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This book is for
Graham Charles Backman
Puero praeclaro, Scourge of Nations
and for my mother

Mary Lou Betker
with my best love
and in memory of my brother

Neil Howard Backman, U.S.N. (ret.)
(1956–2011)
who found his happiness just in time
00-Backman-FM.indd 7 8/26/15 10:28 PM

BRIEF CONTENTS
1. Water and Soil, Stone and Metal: 15. From Westphalia to Paris: Regimes
The First Civilizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Old and New . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
10,000–2100 bce 1648–1750
2. Law Givers, Emperors, and Gods: 16. The Enlightened. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
The Ancient Near East. . . . . . . . . . . . 37 1690–1789
2100–486 bce
17. The French Revolution and
3. The People of the Covenant. . . . . . . . 71 the Napoleonic Empire . . . . . . . . . . . 621
1200–350 bce 1789–1815
4. Greeks and Persians . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 18. Industrialization and Its
2000–479 bce Discontents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
1750–1850
5. Classical Greece and the
Hellenistic World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 19. The Birth of Modern Politics . . . . . 703
479–30 bce 1815–1848
6. Empire of the Sea: Rome. . . . . . . . . . 171 20. Nationalism and Identity. . . . . . . . . . 745
753 bce–212 ce 1800–1900
7. The Rise of Christianity 21. The Modern Woman . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
in a Roman World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 1860–1914
40 bce–300 ce
22. The Challenge of Secularism . . . . . . 819
8. The Early Middle Ages. . . . . . . . . . . 241 1800–1914
300–750
23. The Great Land Grab. . . . . . . . . . . . 863
9. The Expansive Realm of Islam. . . . . 277 1870–1914
30–900
24. The World at War (Part I). . . . . . . . . 899
10. Reform and Renewal 1914–1918
in the Greater West . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
25. Radical Realignments . . . . . . . . . . . 943
750–1258
1919–1939
11. Worlds Brought Down . . . . . . . . . . 353
26. The World at War (Part II) . . . . . . . . 989
1258–1453
1937–1945
12. Renaissances and Reformations . . . 399
27. Theater of the Absurd:
1350–1563
The Postwar World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
13. Worlds Old and New . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 1945–1968
1450–1700
28. Something to Believe In. . . . . . . . . 1063
14. The Wars of All against All. . . . . . . . 493 1960–1988
1540–1648
29. Global Warmings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
Since 1989
ix

CONTENTS
Maps �� xxi
Preface�� xxv
About the Author �� xxxiii
Note on Dates ��xxxiv
Prologue: Before History��xxxv
1. Water and Soil, Stone and Metal:

The interac tion of the Indo -
The First Civilizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
European groups and the
10,000–2100 bce
primarily Semitic-speaking
The Tigris, the Euphrates, and the Land
peoples of the Fer tile
between the Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Crescent opened the way for
Early Mesopotamia: Kings and Priests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
the development of the
The Idea of Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Greater West— a civilization
Mesopotamian Life: Farms and Cities, Letters
that bridged Europe and
and Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
western Asia.
Religion and Myth: The Great Above and
Great Below. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Ancient Egypt, Gift of the Nile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Life and Rule in Old Kingdom Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
The Kingdom of the Dead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2. Law Givers, Emperors, and Gods:

The Ancient Near East. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2100–486 bce
The romanticization of David
Old Babylon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
and Solomon introduced an
Middle Kingdom Egypt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
entirely new element into
The New Kingdom Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Greater Western culture, or
The Indo-European Arrival. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
at least one for which no
The Age of Iron Begins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
earlier evidence sur vives—
Persia and the Religion of Fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
namely, the popular belief in
a past paradise, a lost era of
3. The People of the Covenant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
former glor y, when humanit y
1200–350 bce
had at tained a per fec tion of
The Bible and History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
happiness.
The Land of Canaan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Dreams of a Golden Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Women and the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Prophets and Prophecy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
xi

xii Contents
The Struggle for Jewish Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Second Temple Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4. Greeks and Persians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

2000–479 bce
The First Greeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
The Search for Mythic Ancestors in
Archaic Age Greece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Colonists, Hoplites, and the Path toward Citizenship. . . . 109
A Cult of Masculinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Civilized Pursuits: Lyric Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Sparta: The Militarization of the Citizenry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Miletus: The Birthplace of Philosophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Athens: Home to Democracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The Persian Wars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5. Classical Greece and the Hellenistic World . . . 129

The Greeks, especially the
479–30 bce
Athenians, came to regard
Athens’s Golden Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
the mid- 5th centur y bce with
The Polis: Ritual and Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
a determined awe, recalling
The Excluded: Women, Children, and Slaves. . . . . . . . . . . . 136
it as a lost halc yon era that
The Invention of Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
outshone any thing that came
The Peloponnesian Disaster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
before it or since. Through
Advances in Historical Inquiry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
the centuries, much of
Medicine as Natural Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Western culture has
The Flowering of Greek Philosophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
continued the love af fair and
The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests
has ex tolled “ the glor y that
of Alexander the Great. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
was Greece” as a pinnacle of
The Hellenistic World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
human achievement.
The Maccabean Revolt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6. Empire of the Sea: Rome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

753 bce–212 ce
Ancient Italy and the Rise of Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
From Monarchy to Republic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
The Republic of Virtue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Size Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Can the Republic Be Saved?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Rome’s Golden Age: The Augustan Era. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192

Contents xiii
The Sea, the Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Roman Lives and Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Height of the Pax Romana: The “Five Good Emperors”. . 204
7. The Rise of Christianity in a Roman World. . . . 209

The stor y fascinates, thrills,
40 bce–300 ce
comfor ts, angers, and
The Vitality of Roman Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
embarrasses at ever y turn,
The Jesus Mystery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
of ten all at once. It has
A Crisis in Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
touched ever y thing from
Ministry and Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Western political ideas to
What Happened to His Disciples? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
sexual mores. Christianit y
Christianities Everywhere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
began as an obscure
Romans in Pursuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
reformist sec t within
Philosophical Foundations: Stoicism
Palestinian Judaism, at one
and Neoplatonism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
time numbering no more
than f if t y or so believers. It
8. The Early Middle Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
went on, af ter three
300–750
centuries of persecution by
The Imperial Crisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
the Roman Empire, to
Imperial Decline: Rome’s Overreach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
become the world’s most
Martyrdom and Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
dominant faith.
A Christian Emperor and a Christian Church. . . . . . . . . . . 248
The Rise of “New Rome”: The Byzantine Empire . . . . . . . . 252
Barbarian Kings and Warlords. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Divided Estates and Kingdoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
The Body as Money and Women as Property . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
The Western world had never
Christian Paganism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
seen a militar y juggernaut
Christian Monasticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
like this: in 622 Muhammad
and his small group of
9. The Expansive Realm of Islam. . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 followers had been forced
30–900
from their home in Mecca,
“Age of Ignorance”: The Arabian Background. . . . . . . . . . . . 278
yet within a hundred years
The Qur’an and History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
those followers had
From Preacher to Conqueror. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
conquered an empire that
Conversion or Compulsion?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
stretched from Spain to
The Islamic Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
India, an area t wice the size
Sunnis and Shi’a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
of that conquered by
Islam and the Classical Traditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Alexander the Great.
Women and Islam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

xiv Contents
10. Reform and Renewal in the

Greater West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
750–1258
L atin Europe’s histor y had Two Palace Coups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
been shaped by t wo opposed The Carolingian Ascent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
waves of development. The Charlemagne. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
dual economic and cultural Imperial Coronation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
engine of the Mediterranean Carolingian Collapse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
region spread its inf luence The Splintering of the Caliphate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
nor thward, bringing The Reinvention of Western Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
elements of cosmopolitan Mediterranean Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
urban life, intellec tual The Reinvention of the Church. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
innovation, and cultural The Reinvention of the Islamic World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
vibranc y into the European The Call for Crusades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
hear tlands. Political The Crusades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
leadership, however, came Turkish Power and Byzantine Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
from the nor th, as the Judaism Reformed, Renewed, and Reviled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
monarchies of England and
France and the Holy Roman 11. Worlds Brought Down. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Empire pushed their 1258–1453
boundaries southward, Late Medieval Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
drawn by Mediterranean Scholasticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
commerce and the Mysticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
gravitational pull of the The Guild System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
papal cour t. The cross- The Mendicant Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
fer tilization of nor th and Early Representative Government. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
south benef ited each and The Weakening of the Papacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
fostered Europe’s abilit y to Noble Privilege and Popular Rebellion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
reform and revitalize itself. The Hundred Years’ War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
The Plague. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
The Mongol Takeover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
In the Wake of the Mongols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
Persia under the Il-Khans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386
A New Center for Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
The Ottoman Turks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
12. Renaissances and Reformations. . . . . . . . . . . . 399

1350–1563
Rebirth or Culmination?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
The Political and Economic Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

Contents xv
The Renaissance Achievement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

The three elements most
Christian Humanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
charac teristically associated
Erasmus: Humanist Scholar and Social Critic. . . . . . . . . . . 415
with the Renaissance —
Martin Luther: The Gift of Salvation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
classicism, humanism, and
Luther’s Rebellion against the Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
modern statecraf t—
The Reformation Goes International. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
represent no essential break
Calvin: Protestantism as Theology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
with medieval life at all. They
The Godly Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
may in fac t be thought of as
The Rebirth of Satire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
the culmination of medieval
Catholic Reform and the Council of Trent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
strivings.
The Society of Jesus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
What about the Orthodox East? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
13. Worlds Old and New. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

1450–1700
European Voyages of Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
New Continents and Profits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Conquest and Epidemics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
The Copernican Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Galileo and the Truth of Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Inquisition and Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
The Revolution Broadens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
The Ethical Costs of Science. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
The Islamic Retreat from Science. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Thinking about Truth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Newton’s Mathematical Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Though of ten referred to as

14. The Wars of All against All. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 the “wars of religion,” the
1540–1648
wars that wracked the
From the Peace of Augsburg to the Edict of Nantes:
Greater West in the six teenth
French Wars of Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
and seventeenth centuries
Strife and Settlement in England. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
enmeshed religious
Dutch Ascendancy and Spanish Eclipse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
antagonisms with economic,
The Thirty Years’ War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
social, and political conf lic t.
Enemies Within: The Hunt for Witches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
A more accurate term might
The Jews of the East and West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
come from English
The Waning of the Sultanate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
philosopher Thomas Hobbes
New Centers of Intellectual and Cultural Life. . . . . . . . . . . 516
(1588 –1679): “ the war of all
Wars of Religion: The Eastern Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
against all.”
Economic Change in an Atlantic World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

xvi Contents
15. From Westphalia to Paris:

Regimes Old and New. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
1648–1750
The Peace of Westphalia: 1648. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
The Argument for Tyranny. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
The Social Contract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Absolute Politics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Police States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Self-Indulgence with a Purpose:
The Example of Versailles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Mercantilism and Absolutism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Mercantilism and Poverty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Domesticating Dynamism: Regulating Culture. . . . . . . . . 549
The Control of Private Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
England’s Separate Path: The Rise of Constitutional
Monarchy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Ottoman Absolutism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Persian Absolutism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
International Trade in a Mercantilist Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
The Slave Trade and Domestic Subjugation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
The Return of Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
16. The Enlightened. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

The philosophes may have
1690–1789
been the most inf luential
The Enlightenment Enterprise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
group of talented amateurs
Learning from Our Worst Mistakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
in European histor y, not only
A New World of Ideas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
because of their inf luence on
Voltaire and the Limits of Optimism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
their own age but because of
The Radical Thought of Rousseau. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
the way they and their
Can Women Be Enlightened?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
assumptions about human
The Jewish Enlightenment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
nature still af fec t us today.
The Jews and Europe’s Ambivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
The Unenlightened. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Assessing the Enlightenment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
17. The French Revolution and the Napoleonic

Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
1789–1815
A Revolution in Western History? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Revolutionary Road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

Contents xvii
The Enlightened Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632

The Revolution Turns Radical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
How to Judge a Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
Napoleon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
The Rush to Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
The Continental System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Downfall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
Revolutions in the Colonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
18. Industrialization and Its Discontents. . . . . . . . 663

1750–1850
Britain’s Head Start. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
Innovation and Infrastructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 The choices made at the
Trying to Catch Up to Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Congress of Vienna emerged
Trying to Catch Up to Europe: The Ottoman Empire. . . . 678 in the dramatically changed
Life in the Industrial Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 contex t of England’s rapid
Riots and Repression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 and unchallenged
Women and Children Last. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 industrialization. Investment
The Romantic Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 in industrial technologies

was necessar y – but was that
19. The Birth of Modern Politics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703 the responsibilit y of the state
1815–1848 or of individuals? Were the
Conservatism in Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 social troubles caused by
Royalism and Its Opponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708 industrialization the
The Moral Component of Conservatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 responsibilit y of the state
The Challenge of Liberalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 too? If so, why? Who,
Rebellion and Reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 ultimately, is responsible for
Responses to Liberal Capitalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723 the poor?
The Revolutions of 1848. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

Karl Marx and Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
The Collapse of the Concert of Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Women in a Conservative Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
20. Nationalism and Identity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745

1800–1900
Nationalism in Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
Nationalism in Practice: France, Italy,
and Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
Frustrated Nationalism: Hungary and Ireland. . . . . . . . . . . 764
Jewish Identities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770

xviii Contents
The question arises: Why

Islamic Nationalisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
were the dominant European
Reforming Islam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
states— the states with the
most developed economies,
21. The Modern Woman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
highest literac y rates, most
1860–1914
established democratic
The Appetite for Reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
systems, and most elaborate
Whose Rights Come First?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
and sophisticated net works
Suffragists and Suffragettes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
of communication — so
Love and Sex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
resistant to ex tend suf frage
The Female Identity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
to women?
Education and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
The “Woman Question” for Muslims. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810
22. The Challenge of Secularism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819

1800–1914
Who Killed God?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
The Theory of Creation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
Darwin and Evolution by Natural Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
A Secular Universe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
Nietzsche and the Will to Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
Art for Art’s Sake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
The Illness of Western Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
Freud and Psychoanalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
Modernism: The First Wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
The Catholic Counterattack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
Modernism, Secularism, and the Jews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
The Islamic Exception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
23. The Great Land Grab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863

1870–1914
“The White Man’s Burden”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
The Second Industrial Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
Looking Overseas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
Missionary Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
Industrial Warfare and Command Economies. . . . . . . . . . . 886
Western Ways: Emulation and Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
24. The World at War (Part I). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899

1914–1918
The Run-Up to War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901

Contents xix
The Balance of Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .904

A New Map of Hell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
The War in the Trenches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
The Home Front. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
Officers and Gentlemen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921
Russia’s Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
Bolshevism and the Laws of History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
How Not to End a War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
Young Turks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
25. Radical Realignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943

A new generation, raised to
1919–1939
believe in the unique
History for Beginners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
injustice of their suf fering,
Parceling out Nations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
came of age determined to
New Rights and New Economies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951
rescue their honor as well as
The Great Depression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954
their livelihoods. And they
The Search for Someone to Blame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
were willing to take
Modernism: The Second Wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
desperate ac tion.
The Rise of Fascism: Italy and Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
Nazism in Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
Oppression and Terror in Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
A New Deal?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
Appeasement and Pacifism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
26. The World at War (Part II). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989

1937–1945
The War in Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991
War in the Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
Atomic Fissures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
Women in, and against, Fascism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
Atrocities and Holocaust. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
Making Amends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
The United Nations and Human Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018
World War II and the Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
Arab Nationalism and Growing Zionism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
27. Theater of the Absurd: The Postwar World. . . 1029

1945–1968
Setting to Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
Alienation and the Absurd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033

xx Contents
The Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036

Decolonization in a Cold War Word . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
Rise of the Welfare State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
Social Conservatism and Economic Liberalism. . . . . . . . . 1046
The Postwar Boom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
Turning Point: 1967–1968. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
The aspiration to unite was The Female Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
cultural, moral, even Women, Islam, and the State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
spiritual. At stake were
shared values and beliefs, a 28. Something to Believe In. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
commitment to human 1960–1988
rights, civic-mindedness, A Generation of Rebellion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
reason, and personal Big Science and Expanding Secularism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
freedom. Politics and the Another Catholic Reformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
economy played their roles, Postwar Protestantism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
but what mat tered most was Jewish Revival and Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082
the idea of Europe as a International Judaism and the State of Israel. . . . . . . . . . . 1087
civilization, not just a Islamic Revolutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
commercial entit y. Ba’athism and Brotherhood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
29. Global Warmings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099

Since 1989
More was involved in these
1989: One Year, Three Crises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101
debates than reconciling
The United States of Europe?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111
f igures in a ledger. The
Economic Globalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116
Greater West entered the
War and Peace, from the Balkans to Pakistan. . . . . . . . . . . 1118
21st centur y engaged in full-
Islam and Its Discontents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123
throt tle disputes over the
Why Terrorism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124
purpose and limits of
“Why Do They Hate Us?”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127
government and the
Israel, Palestine, and the Arab Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1129
responsibilities of individuals
Women and the Global World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132
in societ y.
Debt, Taxes, and Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1138
Free Market? What Free Market?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142
What Is the Greater West Now?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
Reference Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1

Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1
Credits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1

Maps
Map P.1 Out of Africa
Map 1.1 Early Agricultural Sites
Map 1.2 The Ancient Near East
Map 1.3 The Akkadian Empire, ca. 2350–2200 bce
Map 1.4 Old Kingdom Egypt, ca. 2686–2134 bce
Map 2.1 The Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi
Map 2.2 Middle and New Kingdom Egypt
Map 2.3 The Middle East and the Mediterranean, ca. 1400 bce
Map 2.4 The Assyrian Empire, ca. 720–650 bce
Map 2.5 The Persian Empire at Its Height, ca. 500 bce
Map 3.1 The Land of Canaan, ca. 1000 bce
Map 3.2 Israelite Kingdom under David
Map 4.1 Minoan and Mycenean Greece, ca. 1500 bce
Map 4.2 Greek and Phoenician Colonies, ca. 500 bce
Map 4.3 The Persian Wars
Map 5.1 Athens, Sparta, and Their Allies during the Peloponnesian War
Map 5.2 Campaigns of Alexander the Great
Map 5.3 The Hellenistic World, ca. 200 bce
Map 6.1 Ancient Italy
Map 6.2 The Western Mediterranean in the 3rd Century bce
Map 6.3 Rome and Its Neighbors in 146 bce
Map 6.4 The Roman World at the End of the Republic, 44 bce
Map 6.5 The Mediterranean: Greek and Roman Perspectives Compared
Map 6.6 Trades in the Roman Empire
Map 7.1 Judea in the Time of Jesus
Map 7.2 Early Christian Communities, ca. 350 ce
Map 8.1 Diocletian’s Division of the Empire, ca. 304
Map 8.2 The Byzantine Empire in the Time of Justinian
Map 8.3 Constantinople in the 6th Century
Map 8.4 The Economy of Europe in the Early Middle Ages
Map 8.5 The Frankish Kingdom, ca. 500
Map 8.6 Monasteries in Western Europe, ca. 800
Map 9.1 Arabia in the 6th Century ce
Map 9.2 Muslim Conquests to 750
Map 9.3 Sunni and Shi’i Communities Today
xxi

xxii Maps
Map 10.1 The Conversion of the Germanic Peoples to Christianity

Map 10.2 Charlemagne’s Empire
Map 10.3 Division of the Carolingian Empire, 843
Map 10.4 The Islamic World, ca. 1000
Map 10.5 The Mediterranean World, ca. 1100
Map 10.6 The Crusades
Map 10.7 The Islamic World, ca. 1260
Map 10.8 Principal Centers of Jewish Settlement in
the Mediterranean, ca. 1250
Map 11.1 Europe in 1300
Map 11.2 Medieval Universities
Map 11.3 Medieval Heresies, ca. 1200–1350
Map 11.4 The Hundred Years’ War
Map 11.5 The Black Death
Map 11.6 The Mongol Conquests
Map 11.7 The Mongol Successor States
Map 11.8 Mamluks and Ottomans, ca. 1400
Map 12.1 Renaissance Italy
Map 12.2 The Domains of Charles V, 1520
Map 12.3 The Protestant Reformation, ca. 1540
Map 13.1 Africa and the Mediterranean, 1498
Map 13.2 The Portuguese in Asia, 1536–1580
Map 13.3 Early Voyages of World Exploration
Map 13.4 The Transfer of Crops and Diseases after 1500
Map 13.5 Centers of Learning in Europe, 1500-1700
Map 14.1 Wars and Revolts in Europe, 1524–1660
Map 14.2 Expulsions and Migrations of Jews, 1492–1650
Map 14.3 Ottoman–Safavid Conflict
Map 15.1 Europe in 1648
Map 15.2 The Ottoman Empire in 1683
Map 15.3 World Trade Networks, ca. 1750
Map 15.4 The Atlantic Slave Trade
Map 15.5 The Seven Years’ War
Map 16.1 Jewish Communities in Poland-Lithuania, ca. 1600
Map 16.2 Subscriptions to the Encyclopedia, ca. 1780
Map 16.3 Urban Population of Europe in 1800
Map 17.1 Redrawing the Map of France, 1789–1791
Map 17.2 Napoleon’s Empire at Its Height
Map 18.1 Industrializing Britain by 1850

Maps xxiii
Map 18.2 Industrializing Europe by 1870

Map 18.3 The Shrinking Ottoman Empire
Map 18.4 Europe’s Largest Cities in 1850
Map 19.1 Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815
Map 19.2 Centers of Revolution, 1848
Map 20.1 The Peoples of Europe, ca. 1850
Map 20.2 The Crimean War, 1853–1856
Map 20.3 The Unification of Italy
Map 20.4 The Unification of Germany
Map 20.5 The Pale of Settlement, 1835–1917
Map 20.6 Wahhabi Expansion, 1765–1818
Map 21.1 Winning the Vote: Women’s Suffrage in the Greater West,
1906–1971
Map 22.1 Jewish Emigration from Russia, 1880–1914
Map 23.1 Industrialization and Manufacturing, 1870–1914
Map 23.2 The Scramble for Africa, ca. 1880–1914
Map 23.3 Imperialism in Asia, 1850–1914
Map 23.4 European Emigration, 1880–1914
Map 24.1 European Alliances, 1878–1914
Map 24.2 World War I, 1914–1918
Map 24.3 The Russian Civil War, 1917–1922
Map 24.4 Europe and the Middle East in 1914 and 1923
Map 25.1 Ethnic Minorities in East-Central Europe, 1930
Map 25.2 Expansion of the Italian Empire, 1922–1939
Map 26.1 World War II in Europe and Africa, 1939–1945
Map 26.2 The Japanese in China, 1931–1941
Map 26.3 World War II in the Pacific
Map 26.4 Nazi Concentration Camps, 1941–1945
Map 26.5 The Partition of Palestine and the Creation of Israel, 1947–1948
Map 27.1 Military Blocs in Europe, 1948–1955
Map 27.2 The Decolonization of Asia
Map 27.3 The Decolonization of Africa and the Middle East
Map 27.4 The Six-Day War
Map 27.5 The Vietnam War
Map 28.1 Jewish Immigration to Israel since 1948
Map 29.1 The Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe and the
Soviet Union
Map 29.2 Global Warming
Map 29.3 The European Union

xxiv Maps
Map 29.4 Immigration to the European Union

Map 29.5 The World Trade Organization
Map 29.6 Wars and Conflicts in the Greater West, 1990–2012
Map 29.7 The Arab Spring
Map 29.8 Population Growth in the Greater West, 2012

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is to say, four-fifths of all these steamers will belong to England. This
will give to us a fleet of ocean steamers outnumbering those of all
the rest of the world combined; and these will always be at our
disposal for, to say the least, the transport of troops, and of the
materials of war. Of the remaining fifth a large proportion will be built
in this country, as our resources and arrangements for the
construction of iron ships and marine engines are superior to those
of any other country.
If, then, it should prove that this forecast of the advantages of the
Canal to us in war is correct, it would seem to follow that, in time of
war, we should be under the necessity of holding it ourselves; or, at
all events, of occupying its two extremities. We should be obliged to
take care that neither an enemy blocked it up, nor a friend permitted
it to go out of repair.
CHAPTER LX.
CONCLUSION.
Beatus qui intelligit.—Book of Psalms, Vulg.
No one can see anything in Egypt except what he takes with him
the power of seeing. The mysterious river, the sight of which carries
away thought to the unknown interior of the great Continent, where
solar heat, evaporation, and condensation are working at their
highest power, giving birth abundantly to forms of vegetable and
animal life with which the eye of civilized man has yet to be
delighted, and instructed; the lifeless desert which has had so much
effect in shaping, and colouring, human life in that part of the world;
the grand monuments which embody so much of early thought and
earnestness; the contrast of that artistically grand, morally purposed,
and wise past with the Egypt of to-day; the graceful palm, and the
old-world camel, so unlike the forms of Europe; the winter climate
without a chill, and almost without a cloud; all these are certainly
inducements enough to take one to Egypt; but how differently are
they seen and interpreted at the time by the different members of the
same party of travellers; and with what widely different after-thoughts
in each!
And just as many of us are dissatisfied with life’s journey itself, if
we can find no object in it, so are we with the travel to which a
fraction of it may have been devoted, if it be resultless. Should we,
when we look back upon it, be unable to see that it has had any
issues which reach into our future thought and work, it seems like a
part of life wasted. For, whatever a man may have felt at the time, he
cannot, afterwards, think it is enough that he has been amused,
when the excitement of passing through new scenes is over, and he
is again in his home,—that one spot on earth where he becomes
most conscious of the divinity that is stirring within and around him,
and finds that he must commune closely with it.
But as to particulars: that which is most on the surface of what
Egypt may teach the English traveller is the variety of Nature. It has
not the aspects of the tropics, in which the dark primæval forest, and
tangly jungle, are the predominant features; yet its green palmtufted
plain, and drab life-repelling desert, are a great contrast to our still
hedge-divided corn-fields, and meadows; to our downs, and heaths,
and hills, and streams; and so are its clear sky, and dry atmosphere
to our clouds and humidity. To see, and understand something about
such things ought, in these days, to be part of the education of all
who can afford the time and money requisite for making themselves
acquainted with the riches of Nature; which is the truest, indeed the
only, way to make them our own. In saying this, I do not at all wish to
suggest the idea that in variety, and picturesqueness of natural
beauty, the scene in Egypt is superior to what we have at home. The
reverse is, emphatically, the case. Every day I look upon pleasanter
scenes than any Egypt can show: scenes that please the eye, and
touch the heart more. Nature’s form and garb are both better here.
So, too, is even the colour of her garb. To have become familiar,
then, with the outer aspects of Egypt, is not only good in itself, as an
addition to our mental gallery of the scenes of Nature, but it is good
also in the particular consequence of enabling us to appreciate more
highly the variety and the beauty of our own sea-girt home.
Of course, however, the source of deepest interest in any scene is
not to be found in its outer aspect, but in its connexion with man. If
we regard it with the thought of the way in which man has used,
modified, and shaped it, and of how, reversely, it has modified, and
shaped man, how it has ministered to his wants, and affected the
form, and character of his life; or if we can in any way associate it
with man, then we contemplate it from quite another point of view,
and with quite different feelings. Indeed it would almost seem as if
this was the real source of the interest we take even in what we call
the sublime and beautiful in nature. Man was only repelled from
snow-capped mountains, and stormy oceans, till he had learnt to
look upon them as the works of Intelligent Mind akin to his own.
Conscious of intelligence within himself, he began to regard as grand
and beautiful, what he had at length come to believe Supreme
Intelligence had designed should possess these characteristics. This
is, perhaps, the source of the sentiments of awe, and admiration,
instead of the old horror, and repugnance, with which we now
contemplate cold and inaccessible barrier Alps, and angry dividing
Seas. To Homer’s contemporaries, who believed not that the gods
had created the visible scene, but that, contrariwise, they were
posterior to it, and in some sort an emanation from it, the ocean was
only noisy, pitiless, and barren. And the modern feeling on these
subjects has, of late, been greatly intensified, and become almost a
kind of religion, since men have come to think that they have
discovered that these grand objects were brought into being by the
slow and unfailing operation of certain general laws which they have
themselves ascertained. So that now, to some extent, they have
begun to feel as though they had themselves assisted at their
creation: they stood by, in imagination, as spectators, knowing,
beforehand, the whole process by which Alps and Oceans were
being formed. That they were able to discover the laws and the steps
by which Omnipotent Intelligence had brought it all about, alone and
sufficiently demonstrates the kindredness of their own intelligence. It
is the association of these ideas with natural objects that causes the
present enthusiastic feeling—almost a kind of devotion—they
awaken within us, and which would have been incomprehensible to
the ancients, and even, in a great measure, to our forefathers. They
seem like our own works. They were formed by what is, in human
degree and fashion, within ourselves. We know all about them;
almost as if we had made them ourselves.
Regarded, then, in this way, it is not the object itself merely that
interests, but the associations connected with it. Not so much what is
seen, as what is suggested by what is seen. The object itself affects
us little, and in one way; the interpretation the mind puts upon it
affects us much, and in quite a different way. In this view there are
reasons why the general landscape here, at home, should be more
pleasing to us than it is in Egypt. It is associated with hope, and with
the incidents and pictures of a better life than there is, or ever has
been, in Egypt. I have already said that the natural features are not
so varied and attractive there as here; their value to us, in this
respect, consisting in their difference. But what I now have in my
mind is the thought of the landscape as associated with man; and in
this other respect also I think the inferiority of Egypt great.
The two pre-eminently grand and interesting scenes on this kind in
Egypt, where our Egyptian associations with man’s history
culminate, I have already endeavoured to present to the imagination
of the reader. They are the scene that is before the traveller when he
stands somewhere to the south-east of the Great Pyramid, looking
towards Memphis, and commanding the Necropolis in which the old
Primæval Monarchy is buried, the green valley, the river, and the two
bounding ranges; or, to take it reversely, as it appears when looked
at from the Citadel of Cairo; and the scene, for this is the other one,
which is presented to the eye, again acting in combination with the
historical imagination, from the Temple-Palace of the great Rameses
at Thebes, where you have around and before you the Necropolis,
and the glories of the New Monarchy.
What, then, are the thoughts that arise in the mind at the
contemplation of these scenes? That is precisely the question I have
been endeavouring to answer throughout the greater part of the
preceding pages. My object now, as I bring them to a close, is
somewhat different; it is to look at what we have found is to be seen
in Egypt from an English point of view; with the hope that we may
thus be brought to a better understanding, in some matters, both of
old Egypt and of the England of to-day. This will best be done by
comparing with the Egyptian scenes, which are now familiar to us,
the English scene which in its historical character, and the elements
of human interest it contains, occupies, at this day, a position
analogous to that which they held formerly. These are subjects that
are made interesting, and we may say intelligible, more readily and
completely by comparisons of this kind than by any other method.
Anatomical and philological comparisons do this for anatomy and
philology, and historical comparisons will do the same for history. We
shall come to understand Egypt not by looking at Egypt singly and
alone, but by having in our minds, at the time we are looking at it, a
knowledge of Israel, Greece, Rome, and of the modern world. Each
must be set by the side of Egypt.
We will come to ourselves presently. We will take Israel first. It
proposed to itself the same object as Egypt, that of building up the
State on moral foundations, only it had to do its work under
enormous disadvantages. Considering, however, the circumstances,
it attained its aims with astonishing success. We must bear in mind
how in the two the methods of procedure differed. So did their
respective circumstances. Egypt had the security which enabled it
freely and fully to develop and mature its ideas and its system. This
precious period of quiet was no part of the lot which fell to Israel. It
had to maintain itself and grow up to maturity under such crushing
disadvantages as would have extinguished the vitality of any other
people, except perhaps of the Greeks, the periods, however, of
whose adolescence and manhood were also very different from
those of Israel. At those epochs of their national life they had
freedom, sunshine, and success. Israel, on the contrary, had then,
and almost uninterruptedly throughout, storm and tempest;
overthrows and scatterings. The people never were long without
feeling the foot of the oppressor on their necks. Still they held on
without bating one jot of hope or heart; and by so doing made the
world their debtors, just as did the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the
Romans. Regarding the point historically, we cannot say that one did
this more than another; for, where all are necessary, it would be
illogical to affirm that one is greater or less than another. Neither the
seeing nor the hearing, we are told, can boast that it is of more
importance than the other; for, were it not for the seeing, where
would be the hearing? and, were it not for the hearing, where would
be the seeing? In the progress of man the ideas, and principles, and
experience contributed by each of these constituent peoples of
humanity were necessary: and if the contribution of any one had
been wanting, we should not be what actually we are; and that
something that we should be then would be very inferior to what we
are now. We could not dispense with the gift of any one of the four.
Egypt gave letters, and the demonstration of the fact that morality
can, within certain limits, be deliberately and designedly shaped and
made instinctive. Greece taught the value of the free development of
the intellect. Rome contributed the idea of the brotherhood of
mankind, not designedly, it is true, but only incidentally, though yet
with a glimmering that this was its mission. Without Rome we might
not yet have reached this point. Israel taught us that, if the aims of a
State are distinctly moral, morality may then be able to maintain
itself, no matter how great the disadvantages, both from within and
from without, under which the community has to labour; and even
when morality is unsustained by the thought of future rewards and
punishments: a lesson which has thrown more light on the power the
moral sentiments have over man’s heart than perhaps any other fact
in the history of our race.
I bow down before the memory of the old Israelite with every
feeling of the deepest respect, when I remember that he abstained
from evil from no fear of future punishment, and that he laid down his
life for truth and justice without any calculation of a future heaven. In
this view the history of the world can show no such single-minded,
self-devoted, heroic teachers as the long line of Hebrew Prophets.
They stand in an order quite by themselves. Socrates believed that it
would be well with him hereafter. They did not touch that question.
Sufficient unto them was the consciousness that they were
denouncing what was false and wrong, and that they were
proclaiming and doing what was true and right.
We will now turn to the Greeks. The interest with which they
contemplated the antique, massive, foursquare wisdom of Egypt is
well worthy of consideration. It is true they did not get much from
Egypt, either in the sphere of speculation or of practice: still for them
it always possessed a powerful attraction. The reason why it was so
is not far to seek. The Egyptians had done great things; and they
had a doctrine, a philosophy of human life. This was that
philosopher’s stone the Greek mind was in search of. And they
inferred from the great things done by the Egyptians (and this was
not a paralogism) that there must be something in their doctrine. In
fact, however, they learnt little from Egypt: for if it was the cradle,
Greece itself was the Holy Land of Mind. Nor was it possible that
they could learn much from it, for the two peoples looked upon
society and the world from quite different points of view. Greece
acted on the idea that in political organization, and in the well-being
of the individual, man is the arbiter and the architect of his own
fortune. Egypt acted on the supposition that these things rested on
an once-for-all heaven-ordained system. Greece believed that truth
was to be discovered by man himself, and that it would, when
discovered, set all things right; and that freedom, investigation, and
discussion were the means for enabling men to make the needed
discovery. Egypt thought that truth had been already communicated;
and that freedom, investigation, and discussion could only issue in
its overthrow. What Greece regarded as constructive, Egypt
regarded as destructive. It could not therefore learn much from
Egypt.
Rome we will now set by the side of Egypt. It will bring the two into
one view sufficiently for our purpose, if we endeavour to make out
what Germanicus must have thought of old Egypt, when he was at
Thebes. He must often have compared it with Rome; in doing which
he could, of course, only view it with the eyes of a Roman. And the
time for such a comparison had arrived, for the work of Rome, and
the form and pressure of that work upon the world, were then
manifesting themselves with sufficient distinctness. What he was in
search of was light that would aid him in governing the Roman world.
Probably he came to the conclusion that the wisdom of Egypt could
be but of very little use to him. The aim of Egypt had been all-
embracing social order, maintained by morality, compacting the
whole community into a single organism, in which every individual
had his allotted place and work, neither of which he could see any
possibility of his ever abandoning, or even feel any desire to
abandon. Egyptian society had thus been brought, through every
class and member, to do its work with the regularity, the smoothness,
the ease, the combined action of all its parts, and the singleness of
purpose of a machine. I need hardly repeat that they had understood
that the morality by which their social order was to be maintained
must be instinctive, and that they had made it so. The difference
between them and other people in this matter was, that they had
understood distinctly both what they wanted for their purpose, and
how to create what they had wanted. Germanicus must have been
aware, if he had seen this point clearly, that no government could
frame the general morality of the Roman Empire; and that the single
moral instinct upon which he would have to depend, if he could
create it, must be the base and degrading one of obedience and
submission brought about by fear. No attempt could be made, in the
world he expected to be called to govern, to cultivate an all-
embracing scheme of noble and generous, or even of serviceable,
morality. Much, indeed, of what was best would have to be
repressed, and stamped out, as hostile and subversive; as, for
instance, the sentiment of freedom, and the consciousness that the
free and full development of a mans inner being (in a sense the
Athenian and the Christian idea) is the highest duty. He would have
to provide not for what would encourage his future subjects to think
for themselves, and to make themselves men, but for what would
indispose them to think for themselves, and would make them only
submissive subjects. He had to consider how many abundant and
virulent elements of disorder, discontent, and corruption could be
kept down: under such a system an impossible task. These evil
growths of society had, each of them, been reduced to a
manageable minimum, spontaneously, by the working of the
Egyptian system; but, under the circumstances of the Roman world,
they were inevitably fostered and developed. The application,
however, of the Egyptian system to that world was out of the
question and inconceivable. So, here, Egypt could give him no help.
It could not show him how he could eliminate or regulate these evils.
He would not be able to get rid of the elements of discord and
discontent in the Egyptian fashion, by creating such instincts of order
and submission as would dispose every man to accept the position
in which he found himself as the irreversible appointment of Nature.
Nor, again, would he be able to counteract social corruption, in the
Egyptian fashion, by making virtue the aim of the state, of religion,
and of human life.
There were also two other problems to the solution of which he
would have to attend. How was the ring of barbarians that
beleaguered the Empire to be kept in check? and how was the
enormous military force that must be maintained for the internal, as
well as the external, defence of the Empire to be prevented from
knowing, at all events from using for its own purposes, its irresistible,
unbalanceable power? For doing every thing of every kind he had to
do, he had but one instrument, and that was force, law being
degraded into the machinery through which that force was to act;
and being also itself at discord with much that was becoming the
conscience of mankind, that is, at discord with its own proper object.
He could make no use of the Egyptian instruments, those, namely, of
general morality, of religion, and of fixed social order. The task,
therefore, that was before him, however strong the hand and clear
the head might be which would have to carry it out, was ultimately
hopeless. For one of two things must happen: either men must rebel
against the order he would have to maintain, and overthrow it, or it
must corrupt and degrade men. For, in the long run, nothing but law
and religion, both in conformity with right reason, and aiming at
moral growth, can govern men; that is to say, government must aim
at human objects, to be attained by human means. Men, of course,
can be controlled otherwise, as, for instance, by armed force, the
only means that would be at the disposal of Germanicus; but then
the product is worthless. Egypt, therefore, could give him no
assistance. It could only tell him that the task before him was to him
an unattainable one. It was not the one the Egyptians had taken in
hand, nor could it be carried out by Egyptian means. A great fight
had to be fought out in the bosom of Roman society, and under such
conditions that its progress and issue would be the ruin and
overthrow of society, as then constituted.
We all know that the man who, in a period of dearth, withholds his
corn for a time, is thinking only of himself, though it eventually turns
out that what he did was done unintentionally for the benefit of the
community: a law, above and beyond him, had been working through
him, and shaping his selfish act so that it should contribute to the
general good. So was it with the Roman Empire. It subjugated and
welded together all people merely to satisfy its own greed, but in so
doing it had further unfolded and advanced the world-drama of
human history. When it had played out its part, it was seen that that
part could not have been dispensed with, because, though so hard
for those times, it was essential to the great plot, for it was that that
had given birth to, and brought to maturity, the sentiment of the unity
and brotherhood of mankind.
And now at last we come to ourselves. All, including Egypt, have
become teachers to us. We are the inheritors of the work of all. To us
—and how pleasant is it to know this—the wisdom even of old Egypt
is not quite a Dead Sea apple, something pretty to look at, but inside
only the dust of what had been the materials of life. We can feel our
connexion with Egypt, and that we are in its debt; and we shall not
be unworthy of the connexion, and of the debt (a true debt, for we
are benefited through what they did), if we so make use of them as
that those who shall come after us shall have reason to feel that
they, too, are, in like manner, debtors to ourselves. Inquiries of this
kind enable us to discover what are the historical, which means the
natural and actual, bases of our own existing civilization.
What we now have to do is to compare ourselves with old Egypt.
Things of this kind become more intelligible when made palpable to
sense by being taken in the concrete. We have looked on the scenes
in Egypt which are invested with an interest that can never die,
because it is an interest that belongs to the history of humanity. By
the side of them we must set the scene in the England of to-day,
which holds the analogous position. Of course it must be in London.
And as it must be in London I know no better point at which we can
place ourselves than on the bridge over the Serpentine, with our
back upon Kensington, so that we may look over the water, the
green turf, and the trees to the towers of the old Abbey and of the
Palace of Westminster. The view here presented to us is one which
obliges us, while looking at it, to combine with what is actually seen
what we know is lying behind and beyond it. It is not a scene for
which an otiose glance will suffice, because it is precisely the
connexion between what is before the eye, and what is to be
understood, that gives it its distinguishing interest.
What is immediately before you, in its green luxuriance of turf and
leaf, is peculiarly English; you might imagine yourself miles away
from any city, and yet you are standing in the midst of the largest
collection of human beings ever brought together upon the earth:
what is around you is hardly more the capital of England than of the
world. Strange is it to find yourself in the midst of such an
incomprehensible mass of humanity, and yet at the same time in the
midst of a most ornate scene of natural objects—water, trees, turf.
Just as in the Egyptian scenes, where the interests of its history are
brought to a focus, the preponderant objects presented to the eye
are graves and temples in the desert, which tell us of how religious
and sombre a cast was the thought of the Egyptians, who could see
nothing in the world but God, and could regard life only in connexion
with death; so here, too, we find, as we take our stand in the midst of
this English world-capital, that we can see nothing of it; that it is hid
from our eyes by the country enclosed within it. This alone tells us
something about the people. It intimates to us that those who have
built this world-wonder have not their heart in it; that it is against the
grain for them to be here: they do not love it: they do not care to
make it beautiful: that, unlike their Latin neighbours, they are not a
city-loving people; that the first and strongest of their affections are
for the green fields, the wavy trees, and the running streams; and
that they have, therefore, reproduced them, as far as they could, in
the midst of the central home of their political life, to remind them of
what they regard as the pleasanter and the better life. But it is
strange that this very fondness for rural life is one of the causes that
have contributed to the greatness of this city. It has been the love of
Nature, and the hardihood of mind and body the people have
acquired in their country life, which have disposed them to go forth to
occupy the great waste places of the earth; and so have helped in
enabling the Nature-and-country-loving English race to build up an
Empire, out of which has grown this vast, but from the spot where we
are standing in the midst of it invisible, city.
Each also of the two great buildings, whose towers are seen
above the trees, has much to tell us about ourselves. There is the
old Abbey, reminding us of the power religion has had and will ever
have over us, though not now in the Egyptian fashion of something
that has been imposed upon us, but rather of something that is
accepted by us; and of our determination that it shall not be
constructed out of the ideas and fixed for ever in the forms which
belong to ages that, in comparison with our own really older and
riper times, had something to learn, and not everything to teach. It is
precisely the attempt to invest Christianity with Egyptian aims and
claims, fixity and forms, which is arraying men’s minds and hearts
against it; and, in some parts of Christendom, making the action of
society itself hostile to it. It is this attempt which is in a great measure
depriving it of the attractiveness and power it possessed in its early
days when it was rightly understood: though then it was, necessarily,
not only a private care, but one that had also to strive hard to
maintain its existence against the fierce and contemptuous
antagonism of the collective force of the old pagan form and order of
society. If men are now turning away from what they once gladly
received, it can only be because what is now offered to them has
ceased to be what it was then—the interpretation, and expression,
and the right ordering, of all that they knew, and of the aspirations of
their better nature. The phenomenon is explained, if we have reason
for believing that men then regarded Christianity as an honest
organization of knowledge, thought, and morality, for the single
purpose of raising and bettering human life, but now regard it as, in
some measure, their priestly organization for the purpose, primarily,
of maintaining priestly domination, through the maintenance of a
system which was the growth of widely different times and
circumstances.
It cannot be seen too clearly, or repeated too often, that
Christianity did not originate in any sense in priestly thought, but
was, on the contrary, a double protest against it, first in its own actual
inception, which included a protest against priest-perverted Judaism,
and antecedently in the primary conception of the previous
dispensation, which included a protest against priestly Egyptianism;
so that neither in itself, nor in its main historical source, could it
originally have had any priestly or ecclesiastical, but only broadly
human and honestly moral aims.
This will, by the way, assist us in forming a right estimate of the
character of that argumentum ad ignorantiam we have heard so
much of lately, that Protestantism is only a negation of truth, and an
inspiration of the Principle of Mischief. Looking back along the line of
our own religion, we find that Moses, speaking historically, was the
first Protestant; and that the Saviour of the World was, in this respect
also, like unto him. As, indeed, have been, and will be, more or less,
in the corrupt, but though corrupt, yet still, on the whole, advancing
currents of this world, all who are wise and good, and who have the
courage of their wisdom and goodness. It will also assist us to
understand that religion does not mean systematic Theology and
organized priestly domination, which are its degeneration, and into
which the ignorance and carelessness of the mass of mankind, and
the short-sightedness of some, and self-seeking of others, of its
constituted expounders are tending always to corrupt it; but that it
means, above all things, the ideal theory of perfect morality and
virtue, combined with the attempt to work it out practically in human
life, so far as is possible, under the difficulties and hindrances of this
world, supported by the good hope of its actual complete realization
in a better world to come.
The history of old Egypt is very much the history of the character,
working, and fate of the priestly perversion (as we must regard it
now) of religion, even when the attempt is made, as it was in that
case, honestly, and without any violation or contradiction of the
original principles and aims of the religion. As respects the modern
world, the lamentable and dangerous consequences of this
perversion of religion are to be traced, in some form or other, in the
actual moral and intellectual condition of perhaps every part of
Christendom. We see indications of them amongst ourselves in
individuals, and even in classes. The legitimate action of religion has
been in many cases not merely neutralized and lost, but directly
reversed. It ought to generate the instincts that contribute to the
order, the unity, the building up of society; whereas, by aiming at
ecclesiasticism, and endeavouring to retain what is at variance with
its own true purpose, it has given rise to unavowed repugnances, to
fierce antagonisms, to repulsion of class from class, and even
among some of hatred to the very order of Society; that is to say, it
has produced instincts that contribute, and that most energetically, to
disorder, disunion, and the overthrow of Society; proving the truth of
the saying that nothing is so bad as the corruption of that which is
best. Religion is the summa philosophia which interprets,
harmonizes, systematizes, and directs to the right ordering of
Society, and of the individual, all knowledge from whatever source
derived, all true and honest thought, all noble aspirations, all good
affections. Development and growth ever have been, and ever must
be, a law of its existence: nothing else can maintain its continuity.
And as, notwithstanding this necessity of development, its end and
aim must all the while, and for ever, be one and the same,
development and growth do not and cannot mean the overthrow of
religion, as some have told us, and will continue to tell us, but, on the
contrary, the enlargement and strengthening of its foundations, and
the better ordering and furnishing of the superstructure.
The very name of the building before us—The Abbey—reminds us
that, as far as we ourselves are concerned, we have accepted and
acted on the principle of development, adaptation, and correction in
our religion. The old name, belonging to a past order of things, is
evidence that this principle has once been applied; and so it supplies
us with a ground for hope that it will be applied again, whenever a
similar necessity may arise. History, indeed, assures us that this
must be done always, sooner or later, for in all ages and places the
religion of any people has ever been, in the end, what the knowledge
of the people made it; but it makes a great difference whether what
has to be done be done soon, or whether it be done late. If the
former, then the continuity of growth and development is not
interrupted. If the latter, then there intervenes a long period of
intellectual and moral anarchy, of religious and irreligious conflict.
The consequences and the scars of the conflict are seen in what is
established eventually. It is found that some things that were good
have perished; and that some that are not good have become
inevitable.
By the side of the old Abbey rise the towers of the Palace of
Westminster—a new structure on an old site. That which first occurs
to the beholder, who has old Egypt in his thoughts, is its inferiority in
artistic effect to the stupendous but simple grandeur of the Egyptian
Priests’ House of Parliament in the hypostyle Hall of Karnak, with its
entourage of awe-inspiring temples, its vast outer court, and its lofty
propylons. In that hall he had felt that its great characteristic was not
so much its grandeur as its truthfulness to its purpose, of which there
is not one trace to be found in the home of our great National
Council, which one might survey carefully, both internally and
externally, without obtaining the slightest clue for enabling him to
guess for what purpose it was designed. But how grand, I hesitate to
say how much grander, is the history which the site, at all events, of
the building we are looking at brings into our thoughts. It has not
indeed numbered the years of the Egyptian Panegyries. They might
have counted theirs by thousands, while our Assembly counts its by
hundreds. And we must also remember that they assisted at the
birth, and watched by the cradle, of political wisdom. True they
swathed the infant in the bands of a fixed religious system; but, then,
they could not have done otherwise; and what they did, under the
restrictions and limitations which times and circumstances imposed
upon them, was, notwithstanding, good and precious work; and we
comparing that work of theirs with much that has since been done,
and is now doing, see that, though it was crippled and distorted at
every step by their evil necessities, it was done wisely, and well, by
men who clearly understood what they wanted to do, and how it was
to be done. Our Parliament had to do its work under very different
and even opposite conditions. This island—indeed, this part of the
world—was not an Egypt where none but corporations of priests and
despotic rulers could be strong. We could not, on the contrary, be
without chieftains’ strongholds, and strong towns, too. While,
therefore, with us the armed possessors of these strong places
accepted religion, they could resist and forbid ecclesiastical
encroachments, and could thus save Society, through saving the
State, from ecclesiastical domination. They were strong and free,
and so could nurture freedom, instead of standing by and looking on
while it was strangled and buried out of sight. They were, too, the
heirs of Israelite, Greek, Roman, and German traditions; and these
they could keep alive, even without quite understanding them, until
the day came when they might be carried out more fully and
harmoniously; and more might be made of them than had been
possible even in the days, and in the countries, which had given
them birth. That has been the slow but glorious rôle in human history
of these English Parliaments, of which that Palace of Westminster at
which you are looking is the shrine: a spot most sacred in human
history, and which will be closely interesting to the generations that
are to come when time shall have forgot the great Hall of the
Panegyries of Egypt; for the History of the freedom of Religion, of
Speech, and of the Press, of Commerce, and of political and almost
of human freedom itself, is the History of these English Parliaments.
The History, then, of these two buildings throws much useful light
on the history of the later phases of the progressive relations to each
other of the State and of the Church; and of the rights, the duties, the
proper field, and the legitimate work of each. The questions involved
in these points have been answered very differently at different
times, in accordance with the varying conditions of society: but the
answers given have, on the whole, been such as to assist us in
understanding two particulars of importance: first, that the character
of the relation of the two to each other among any given people, and
at any given time, is dependent on the conditions of society, then
and there; on the point knowledge has reached; the degree to which
it has been disseminated; and on the course antecedent events have
taken. (The relation, at any time established, does, of course, re-act
on the conditions which gave rise to it, and so has some effect in
shaping, and colouring, their character in the proximate future.) And,
in the second place, that there is observable, throughout History, if
its whole range be included in our view, a regular evolution and ever-
growing solution of the great question itself.
All the peculiarities, and particulars of the history, of these two
buildings, such, for instance, as that they stand side by side, and yet
are quite distinct from one another; that the Ecclesiastical building is
very old, very ornate, and imposing, and was very costly; and that
the Civil building is modern, but on an old site; that it too was costly,
and is very ornate and imposing, and in its ornamentation and
aspects affects somewhat the Ecclesiastical style; that they are in
the hands of distinct orders of men belonging to the same
community; that the work carried on in them is quite distinct, and yet
that ultimately their respective work is meant to contribute, by
different paths, and with different sanctions, to the same end, that is
to say, the bettering of man’s estate—all this symbolizes with
sufficient exactness the history and character of the conflicts, and of
the relations, past and present, of the Church and of the State
amongst ourselves.
I am here taking the word Church in its widest, most intelligible,
and only useful sense—and which is the interpretation history puts
on the phenomena the word stands for—that of the conscious
organization of the moral and intellectual forces and resources of
humanity for a higher life than that which the State requires and
enforces. It is untrue, and as mischievous as untrue, to talk of
Religion—that is, the effect on men’s lives of the doctrine which the
Church has elaborated—as if it were something apart, something
outside the natural order of things, something up in the air,
something of yesterday, which has no root in man’s nature, and the
history of which is, therefore, not coincident with the history of man.
Like every thing else of which we have any knowledge, it is the result
of certain causes. And in the case of this effect, of which the Church
is the personal embodiment, the affiliation is distinct and palpable.
Poetry and Philosophy are as much manifestations of it, as what we
call Religion, when we are employing the word in its popular,
restricted signification. They do, indeed, so entirely belong to it that
there could be no advance in Religion, I might almost say no
Religion at all, without them. And, conversely, Religion supplies to
the bulk of mankind all the Poetry and Philosophy that will ever be
within their reach. Poetry (which uses Art as one of its instruments of
expression), dealing with things both objectively, as they appear to
address themselves to us, and subjectively, as they are seen
through the medium of our own sentiments; and Philosophy, dealing
with the ensemble of things as they are in themselves—the two,
working in these ways, and endeavouring to organize sentiment and
knowledge, or, in other words, human thought and the world of
external facts, for the sovereign purpose of nurturing and developing
our moral being, if they do not give rise to Religion, yet have, at all
events, largely contributed towards expanding, purifying, and
shaping it. Every one can see how Philosophy and Poetry
contributed each its part to the construction of the Old Dispensation.
It is equally plain that Christianity originally rested on a profoundly
philosophical view of the Old Dispensation, considered in connexion
with the then new conditions of the world. And it was, precisely,
because the view taken was so profound, because it went so
completely to the bottom of all that then and there had to be dealt
with, that it was felt and seen to be thoroughly true. For the same
reason it was as simple as it was true. And it was because it was so
entirely in accord with man’s nature and history, and with the
conditions on which the world had then entered, that it was
understood to be, and received as, a Revelation from God. This was
the internal evidence. And in the old Classic world, which we can
now contemplate ab extra, and without prepossession, we see that
the only teachers of Religion were first Poetry, and then Philosophy:
at first mainly the former, and afterwards mainly the latter. And thus
were they the means by which the outer world, at all events, was
prepared for Christianity.
If, then, we take the word Church in the sense I am now proposing
(and I am concerned here only with the interpretation History gives of
the phenomenon), it will help us to understand how it happens that
every Church, at certain stages in its career, comes into conflict with
the State, or the State with the Church; and, too, how it happens
that, at certain conjunctures, the action of the State, as it is, is to
restrict and to thwart the action of the Church, as it should be; and
why it is that, in the end, the latter must always carry the day. It will
also lead us to think that in the future the Clergy will not have the
entire decision of religious questions; but that, strange as it may
sound to us, the Poet, the Historian, and the Philosopher will, sooner
or later, be able to make their ideas felt in the discussion and
shaping of these matters. It has been so in the past; and we may
suppose that it will be so again in the future. Even now the lay
Prophet has no insignificant auditory, and it is one that it is growing
rapidly in every element of influence. We have no reason for
believing that the world will be content to leave, for ever, its own
highest affair in the hands of those only whose function, as
understood and interpreted, at present, by the majority of
themselves, is to witness to what were the thoughts of their own
order, in an age when that order thought for mankind; and did so,
sometimes, not in complete accordance with the common heart,
conscience, and aspirations of mankind, certainly not with what they
are now, but rather with what the Church supposed would complete
and strengthen its own system; at all events, always in accordance
with the insufficient knowledge, sometimes even with the mistaken
ideas, of times when the materials supplied by the then existing
conditions of society, and by the then state of knowledge, for the
solution of the problem, were not the same as those supplied by our
own day.
In old Egypt—under the circumstances it could not possibly have
been otherwise—the Church administered, and was, the State: the
State was contained within it. The distinction between things civil and
things religious had not emerged yet. This fact deeply modified the
whole being of the Church. Its resultant colour thus came to be
compounded of its own natural colour and of that of the State. This
primæval phase can never again recur. The increase and
dissemination of knowledge; the idea and the fact of civil as opposed
to ecclesiastical, we may almost say of human as opposed to divine
legislation, and the now thoroughly well ascertained advantage of
the maintenance of civil order by civil legislation, have made the
primæval phase, henceforth, impossible among Europeans, and all
people of European descent. We may add, that it has, furthermore,
become impossible now on account of the higher conception that
has been formed of the duty and of the work of the Church itself.
The Middle Ages present to our contemplation the curious and
instructive picture of a long-sustained effort, made under
circumstances in many respects favourable to the attempt, and
which was attended by a very considerable amount of success, to
revert to and to re-establish the old Egyptian unspecialized identity of
the two. This effort was in direct contradiction to the relation in which
the early Christian Church had placed itself to the State; though, of
course, it was countenanced, apparently, by the early history of the
Hebrew Church, which, like that of Egypt, had necessarily embraced,
and contained within itself, the State, in the form and fashion that
had belonged to the requirements of those times. That it had been
so with it, however, only shows, when we regard the fact, as we can
now, historically, that society, there and then, was in so rudimentary
a condition, that its two great organs of order, progress, and life had
not yet been specialized; the ideas and means requisite for this
advance not having been at that time, among the Hebrews, in
existence.

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and for my mother

and in memory of my brother

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1. Water and Soil, Stone and Metal:

2. Law Givers, Emperors, and Gods:

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The Struggle for Jewish Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

4. Greeks and Persians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

5. Classical Greece and the Hellenistic World . . . 129

6. Empire of the Sea: Rome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

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The Sea, the Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

7. The Rise of Christianity in a Roman World. . . . 209

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10. Reform and Renewal in the

12. Renaissances and Reformations. . . . . . . . . . . . 399

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The Renaissance Achievement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

13. Worlds Old and New. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

Though of ten referred to as

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15. From Westphalia to Paris:

16. The Enlightened. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

17. The French Revolution and the Napoleonic

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The Enlightened Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632

18. Industrialization and Its Discontents. . . . . . . . 663

Trying to Catch Up to Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Congress of Vienna emerged

Life in the Industrial Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 contex t of England’s rapid

Riots and Repression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 and unchallenged

Women and Children Last. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 industrialization. Investment

The Romantic Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 in industrial technologies

1815–1848 or of individuals? Were the

Conservatism in Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 social troubles caused by

Royalism and Its Opponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708 industrialization the

The Moral Component of Conservatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 responsibilit y of the state

The Challenge of Liberalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 too? If so, why? Who,

Rebellion and Reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 ultimately, is responsible for

Responses to Liberal Capitalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723 the poor?

The Revolutions of 1848. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

20. Nationalism and Identity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745

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The question arises: Why

22. The Challenge of Secularism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819

23. The Great Land Grab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863

24. The World at War (Part I). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899

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The Balance of Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .904

25. Radical Realignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943

26. The World at War (Part II). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989

27. Theater of the Absurd: The Postwar World. . . 1029

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The Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036

29. Global Warmings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099

Reference Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1

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Map 10.1 The Conversion of the Germanic Peoples to Christianity

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Map 18.2 Industrializing Europe by 1870