is used to assess the level of
risk posed by a pesticide.

DEso is the dose at which a specified effect is first observed, LOEL is the lowest observed effect level,
and NOEL is the no observed effect level. These terms are typically plotted on a dose/response curve to
determine the relationship between the dose of a pesticide and its effect on a test population.

5. Answer very briefly to one of the following questions:

A- Explain what is a pesticide Endocrine Disruptor (EP and explain the importance of the dose and the
period exposure. Why they are toxic to human. Give two examples.

B- Explain what is a Pesticide Persistent Organic Pollutant (POPs). What is the most important chemical
parameter describing its fate in the food chain. Give two examples.

C- Explain what is a biopesticide. Explain the mode of action of Bacillus Thuringensis.

Give two other examples of biopesticides.

- D. What are the differences between. the two types of formulations: the Suspensions Concentrate (SC)
and the Emulsion Concentrate (E€)? Explain-the-advantages-and disadvantages of each of those two
types of formulations.

E- Why it is interesting to measure the particles size of certain pesticides and what kind of apparatus can
be used? What kind of apparatus can be used to measure the moisture in pesticide formulations? Why it
is necessary to limit or prohibit the use of Nonylphenols or Nonylphenols Ethoxylates.

5- A biopesticide is a type of pesticide that is derived from natural materials such as plants, bacteria, or
fungi, and is considered to be less harmful to the environment and human health than synthetic
pesticides. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a type of biopesticide that is commonly used to control insect
pests. Bt produces a toxin that is ingested by insects, causing their gut to rupture and leading to death.
Other examples of biopesticides include neem oil, which is derived from the neem tree and has
insecticidal properties, and spinosad, which is derived from a soil bacterium and is effective against a
wide range of insect pests.

D- Suspensions Concentrate (SC) and Emulsion Concentrate (EC) are two common types of pesticide
formulations used in agriculture. SC formulations contain solid particles suspended in a liquid carrier,
while EC formulations contain oil-based droplets suspended in water. The advantages of SC formulations
include their ease of handling and mixing, and their ability to remain stable for long periods of time. The
disadvantages of SC formulations include their tendency to settle out over time, and their potential to
clog spray equipment. The advantages of EC formulations include their ability to penetrate plant tissues
more effectively, and their compatibility with a wide range of spray equipment. The disadvantages of EC
formulations include their tendency to separate over time, and their potential to cause phytotoxicity if
not properly formulated.

E- Measuring the particle size of certain pesticides is important because it can affect the efficacy and
behavior of the pesticide, as well as its potential impact on human health and the environment. Small
particles can be more easily inhaled or absorbed through the skin, and can also be more susceptible to
drift and runoff. Laser diffraction and microscopy are two common methods used to measure particle
size in pesticides. Moisture content is an important parameter to measure in pesticide formulations
because it can affect the stability and shelf life of the product. Karl Fischer titration is a common method
used to measure the moisture content of pesticide formulations. Nonylphenols and nonylphenol
ethoxylates are commonly used in pesticides as surfactants, but they are also known to be persistent
and toxic in the environment, and can accumulate in the food chain. As a result, many countries have
restricted or banned their use in pesticide formulations.

1-Explain the difference between the following terms:

a- Conventional pesticides and Biochemical pesticides

6) Metabolites of pesticides and Impurities of pesticides

C- Acute toxicity and Chronic toxicity of pesticides

&- Diffuse, chronic pollution and Accidental, acute pesticide pollution

c- Pesticides, Biocides and Phytosanitary products (plant protection)

1a. Conventional pesticides are synthetic chemicals that are designed to kill or control pests, while
biochemical pesticides are naturally occurring substances that are used to control pests through non-
toxic mechanisms, such as interfering with their reproduction or behavior.

1b. Metabolites of pesticides are the products that result from the breakdown of the pesticide within an
organism, while impurities of pesticides are other chemicals that may be present in the pesticide
formulation as a result of the manufacturing process or other sources.
1c. Acute toxicity refers to the adverse effects of a single exposure to a high dose of a pesticide, while
chronic toxicity refers to the adverse effects of repeated exposures to lower doses of a pesticide over a
long period of time.

1d. Diffuse, chronic pollution refers to the slow and steady release of pesticides into the environment
over a long period of time, while accidental, acute pesticide pollution refers to sudden and short-term
releases of large amounts of pesticides into the environment.

2. a- Are synthetic pesticides more toxic than natural pesticides?

b- Can insects differentiate between the synthetic pesticides and natural pesticides? Give two examples
of natural pesticides.

c- How you can determine the LDso for pesticide formulation with several active substances?

2a. There is no clear answer to whether synthetic pesticides are more toxic than natural pesticides, as
toxicity depends on many factors, including the specific pesticide and the dose and route of exposure.

2b. Insects may be able to differentiate between synthetic and natural pesticides, as they may have
evolved different mechanisms for detecting and responding to different types of chemicals. Two
examples of natural pesticides are neem oil and pyrethrins, which are derived from plants.

2c. The LD50 for a pesticide formulation with several active substances can be determined through
toxicity testing on a test population, such as rats or mice.

3. a-Two pesticides A and B containing the same percentage of the same active substance, but ze

imported from different countries, can they have & different toxicity? Explain.

b- Draw a graph to explain how two pesticides C and D, havirl the same LD5o, may have: a different
Toxicological Profile "dose/response ", a different "safe dose" and a different NOAEL.

c-Explain the difference between LDso and LCso values for a pesticide.

3a. Two pesticides containing the same active substance and percentage may have different toxicity due
to differences in the purity of the active substance, the presence of impurities or contaminants, or
differences in the formulation or manufacturing process.

3b. Two pesticides with the same LD50 may have different toxicological profiles, safe doses, and NOAELs
due to differences in their mode of action, metabolism, and persistence in the environment.
3c. The LD50 value refers to the dose of a pesticide that is lethal to 50% of a test population when
administered through ingestion or injection, while the LC50 value refers to the concentration of a
pesticide in air or water that is lethal to 50% of a test population when inhaled or absorbed through the
skin.

4. a- Describe, in less than 10 lines, the cycle of a pesticide in the environment. All pesticides can they
have the same behavior?

b- Explain how we can find a pesticide (not soluble in water) in the groundwater and sediments.

4a. The cycle of a pesticide in the environment typically involves application to a target area, followed by
transport through the air, water, or soil, and eventual degradation through chemical or biological
processes. Not all pesticides behave the same way in the environment, as their persistence, mobility,
and toxicity can vary widely.

4b. Pesticides that are not soluble in water can still be detected in groundwater and sediments through
sampling and analysis using specialized techniques, such as solid-phase microextraction or gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry.

1-Talk briefly about the physical and the chemical properties of mineral oils and their mode of action on
the insects. Briefly explain the difference between the summer mineral oils of and the winter's mineral
oils.

Mineral oils are a type of insecticide that work by smothering or suffocating insects by blocking their
breathing pores, or spiracles. They also interfere with the insect's ability to feed and reproduce. Mineral
oils have low toxicity to humans and other mammals, and are considered to be relatively safe to use in
agriculture. Summer mineral oils are lighter and more refined, and are used primarily for pest control on
growing crops. Winter mineral oils are heavier and less refined, and are used primarily for dormant
season pest control on deciduous trees and other plants.

2-a. Explain the mode of action of organophosphorus insecticides. Give two examples. 8.7, 01

b. What are the advantages of pyrethrinoïdes? Give two examples.

a. Organophosphorus insecticides work by inhibiting the activity of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase,

which is necessary for proper nerve function in insects. This leads to overstimulation of the nervous
system and eventually paralysis and death. Two examples of organophosphorus insecticides are
malathion and chlorpyrifos.

b. Pyrethroids are a class of synthetic insecticides derived from natural pyrethrins, which are found in
chrysanthemum flowers. They have several advantages over other classes of insecticides, including low
toxicity to humans and other mammals, rapid knockdown of insects, and low persistence in the
environment. Two examples of pyrethroid insecticides are deltamethrin and cypermethrin.

3-To establish the Maximum Residue Limit (MRI) of a pesticide:

A. Explain the difference and the link between the following parameters or terms:

Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), Dose Without Effect (DSE, dose sans effet), Safety margin, Toxicological
Credit.

b. Explain the difference between the two approaches used to determine the Maximum Residue Limit:
Maximum Theoretical Daily Intake (A.J.M.T.; Apport Journalier Maximal Théorique) and Estimated Daily
Intake (A.J.E. ; Apport Journalier. Estimé). In which cases these two approaches can be used?

c. When it is necessary to study the transfer of pesticide residues in food products of animal origin (milk,
meat, eggs)?

a. The Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) is the amount of a pesticide that can be consumed daily over a
lifetime without adverse health effects. The Dose Without Effect (DWE) is the amount of a pesticide that
does not cause any adverse effects in a test population. The Safety Margin is the difference between the
ADI and the DWE, and represents the level of safety built into the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL). The
Toxicological Credit is the amount of the ADI that is allocated to the MRL, and represents the maximum
amount of pesticide residue that is allowed to be present in food products.

b. The Maximum Theoretical Daily Intake (MTDI) and Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) are two approaches
used to determine the MRL. The MTDI is a more conservative approach based on the maximum possible
exposure, while the EDI is a more realistic approach based on actual exposure data. These approaches
can be used in different situations, depending on the availability of exposure data.

c. It is necessary to study the transfer of pesticide residues in food products of animal origin (milk, meat,
eggs) when these products are intended for human consumption.

4- In studying and evaluating the toxicity of a pesticide:

a. Enumerate the three phases of metabolic degradation of a pesticide.

b. Explain the difference between risk index and safety margin.
c. Define the following terms (abbreviations) and place them on the curve dose/respònse:

DE50; LOEL; NOEL

a. The three phases of metabolic degradation of a pesticide are Phase I, which involves oxidation,
reduction, or hydrolysis reactions to produce more polar and reactive metabolites; Phase II, which
involves conjugation reactions to make the metabolites more water-soluble and easier to excrete; and
Phase III, which involves excretion of the metabolites from the body.
b. The Risk Index is a measure of the potential risk posed by a pesticide, calculated by dividing the
estimated exposure dose by the ADI. The Safety Margin is the difference between the exposure dose
and the ADI, and represents the level of safety built into the risk assessment.

d. DE50 (Dose Effective for 50%) is the dose of a pesticide that is effective in 50% of a test
population. LOEL (Lowest Observed Effect Level) is the lowest dose of a pesticide that causes
adverse effects in a test population. NOEL (No Observed Effect Level) is the highest dose of a
pesticide that does not cause adverse effects in a test population. These terms are typically used
in dose-response curves to determine the toxicity of a pesticide.

5-Answer very briefly to one of the following questions:

A- Explain what is a pesticide Endocrine Disruptor (EP) and explain the importance of the dose and the
period exposure. Why they are toxic to human. Give two examples.

B- Explain what is a Pesticide Persistent Organic Pollutant (POPs). What is the most important chemical
parameter describing its fate in the food chain. Give two examples.

C- Explain what is a biopesticide. Explain the mode of action of Bacillus Thuringensis.

Give two other examples of biopesticides.

D-What-are. the differences between the two types of formulations: the Suspensions Concentrate (SC)
and the Emulsion Concentrate (EC)? Explain the advantages and disadvantages of cach of these two
types of formulations.

E- Why it is interesting to measure the particles size of certain pesticides and what kind of apparatus can
be used? What kind of apparatus can be used to measure the moisture in pesticide formulations' Why it
is necessary to limit or prohibit the use of NonyIphenols or Non|phenols Ethoxylates.

A- Pesticide Endocrine Disruptors (EDs) are chemicals that can interfere with the normal functioning of
the endocrine system in humans and other organisms. The importance of the dose and period of
exposure of EDs is critical because they can have adverse effects at very low doses and even short-term
exposure can cause long-term effects. EDs can be toxic to humans because they can cause a range of
health problems, including developmental and reproductive disorders, immune system dysfunction, and
cancer. Two examples of EDs are atrazine and bisphenol A (BPA).

B- Pesticide Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are chemicals that are resistant to degradation and can
persist in the environment for a long time. The most important chemical parameter describing their fate
in the food chain is their lipophilicity, or tendency to accumulate in fatty tissue. Two examples of POPs
are DDT and PCBs.

C- A biopesticide is a type of pesticide derived from natural materials such as plants, bacteria, and fungi.
Bacillus Thuringiensis (Bt) is a biopesticide that works by producing a protein toxin that is toxic to
specific insects, but harmless to humans and other mammals. The toxin works by binding to specific
receptors in the insect's gut, leading to paralysis and death. Two other examples of biopesticides are
spinosad and neem oil.

D- Suspensions Concentrate (SC) and Emulsion Concentrate (EC) are two types of pesticide formulations.
SC formulations contain solid particles suspended in a liquid carrier, while EC formulations contain oil
droplets dispersed in a liquid carrier. The advantages of SC formulations are that they are easy to
handle, mix well with water, and can provide good coverage of plant surfaces. The disadvantages are
that they can settle out and require agitation before use, and may clog spray nozzles. The advantages of
EC formulations are that they are stable over a wide range of temperatures, do not settle out, and
provide good coverage of plant surfaces. The disadvantages are that they can be more difficult to
handle, require more vigorous mixing, and may be less effective in high humidity conditions.

E- Measuring the particle size of certain pesticides is important because it can affect their behavior in
the environment, their toxicity, and their efficacy. Small particles can be more easily transported by
wind or water, and can be more easily absorbed by organisms. Laser diffraction and dynamic light
scattering are examples of apparatus that can be used to measure particle size. The moisture content of
pesticide formulations is also important to ensure their stability and effectiveness. Karl Fischer titration
is an example of an apparatus that can be used to measure moisture content. Nonylphenols and
nonylphenol ethoxylates are limited or prohibited because they are persistent in the environment and
can have endocrine-disrupting effects. They can also accumulate in living organisms and pose a risk to
human health and the environment.

1- Expliquer la différence entre les termes suivants:*

a- Pesticides Organiques et Pesticide Inorganiques, donner un exemple.

b- Pesticides Conventionnels et Pesticides Biochimiques.

c- Dégradation des pesticides et Dissipation des pesticides.

d- Pollution diffuse, chronique et Pollution accidentelle, aigue par les pesticides.

e- NOAEL, DL50 et CL50 pour un pesticide.

a- Les pesticides organiques sont des composés chimiques contenant du carbone, tandis que les
pesticides inorganiques ne contiennent pas de carbone. Un exemple de pesticide organique est
l'atrazine, tandis qu'un exemple de pesticide inorganique est le sulfate de cuivre.

b- Les pesticides conventionnels sont des produits chimiques synthétiques qui sont toxiques pour les
organismes nuisibles, tandis que les pesticides biochimiques sont des composés naturels qui utilisent
des mécanismes biologiques pour contrôler les organismes nuisibles. Un exemple de pesticide
conventionnel est le malathion, tandis qu'un exemple de pesticide biochimique est le spinosad.
c- La dégradation des pesticides fait référence à leur transformation chimique en produits moins
toxiques, tandis que la dissipation des pesticides fait référence à leur dispersion dans l'environnement
par évaporation, dégradation, ou transport.

d- La pollution diffuse est une pollution qui provient de multiples sources et est répartie dans
l'environnement, tandis que la pollution chronique est une pollution qui se produit sur une longue
période de temps. La pollution accidentelle est une pollution qui se produit soudainement et peut avoir
des effets immédiats. Les pesticides peuvent causer ces types de pollution, par exemple, la pollution
diffuse peut résulter de l'utilisation régulière de pesticides dans l'agriculture, tandis que la pollution
accidentelle peut se produire en cas de déversement de pesticides.

e- NOAEL (Niveau sans effet observé), DL50 (Dose Létale 50) et CL50 (Concentration Létale 50) sont tous
des mesures de toxicité d'un pesticide. Le NOAEL est la dose la plus élevée d'un produit chimique qui ne
montre aucun effet nocif, tandis que la DL50 est la dose nécessaire pour tuer la moitié des animaux de
laboratoire exposés. La CL50 est la concentration nécessaire pour tuer la moitié des organismes exposés.

3-A- Expliquer brièvement le devenir et le comportement des pesticides dans les sols en

fonction de :

a- types de textures et de la qualité des particules ;

b- sa teneur en matière organique en termes de la qualité et de la quantité

(Souligner les mots techniques, ne pas dépasser les 15 lignes).

B- Expliquer l'effet de l'adaptation de la microflore du sol et de son pH sur l'efficacité des pesticides.

C. Tracer un Graph expliquant la relation entre Ka et l'adsorption d'un pesticide dans le sol

a- Les pesticides peuvent se comporter différemment dans les sols en fonction de leur texture et de la
qualité des particules. Les sols argileux et limoneux ont une plus grande capacité de rétention de l'eau et
des nutriments, ce qui peut augmenter la rétention des pesticides. Les sols sableux, en revanche, ont
une faible capacité de rétention, ce qui peut entraîner une plus grande mobilité des pesticides dans le
sol. La qualité des particules, telle que la présence de matière organique, peut également affecter la
rétention des pesticides.

b- L'adaptation de la microflore du sol et de son pH peut avoir un effet sur l'efficacité des pesticides. Les
micro-organismes du sol peuvent dégrader les pesticides, réduisant ainsi leur efficacité. Le pH du sol
peut également influencer la biodisponibilité des pesticides, car certains pesticides ont une charge
électrique et peuvent être adsorbés ou désorbés en fonction du pH du sol.
c- Le graphique de la relation entre Ka et l'adsorption d'un pesticide dans le sol montre une courbe en
forme de U inversé. À des valeurs de Ka faibles, la rétention des pesticides est faible car ils sont peu
adsorbés dans le sol. À des valeurs de Ka élevées, la rétention des pesticides est également faible car la
saturation des sites d'adsorption est atteinte. La plage de valeurs de Ka optimale pour la rétention des
pesticides dépend du type de sol et du type de pesticide.

1-What differences exist between the mode of action of carbamates insecticides and organophosphorus
insecticides? How insects develop resistance against these two types of insecticides? Is this reversible
resistance? And what it is the best way to avoid this resistance?

1- Carbamate insecticides and organophosphorus insecticides both target the nervous system of insects,
but they have different modes of action. Carbamates inhibit the activity of the enzyme cholinesterase,
which breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Organophosphates also inhibit cholinesterase,
but they do so by forming a covalent bond with the enzyme, which makes it irreversibly inactive. Insects
can develop resistance against both types of insecticides by producing more cholinesterase or a
modified form of the enzyme that is not affected by the insecticide. This resistance can be reversible in
some cases. The best way to avoid resistance is to use insecticides in rotation and to use different modes
of action.

2- Explain the mode of action of Insecticides Growth Regulator (IGR) "molting disruptive insects" and
talk about their ecological effects. Give two examples.

b- Explain the mode of action of nicotinoides and neonicotinoides. Give two examples.

a- Insect growth regulators (IGRs) disrupt the normal development of insects by interfering with the
process of molting or metamorphosis. They can prevent larvae from maturing into adults or prevent
adults from reproducing. IGRs are considered to have low toxicity to mammals and other non-target
organisms because they target specific stages of insect growth. However, they can have ecological
effects by affecting non-target insects that are beneficial to the ecosystem. Two examples of IGRs are
methoprene and fenoxycarb.

b- Nicotinoids and neonicotinoids target the nervous system of insects by binding to specific receptors
that are involved in the transmission of nerve impulses. They can cause paralysis and death in insects.
Neonicotinoids are a newer class of insecticides that are more selective and have less toxicity to
mammals than older insecticides. However, they have been implicated in the decline of bee populations
and other pollinators. Two examples of neonicotinoids are imidacloprid and clothianidin.

3-Explain what a pesticide Endocrinal Disruptor is and explain the importance of the dose and the period
exposure. Why they are toxic to human, Give two examples.

Pesticide endocrine disruptors are compounds that interfere with the normal function of the endocrine
system, which regulates growth, development, and reproduction. They can disrupt hormonal signals and
cause developmental abnormalities, reproductive problems, and other health effects. The toxicity of
endocrine disruptors depends on the dose and the timing of exposure. Even low doses of these
compounds can have long-term effects, especially during critical periods of development such as fetal
and neonatal stages. Two examples of pesticide endocrine disruptors are atrazine and glyphosate.

4-a- Are synthetic pesticides more toxic than natural pesticides?

b- Can insects differentiate between the synthetic pesticides and natural pesticides? Give two examples
of natural pesticides.

c- What differences exist between: Acute Toxicity, Subchronic Toxicity and Chronic toxicity of pesticides?

d- What differences exist between the two terms: LOEL and NOEL.

c- Explain the terms: Risk index, Toxicological Credits.

f-Explain the difference and the link between the following parameters or terms:

Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), Dose Without Effect (DSE, dose sans effet)

a- It is not necessarily true that synthetic pesticides are more toxic than natural pesticides. The toxicity
of a pesticide depends on its chemical structure, mode of action, and dosage.

b- Insects cannot differentiate between synthetic and natural pesticides, as both types of compounds
can be toxic to them. Two examples of natural pesticides are pyrethrin, which is derived from
chrysanthemum flowers, and rotenone, which is extracted from the roots of tropical plants.

c- Acute toxicity refers to the immediate effects of a single exposure to a pesticide, while subchronic
toxicity refers to the effects of repeated exposure over a period of a few weeks to months. Chronic
toxicity refers to the effects of long-term exposure over a period of years to decades.

d- LOEL (Lowest Observed Effect Level) is the lowest dose or concentration of a pesticide at which an
adverse effect is observed, while NOEL (No Observed Effect Level) is the highest dose or concentration
at which no adverse effect is observed.

e- Risk index is a measure of the potential risk associated with a pesticide, taking into account its
toxicity, exposure, and other factors. Toxicological credits are points assigned to different pesticides
based on their toxicity, which can be used to calculate the risk index.

f- Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) is the amount of a pesticide that can be consumed daily over a lifetime
without posing a significant risk to human health. Dose Without Effect (DWE) is the highest dose of a
pesticide that does not cause any adverse effect in animal studies. The ADI is calculated based on the
DWE and other factors, such as the toxicity of the pesticide and the exposure of the population.

5-a- What are the physicochemical parameters of pesticides which describe more:

the adsorption and desorption of pesticides in the soil and in the organic matter. Explain?
the bioaccumulation of pesticides in the food chains. Explain?

b- Does the clay content of the soil has an effect on the adsorption and desorption of pesticides in the
soil?

a- The physicochemical parameters of pesticides that describe more the adsorption and desorption of
pesticides in the soil and in the organic matter are the octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow), the
water solubility, and the soil organic carbon content. Pesticides with high Kow values and low water
solubility tend to adsorb strongly to organic matter in the soil, while pesticides with low Kow values and
high water solubility tend to dissolve in water and move more easily through the soil. The
bioaccumulation of pesticides in food chains is influenced by their lipophilicity, persistence, and toxicity.

b- Yes, the clay content of the soil can affect the adsorption and desorption of pesticides in the soil. Clay
particles have a high surface area and a high cation exchange capacity, which can increase the
adsorption of pesticides with a positive charge. However, the adsorption of pesticides can also be
reduced in soils with high clay content dueto the increased competition for adsorption sites.

6-Explain the effect of washing and cooking on residues of Mancozeb, Maneb, Zineb belonging to the
family of Dithtiocarbamates (EDBC) and their Ethylene Thio-Urea metabolite (ETU) in spinach.

Mancozebe

Manebe

Zinebe

refers to fresh spinach

EBDC (en p.p.m.)

Before washing

After washing

2.75

1.10

1,60

8,60

1.15

2,20

ETU (en p.p.m.)

Befose cooking (without washing)

0,006

0.013

0,010

After cooling (without unshing)

0,200

0.220***

0,420

Mancozeb, Maneb, and Zineb are dithiocarbamate fungicides that can leave residues on crops such as
spinach. Washing can remove some of the residues, but cooking can cause the breakdown of the
fungicides into their metabolite, ethylene thio-urea (ETU), which can be more toxic than the original
fungicides. The table shows that washing can reduce the levels of the fungicides by about half, but
cooking can increase the levels of ETU by up to 10 times. It is important to follow proper washing and
cooking procedures to minimize pesticide residues in food.

*refers to fresh spinach

EBDC (in ppm)

Before washing - After washing

Mancozeb: 2.75 - 1.10

Maneb: 1.60 - 8.60

Zineb: 1.15 - 2.20

ETU (in ppm)

Before cooking (without washing) - After cooking (without washing)*

Mancozeb: 0.006 - 0.200

Maneb: 0.013 - 0.220***

Zineb: 0.010 - 0.420

1. Explain the difference between the following terms:

a- Agronomic persistence, Biological persistence, and Chemical persistence of a pesticide. Draw a graph
illustrating these differences.

b- Degradation of pesticides and Dissipation of pesticides.

c- Degradation by Metabolism and degradation by Cometabolisme of pesticides.

d- Bioconcentration, Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification.

e-Passive collector and Active collector for the sampling of pesticides.

a- Agronomic persistence refers to the length of time that a pesticide remains effective in controlling the
target pest. Biological persistence refers to the length of time that a pesticide remains toxic to non-
target organisms in the environment. Chemical persistence refers to the length of time that a pesticide
remains in the environment before it is broken down into less toxic compounds. A graph illustrating
these differences would show agronomic persistence declining rapidly, followed by a decline in
biological persistence, and finally a decline in chemical persistence over a longer period of time.

b- Degradation of pesticides refers to the breakdown of the pesticide molecules into smaller, less toxic
compounds by chemical or biological processes. Dissipation of pesticides refers to the movement of
pesticides away from the site of application, either by volatilization, leaching, or runoff.

c- Degradation by metabolism refers to the breakdown of a pesticide by enzymes produced by the

organism that is exposed to the pesticide, such as plants, animals, or microorganisms. Degradation by
cometabolism refers to the breakdown of a pesticide by enzymes produced by microorganisms that are
not directly affected by the pesticide but are present in the same environment.

d- Bioconcentration refers to the accumulation of a pesticide in the tissues of an organism through

uptake from the environment. Bioaccumulation refers to the progressive accumulation of a pesticide in
the tissues of an organism over time. Biomagnification refers to the increase in concentration of a
pesticide as it moves up the food chain.

e- Passive collectors are sampling devices that rely on the movement of air or water to collect pesticide
residues, while active collectors use a pump or vacuum to actively draw in air or water and collect the
residues.

2. List the different modes of actions of insecticides and fungicides.

What differences exist betwee the mode of action of carbamates insecticides and organophosphorus
insecticides?TI&w insects develop resistance against these two types of insecticides? Is this reversible
resistance? And what it is the best way to avoid this resistance?
Insecticides can have different modes of action, such as disrupting the nervous system, interfering with
growth or reproduction, or damaging the cuticle or digestive system of insects. Fungicides can also have
different modes of action, such as inhibiting cell division or interfering with membrane function.

Carbamate insecticides and organophosphorus insecticides both target the nervous system of insects,
but they have different modes of action. Organophosphorus insecticides irreversibly inhibit the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase, which is necessary for normal nerve function, while carbamates bind reversibly to
the enzyme and prevent it from breaking down acetylcholine. Insects can develop resistance against
both types of insecticides by producing more cholinesterase or a modified form of the enzyme that is
not affected by the insecticide. This resistance can be reversible in some cases. The best way to avoid
resistance is to use insecticides in rotation and to use different modes of action.

3. In studying the fate and behavior of pesticides in the soil:

a- Explain why we must apply more herbicide in a clay soil than in a sandy soil?

b- The clayey soils do they have the same effect on the adsorption of pesticides? Explain with an
example.

c-Does the organic matter of the soil have effect on the adsorption of pesticides? Explain how and give
an example,

d- Explain very briefly the effect of the temperature, the relative humidity, and the pH on the
degradation of the pesticide in the soil.

Draw a Graph explaining the relationship between Kd and the adsorption of a pesticide in soil

a- Clay soils have a higher adsorption capacity than sandy soils, meaning that they can adsorb more of
the applied herbicide. As a result, more herbicide is needed to achieve the same level of weed control in
a clay soil than in a sandy soil.

b- The adsorption of pesticides in clayey soils can vary depending on the type of clay and its properties.
For example, smectite clays have a higher adsorption capacity than kaolinite clays.

c- Organic matter in the soil can have a significant effect on the adsorption of pesticides. Organic matter
can adsorb pesticides through its negatively charged surface and can also provide sites for the
attachment of microorganisms that can degrade pesticides. For example, pesticides with a high affinity
for organic matter, such as atrazine, can be strongly adsorbed and immobilized in soils with high organic
matter content.

d- Temperature, relative humidity, and pH can all affect the degradation of pesticides in soil. Higher
temperatures and moisture levels can increase the rate of degradation, while extreme pH values can
inhibit degradation.
A graph illustrating the relationship between Kd and the adsorption of a pesticide in soil would show
that as Kd increases, the adsorption of the pesticide also increases, indicating a stronger interaction
between the pesticide and the soil.

4. To establish the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) of a pesticide:

a- Explain the difference and the link between the following parameters or terms.

Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), Dose Without Effect (DSE, dose sans effet), Safety margin, Toxicological
Credit.

b- When it is necessary to study the transfer of pesticide residues in food products of animal origin (milk,
meat, eggs)?

a- Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) is the amount of a pesticide that can be consumed daily over a lifetime
without posing a significant risk to human health. Dose Without Effect (DWE) is the highest dose of a
pesticide that does not cause any adverse effect in animal studies. Safety margin is the ratio of the ADI
to the actual exposure level. Toxicological credit is a measure of the relative toxicity of a pesticide
compared to other pesticides.

b- It is necessary to study the transfer of pesticide residues in food products of animal origin when the
pesticide is likely to be present in the animal feed or when the animal is directly exposed to the
pesticide.

5. Explain what a pesticide Endocrinal Disruptor is and explain the importance of the dose /and the
period exposure. Why they are toxic to human. Give two examples.

Pesticide endocrine disruptors are compounds that interfere with the normal function of the
endocrine system, which regulates growth, development, and reproduction. The importance of the
dose and the period of exposure is that even low doses of endocrine disruptors can have long-term
effects, especially during critical periods of development such as fetal and neonatal stages.
Endocrine disruptors can be toxic to humans because they can interfere withhormonal signaling
pathways, leading to a variety of health problems such as reproductive disorders, developmental
abnormalities, and cancer.

Two examples of pesticide endocrine disruptors are atrazine, which is used as an herbicide, and
chlorpyrifos, which is used as an insecticide. Atrazine has been shown to disrupt the normal function
of the reproductive system in amphibians, while chlorpyrifos has been linked to developmental
delays and cognitive impairments in children.