KINDS OF PLANTS: FLOWERING PLANTS

(Angiosperms = covered seed)

A. Possess flowers and fruits with seeds

B. Habitat- everywhere; dominant plants of earth's

flora
1. Area
a. Dominant plants in almost every terrestrial environment
b. Exception - northern coniferous forests where dominant plants are
conifers
2. Number of species
a. Estimated at 260,000
b. This is 88% of the species estimated to be in the Plant Kingdom
(295,000)
 Significance of flowering plants
A. Evolutionary significance
1. Most advanced plants on earth
2. Advancements over gymnosperms
a. Flowers- many use animal pollinators- assures
greater reproductive success
b. Fruits and seeds adapted for dispersal
c. Double fertilization (endosperm and embryo in
seed)
d. Other structural advancements (discussed
later)

B. Ecological role significance

1. Food for animals
2. Shelter, and concealment for animals
3. Help form and improve soil; prevent soil erosion
Flowering plants arose about 140 mya
tracheophyte

Aquatic
FLOWERS
 Review of an idealized flower *
-
4 floral organs:
Sepals
(colorful, attracts
pollinators) - Petals
- Stamens
(contains - Carpels/pistils
pollens)

(male
flower
(female
part)
flower part) * Sterile floral
Pistil refers a organs :
single or fused
carpels Sepals and petals

* Fertile floral
organs:
pistils and stamens
(supports petals and
protects the flower
before it opens)

Pedicel/pedicle (flower stem)

Unlike vegetative shoots, flowers are determinate
shoots; they cease growing after the flower and fruit
are formed
 Review of an idealized flower * Perfect (bisexual)
flower:
(colorful, attracts
pollinators) A flower with both
male and female parts
(contains
pollens) * Imperfect (unisex)
flower:
(male
flower
-Staminate: A flower
(female
part)
flower part)
with male part but not
Pistil refers a
female part
single or fused
carpels -Pistillate/Carpellate:
Flower that has
female part but not
male part
* Complete flower:
(supports petals and
protects the flower
Flower with 4 whorls:
before it opens) sepals, petals, pistils
and stamens
Pedicel/pedicle (flower stem)
Unlike vegetative shoots, flowers are determinate * Incomplete flower:
shoots; they cease growing after the flower and fruit Flower missing one of
are formed those floral part
 Review of an idealized flower * Perfect (bisexual)
flower:
(colorful, attracts
pollinators) A flower with both
male and female parts
(contains
pollens) * Imperfect (unisex)
flower:
(male
flower
-Staminate: A flower
(female
part)
flower part)
with male part but not
Pistil refers a
female part
single or fused
carpels -Pistillate/Carpellate:
Complete flowers are always perfect flower Flower that has
female part but not
Imperfect flowers are always incomplete male part
Incomplete flowers may or may not be imperfect * Complete flower:
(supports petals and
protects the flower
Fflower with 4 whorls:
before it opens) sepals, petals, pistils
and stamens
Pedicel (flower stem)
Unlike vegetative shoots, flowers are determinate * Incomplete flower:
shoots; they cease growing after the flower and fruit Flower missing one of
are formed those floral part
 A few examples of floral diversity

(c)

(a)

(b)

(a) Trillium. The flower is complete, meaning that sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels are
all present.

(b) Lupines. Example of plant with inflorescences (i.e. clusters of flowers).

(c) Sunflowers. What appears in this sunflower to be a single flower is actually a collection
of hundreds. The central disk of this composite inflorescence consists of tiny complete
flowers. What appear to be petals ringing the central disk are actually imperfect flowers
called ray flowers.
 male flower
(styles)

female flower

(d)
A few examples of floral diversity
(Cont.)
(d) Maize. Maize is a monoecious species
with inflorescences of carpellate (female) and
staminate (male) flowers on the same
individual plant (unisex flowers). An "ear" of
maize is a collection of kernels (one-seeded
fruits) that develops from an inflorescence of
fertilized carpellate flowers. The maize "silk" is
composed of numerous long styles. The
staminate inflorescences are the tassels. The anthers develop in the tassle (male
https://passel2.unl.edu/view/lesson/bf87afd5be26/4 flower) at the top of the corn plant
 (e)

A few examples of floral

diversity (Cont.) (f)

(e) Lily. This plant species is monoecious and have bisexual flowers (perfect flower/
hermaphroditic plant). Each individual bloom has both male and female parts. This kind of
plant takes the independence of the monoecious plant one step further: the pollination process
is extremely self-contained (i.e. it is not just contained within the scope of a single plant, but
within a single flower)

(f) Sagittaria: is dioecious, its staminate (left) and carpellate (right) flowers on separate plants
(unisex flowers).
https://www.thespruce.com/difference-between-dioecious-and-monoecious-plants-2131039
Monoecious versus Dioecious Plants

- Monoecious: male and

female flowes on one
plant
• Ex: corn, cucumber, oak

- Dioecious: Male and

female flowers on
separate plants
• Ex: asparagus, kiwi
Trends in the Evolution of Flowers

1.Bilateral symmetry

2.Reduction in the number of floral parts

3.Fusion of floral parts

4.Location of ovaries inside receptacles

 Flowers with bilateral
symmetry orient insects
for pollination

 Any advantage for

this?
 Reduction in number of floral parts
(e.g. petal number, stamen number)

 Any advantage for this?

Drooping trillium

Fusion of floral parts

(e.g. petals)

 Any advantage for this?

Location of ovaries
Ovary is embedded in the
receptacle
 Any advantage for this?

Ovary is above the

receptacle
The development of angiosperm
gametophytes and heterospory
 Plant life cycle

Features of gametophyte in
flowering plants:

- Reduced in size: consisting of

a few cells and they are
microscopic

- Dependent on the sporophyte

for nutrients but ... will be
better protected (for
example, from what?)
Plant life cycle: Alternation
of generations between diploid
Campbell Biology 10th Ed. and haploid multicellular stage
 Male gametophyte:
pollen grain

- As the stamens are produced, each

anther develops 4 microsporangia (also
called pollen sacs).

- Within the microsporangia are many

diploid cells called microsporocytes
(microspore mother cells).

- Each microsporocyte undergoes meiosis

(1 round), forming 4 haploid
microspores. Campbell Biology 10th Ed.
Arabidopsis Anther cell development
(14 stages)

E: epidermis En: endothecium

Ms: microsporocytes Msp: microspore
PG: pollen grain Sm: septum
St: stomium T: tapetum
- By stage 5, the characteristic four-lobed morphology and anther morphogenesis is complete

- In each lobe, there are four nonreproductive layers from the surface to the interior: epidermis,
endothecium, the middle layer, and tapetum.

- Subsequently, at stage 6, the Ms undergo meiosis

- Microspores then develop into pollen grains during stages 9–12

- At stage 12, pollen mitotic divisions occur
Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 2005. 56:393–434
 Male gametophyte:
pollen grain

- Each microspore then undergoes mitosis,

producing a haploid male gametophyte
consisting of only 2 cells: the generative
cell and the tube cell.

- Together, these two cells and the spore

wall constitute a pollen grain.

Campbell Biology 10th Ed.

Pollen grains have tough, ornate, and
distinctive walls

The spore wall, which consists of

material produced by both the
microspore and the anther,
usually exhibits an elaborate
pattern unique to the species.
SEM micrographs of pollen grains of genus Globba
ScienceAsia 44 (2018): 146-161
Male gametophyte:
pollen grain

- During maturation of the male

gametophyte, the generative cell passes
into the tube cell: The tube cell
now has a completely free-standing cell
inside it.

Campbell Biology 10th Ed.

 Female gametophyte: embryo sacs
- Embryo sac is developed inside
each ovule, within a tissue called
megasporangium
- Each megasporangium is
surrounded by 2 integuments
(layers of protective sporophyte
tissue that will develop into seed
coat), except a gap called
micropyle
- Female gametophyte development
begins when one cell in the
megasporangium of each ovule
(called megasporocyte or
megaspore mother cell), enlarges
and undergoes meiosis, producing
four haploid megaspores. Only
one megaspore survives; the
others degenerate.
Campbell Biology 10th Ed.
Female gametophyte: embryo sacs

- The nucleus of the surviving

megaspore divides by mitosis 3
times without cytokinesis,
resulting in one large
cell with eight haploid nuclei.
- The multinucleate mass is
then divided by membranes to
form the embryo sac.
 Female gametophyte: embryo sacs
- The cell fates of the nuclei
are determined by a gradient
of the hormone auxin
originating near the micropyle:

+ At the micropylar end of the embryo

sac: 2 cells called synergids flank the
egg and help attract and guide the
pollen tube to the embryo sac.

+ At the opposite end of the embryo

sac: 3 antipodal cells of unknown
function.
The mature
embryo sac + The other 2 nuclei (called polar nuclei)
thus consists are not partitioned into separate
of 8 nuclei cells but share the cytoplasm of the
contained Chalazal end
large central cell of the embryo sac.
within 7 cells.
Mycropylar end
 Arabidopsis
female
gametophyte
(confocal
images)
Annu. Rev. Plant
Biol. 2010. 61:89–
108

Nucleus with megasprore One-nucleate embryo sac An early two-nucleate

mother cell (green) and (green) and degenerating embryo sac ( green)
primordia of inner (it) and megaspores (yellow)
outer (ot) integuments; close to the micropyle

2n+2n 4n+4n
configuration configuration

A four-nucleate An early eight-nucleate embryo sac A mature embryo sac

embryo sac (green) (green), with antipodal nuclei (pink),
(green)
polar nuclei (blue), egg nucleus
(red), and synergid nuclei (yellow)
 The development of angiosperm
gametophytes (pollen and embryo sacs)

1 anther > 4 pollen

sacs (2n) 2n

1 Microsporocyte
(2n)  4
n
microspores (n)

1 microspore (n) 
1 generative cell
(n) + 1 tube cell (n)
(male
gametophyte)
n
Pollen grain =
generative cell +
tube cell + spore
wall
 The development of angiosperm
gametophytes (pollen and embryo sacs)

1 anther > 4 pollen 1 Ovule (2n) > 1

sacs (2n) megasporangium (2n)
2n

1 Microsporocyte 1 Megasporocyte
(2n)  4 (2n)  1 surviving
n megaspore (n)
microspores (n)

1 microspore (n)  1 megaspore (n)  2

1 generative cell synergids (n) + 1 egg
(n) + 1 tube cell (n) (n) + 3 antipodals (n)
(male + 1 central cell (n +
gametophyte) n) (female
n gametophyte)
Pollen grain =
generative cell +
tube cell + spore
wall
Pollination
 Pollination
- After the microsporangium breaks
open and releases the pollen, a pollen
grain may be transferred to a
receptive surface of a stigma—the act
of pollination.

- At the time of pollination, the pollen

grain absorbs water and germinates by
producing a pollen tube, a long cellular
protuberance that delivers sperm to
the female gametophyte.

- A pollen tube can grow very quickly, at

a rate of 1 cm/hr or more.

Campbell Biology 10th Ed.

 Pollination

- As the pollen tube elongates through the

style, the nucleus of the generative cell
divides by mitosis and produces two sperm,
which remain inside the tube cell.

- The tube nucleus then leads the two sperm

as the tip of the pollen tube grows toward
the micropyle in response to chemical
attractants produced by the synergids.

- The arrival of the pollen tube initiates the

death of one of the two synergids, thereby
providing a passageway into the embryo sac.

- The tube nucleus and the two sperm are then

discharged from the pollen tube in the
vicinity of the female gametophyte.

Campbell Biology 10th Ed.

 Methods for Pollination

- ~ 80% of angiosperm pollination is biotic agent-dependent

(bees, moths, butteflies, birds, other kinds of animals)
 65% are insect-dependent

- Among abiotically pollination species:

 98% rely on wind (what are adaptive features?)
 2% on water
Abiotic Pollination by wind

- Flowers with no attracted

features for living organisms
(e.g. not colourful, not strong
scent, not produce sugary
solution in nectar)

- Modify flower parts for

enhancement of pollen
capture

- Pollens are present in high

number, smaller size and
ready for wind blow
 Pollination by bees

- Bees are an important insect

pollinator

- Bee-pollinated flowers
usually have a delicate, sweet
fragrance.

- Bees are attracted to bright

colors (yellow, blue)
Red appears dull to bee, but they can see
ultraviolet radiation. For example, dandelion
(Taraxacum vulgare), have ultraviolet
markings called “nectar guides” that help
insects locate the nectaries (nectar-
producing glands).
Pollination by moths and butterflies

- Moths and butterflies

detect odors

- The flowers attracting them

usually have sweet fragrance.

- Butterflies perceive bright

colors

- Moths is attracted by light

color (white, yellow flower)
Pollination by flies

- Many fly-pollinated flowers

are reddish and fleshy, with
an odor like rotten meat.

- Attrated by light-colored
and aromatic flowers
Pollination by bats

- These are nocturnal

pollinators

- Attrated by light-colored
and aromatic flowers
Pollination by birds

- Flowers are usually large and

bright red or yellow, but
little odor.

- Attrated by light-colored
and aromatic flowers
 Angiosperms and animals have evolved very intricate mutualistic
interactions involving pollination - interactions that benefit both.

Where is nectar produced?

40
Double fertilization
 Double fertilization

- One sperm fertilizes the egg,

forming the zygote (2n).

- The other sperm combines with the

two polar nuclei in the center of
the large central cell to form
endosperm (3n), a food-storing
tissue of the seed.

- Double fertilization ensures that

endosperm develops only in ovules
where the egg has been fertilized,
thereby preventing angiosperms
from squandering nutrients
on infertile ovules.
 Double fertilization

- Near the time of double

fertilization, the tube nucleus, the
other synergid, and the antipodal
cells degenerate.
.
 Plants have various mechanisms that
prevent self-fertilization

Some flowers self-fertilize, but the majority of angiosperms have mechanisms that
make it difficult or impossible for a flower to fertilize itself.

The various barriers that prevent self-fertilization contribute to genetic variety by

ensuring that sperms and eggs come from different parents

- Unisexual flowers cannot self-fertilize

- Bisexual flowers have stamens and carpels that mature at different times
(Maturity barrier)

- Bisexual flowers are structurally arranged in such a way that it is unlikely that
an animal pollinator could transfer pollen from the anthers to the stigma of the
same flower (Anatomy barrier)

- The most common anti-selfing mechanism in flowering plants is self-

incompatibility: the ability of a plant to reject its own pollen and the pollen of
closely related individuals.
"Pin" and "thrum" flower types reduce
self-fertilization
Oval: stamens Dark-filled: mature Dichogamy: separation in time Distylyl: 2 coexistent morphs
Inverted T: pistils Light-filled: immature Herkogamy: separation in space Tristylyl: 3 coexistent morphs

Protandry: the plant

sheds pollen before
the stigma are
receptive. Then, when
the female
organs are receptive,
they may be only or
predominantly
fertilized by pollen
from other plants.

Protogyny: The
female organs of the
flowers mature and
Schematic diagram showing alternative (not mutually become receptive
exclusive) strategies to stimulate outcrossing in prior to male organs,
hermaphrodite plants and reduce autogamy so that pollen shed
by a plant may only
fertilize stigmas
that are receptive in
other plants.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-227050-9/00018-1
 Genetic basis of self-incompatibility

Front. Plant Sci. 2019; 10: 407.

 Genetic basis of self-incompatibility

In GSI, the pollen carries one of two S-haplotypes of

the pollen parent (pollen donor), in this case either S1
or S2.

If the S-haplotype of the pollen matches one of the two

S-haplotypes of the pistil, the pollen is rejected (e.g.
pollen destruction, pollen tube destruction by enzyme,
RNA of pollen tube us destroyed by enzyme)
Front. Plant Sci. 2019; 10: 407.
 Genetic basis of self-incompatibility

In SSI, the pollen S-haplotype is determined by both S-

haplotypes of the pollen parent.

If the S-haplotype of the pollen donor matches one or both

S-haplotypes of the pistil, the pollen is rejected and will not
germinate.

This figure represents SSI in case of co-dominance

between S-alleles. In SSI of certain species, the presence
of dominant/recessive alleles can result in more complex
Front. Plant Sci. 2019; 10: 407.
patterns of compatibility/incompatibility.
 Genetic basis of self-incompatibility
In GSI, the pollen carries one of two S-haplotypes
of the pollen parent (pollen donor), in this case
either S1 or S2.
If the S-haplotype of the pollen matches one of the
two S-haplotypes of the pistil, the pollen is rejected
or complete pollen tube growth is prevented,
leading to blocking of fertilization.
Front. Plant Sci. 2019; 10: 407.
In SSI, the pollen S-haplotype is determined by
both S-haplotypes of the pollen parent.
If the S-haplotype of the pollen donor matches
one or both S-haplotypes of the pistil, the pollen is
rejected and will not germinate. This figure
represents SSI in case of co-dominance between
S-alleles. In SSI of certain species, the presence
of dominant/recessive alleles can result in more
complex patterns of compatibility/incompatibility.
Major differences between GSI and SSI

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817563-7.00002-7
Seed structure and
development
Seed development
After double fertilization:

•the ovule  develops  a seed,

•the ovary  develops  a fruit enclosing
the seed(s) and aiding dispersal by wind or
animals
•Endosperm development  precedes 
embryo development

-The seeds are a major nutrient drain: As

the sporophyte embryo develops from the
zygote, the seed stockpiles proteins, oils, and
starch to varying degrees, depending on the
species.

- The seeds are the driest living plant tissue

(<20% H2O of its weight)

- The seed coat is resistant and buoyant

The ovary develops into a fruit adapted
for seed dispersal
Development of a pea fruit (pod)

(a) Soon after pollination (b) The flower drops its (c) The ovary expands, and its
petals, and hormonal wall thickens forming the pod,
changes make the ovary or fruit
start growing.
 The development of endosperm
- Endosperm usually develops before the embryo does.

- After double fertilization, the triploid nucleus of the ovule’s

central cell divides, forming a multinucleate “supercell”
that has a milky consistency.

- This liquid mass (i.e. the endosperm) becomes multicellular

when cytokinesis partitions the cytoplasm by forming
membranes between the nuclei.

- Eventually, these “naked” cells produce cell walls, and the

endosperm becomes solid.
 The development of endosperm
- Coconut “milk” and “meat” are examples of liquid and solid
endosperm, respectively.

- The white fluffy part of popcorn is also endosperm.

 The development of endosperm

- In grains and most other species of monocots, as well

as many eudicots, the endosperm stores nutrients that can
be used by the seedling after germination.

- In other eudicot seeds, the food reserves of the endosperm

are completely exported to the cotyledons before the seed
completes its development; consequently, the mature seed
lacks endosperm.
 (seed coat)

single cell
pea: layer of
without endosperm
endosperm in
mature seeds

The micropylar
endosperm
(several cell
layers) is known
to be a
germination
constraint of
Solanaceae
seeds (c, d)

New Phytologist, Volume: 171: 501-523

 The development of embryo

- The first mitotic division of

the zygote splits the
fertilized egg into a basal
cell and a terminal cell (might
be similar or different in
 embryo
size).
mitosis
 suspensor
- The terminal cell eventually
gives rise to most of the
embryo.

- The basal cell continues to

divide, producing a thread of
cells called the suspensor,
which anchors the embryo to
the parent plant.
 The development of embryo
- The suspensor helps in
transferring nutrients
to the embryo from the
parent plant and, in some
species, from the endosperm.

mitosis  embryo - As the suspensor elongates,

 suspensor
it pushes the embryo deeper
into the nutritive and
protective tissues.

- Meanwhile, the terminal cell

divides several times and
forms a spherical proembryo
(early embryo) attached to
the suspensor.
 The development of embryo
- The cotyledons begin to form
as bumps on the proembryo.

- A eudicot, with its two

cotyledons, is heart-shaped
at this stage. Only one
mitosis  embryo cotyledon develops in
 suspensor
monocots.

- Soon after the rudimentary

cotyledons appear, the
embryo elongates. Cradled
between the two cotyledons
is the embryonic shoot apex.
 The development of embryo

- At the opposite end of the

embryo’s axis, where the
suspensor attaches, an
embryonic root apex
forms.
mitosis  embryo
 suspensor
- After the seed germinates,
the apical meristems at the
apices of shoots and roots
sustain primary growth.
Apical-basal patterning and hypophysis specification
in early embryogenesis of Arabidopsis thaliana

(a) Expression
patterns of
WRKY2 and
early-
expressed
WOX genes.

(b) Auxin
signaling and
hypophysis
specification.
(Embryos not
drawn to scale.)
Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 2012. 63:483–506

Hypophysis: a cell basally adjacent to the embryo proper and involved in root pole formation
(a) Expression patterns of genes
important for establishment of the
shoot meristem and initiation of
cotyledons in A. thaliana during the
transition stage and the heart
stage.

(b) Pathways and hormonal

regulation in shoot meristem and
cotyledon initiation.

(c) Expression patterns

of KAN1 and HD-ZIP III genes
(exemplarily shown for REV,
which includes domains of all
other members), auxin flow
mediated by PIN1 (idealized
representation), and DR5
response. Embryos not drawn to
scale.

Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 2012. 63:483–506

Seed Parts

1. Embryo - grows into sporophyte

2. Endosperm - food reserve
3. Integuments (seed coat, testa) - protection
Options for Food Storage in Seed
A. Endosperm (e.g. castor bean seeds, corn)
• Fusion product of two polar nuclei in ovule
• Grows by nuclear division while embryo is dormant
• Often 3n tissue
• Ranges from solid material to liquid

B. Seed leaves (Cotyledons) (e.g. Garden bean seeds,

pea seeds)

C. None (e.g. orchid seeds)

Seed weights range from less than 1 μg for

some orchids to 20 kg for coco-de-mer palms
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/05/coco-de-mer-islanders-rally-to-save-worlds-biggest-seed-aoe
Structure of a mature seed

Below where the two cotyledons (seed leaves)

are attached, the embryonic axis is called the
hypocotyl (from the Greek hypo, under). The
hypocotyl terminates in the radicle, or
embryonic root.

The portion of the embryonic axis above

where the cotyledons are attached and below
the first pair of miniature leaves is the
epicotyl (from the Greek epi, on, over).

The epicotyl, young leaves, and shoot apical

meristem are collectively called the plumule.
Seed germination
Evolutionary adaptations of seed germination
contribute to seedling survival

• As a seed matures, it dehydrates and enters a phase referred to as

dormancy (from the Latin word meaning "to sleep"), a condition of
extremely low metabolic rate and a suspension of growth and development

Seed Dormancy

• The length of time a dormant seed remains viable and capable of

germinating varies from a few days to decades or even longer, depending
on the species and environmental conditions

• Seed dormancy increases the chances that germination will occur at a time
and place most advantageous to the seedling

• Breaking dormancy generally requires certain environmental conditions

 What are the natural triggers?
• Substantial rainfall (water)
• Fires (heat, smoke)
• Season (winter  spring)
• Light (using phytochromes)
• Chemicals (seeds passed through
animal’s digestive system)

Find examples yourself!

 From Seed to Seedling
• Germination of seeds depends on the physical process of imbibition, the uptake of water
due to the low water potential of the dry seed.

• Imbibing water causes the seed to expand and rupture its coat and also triggers metabolic
changes in the embryo that enable it to resume growth.

• Following hydration, enzymes begin digesting the storage materials of the endosperm or
cotyledons, and the nutrients are transferred to the growing regions of the embryo.

• The first organ to emerge from the germinating seed is the radicle, the embryonic root. (why
this makes sense?)

DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-06542-7_25
 From Seed to Seedling
• Next, the shoot tip must break through the soil surface: In garden beans and many other
dicots, a hook forms in the hypocotyl, and growth pushes the hook aboveground

• Stimulated by light, the hypocotyl straightens, raising the cotyledons and epicotyl

• Thus, the delicate shoot apex and bulky cotyledons are pulled aboveground, rather than
being pushed tip-first through the abrasive soil.

• The epicotyl now spreads its first foliage leaves (true leaves, so called to distinguish them
from cotyledons, or "seed leaves").

• The foliage leaves expand, become green, and begin making food by photosynthesis

• Light seems to be the main cue that tells the seedling it has broken ground
 Seed germination

Some monocots, such as maize and other grasses, use a

. different method for breaking ground when they germinate. The
coleoptile pushes up through the soil and into the air. The shoot
tip grows through the tunnel provided by the coleoptile and
breaks through the coleoptile’s tip.
Hormonal effects on seed dormancy

- The ratio of ABA to

gibberellins determines
whether seeds remain
dormant or germinate

- Cross-talk between
the two hormonal
pathways via various
members (WRKY,
XERICO, DELLA,
DOG1, MFT,
SnRK2/PKABA)

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.00668
IAA application decreases the ratio IAA delays soybean seed
between GA4 and ABA coat rupture and radicle
protrusion

DOI:10.1038/s41598-017-13093-w
• After water is imbibed, the release of gibberellins from
the embryo signals the seeds to break dormancy and
germinate by stimulating the synthesis of digestive
enzymes such as α-amylase that mobilize stored
nutrients
2 The aleurone responds by
1 After a seed synthesizing and secreting
imbibes water, the digestive enzymes that 3 Sugars and other
embryo releases hydrolyze stored nutrients in nutrients absorbed
gibberellin (GA) the endosperm. One example from the endosperm
as a signal to the is -amylase, which hydrolyzes by the scutellum
aleurone, the thin starch. (A similar enzyme in (cotyledon) are consumed
outer layer of the our saliva helps in digesting during growth of the
endosperm. bread and other starchy foods.) embryo into a seedling.

Aleurone

Endosperm

-amylase Sugar
GA

GA
Water

Radicle
Scutellum
(cotyledon)
Seed Dispersal from the Parent Site

By water

By animals
(seeds may have stickers,
hooks or fuzz to adhere) By wind
78
 Seed bank – germplasm conservation
Svalbard Global Seed Vault (Arctic)
The seeds are stored in
sealed three-ply foil
packages (to exclude
moisture) and then placed
into plastic tote containers
on metal shelving racks.
The storage rooms are kept
at −18 °C .
The low temperature and
limited access to oxygen will
ensure low metabolic activity
and delay seed aging.
The permafrost surrounding
the facility will help maintain
the low temperature of the
seeds if the electricity
supply fails.
Fruit structure and functions
 Fruit - Seed Protection and Dispersal
1. Develops from
ovary tissue And Fertilization triggers hormonal
other parts of the changes that cause the ovary to
flower begin its transformation into a fruit.
2. Surrounds and
protects the
seed(s)
3. Important in seed
dispersal
4. Initial nutrient
source
Correspondence between flower and fruit

http://w3.dwm.ks.edu.tw/bio/activelearner/35/images/ch35summary.gif
 Types of Fruits

1. Fleshy - attract animal dispersers to move

seeds to new locations after successfully
passing through the digestive system of the
animal
2. Non-fleshy - other mechanisms for seed
dispersal
3. Parthenocarp - fruits developed without
fertilization (typically seedless)

Find examples from nature

 Classifying Fruits
1. Depends on number of ovaries and number of
flowers involved formation

2. Classified into 3 major groups

– Simple - from single mature ovary or several fused
carpels in a single flower
– Aggregate – from a single flower with more than one
separate carpels (each forming a single fruit called
Fruitlets)
– Multiple – from an inflorescence: matured ovaries of
several flowers united into a cluster. When the walls of
the ovaries start to thicken, they fuse together and
become incorporated into one fruit
3. May belong to accessory fruits or not
A fruit usually ripens about the same time that its seeds
complete their development.
 Fruit Layers
(Receptacle)
1. Ovary wall
often
thickens 
Pericarp
2. May be
differentiated
into three,
more or less
distinct,
layers • Exocarp - outermost layer; often epidermis
• Mesocarp - middle layer; varies in thickness
• Endocarp - inner most layer; considerable
variation from one species to another
 Types of Simple Fruits

A. Can be fleshy or non-

fleshy (i.e. dry)
B. Non-fleshy fruits can
be
Dehiscent - split open
when fully mature
Indehiscent - do not split
open when mature
Simple Fleshy Fruits
(Pericarp is Fleshy at maturity)

1. BERRY - layers of pericarp fused; lots of seeds

1a. Pepo - hard rind (exocarp); only in Cucurbitaceae (e.g.,
squash)
1b. Hesperidium - leathery exocarp rind with oil glands (Citrus);
mesocarp white parenchyma tissue; endocarp multicellular
juice sac hairs
 Essential oils (terpenes and phenolic compounds) in the pits of the lemon are responsible
for the aroma given off when the peels are bruised or ground up.
The bitter chemical found in the mesocarp and parchment-like layers (partitions)
surrounding the sections (carpels) of citrus fruits is limonin.

https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/termfr4.htm
A fruit with
fleshy seeds

An aril is an outgrowth from

a particular point on the
seed

https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/termfr4.htm
Simple Fleshy Fruits
(Pericarp is Fleshy at maturity)

2. DRUPE - stone fruit, derived

from a single carpel and
containing (usually) one
seed
 (coir- hard
fiber embbeded
in parenchymal
tissue)

(Lignified)

Coconut - a
specialized
drupe
Simple Fleshy Fruits
(Cont.)
3. POME - Rose family
only; from several
carpels; also example
of an assessory fruit
due to tissues besides
carpel
Dry Fruits - pericarp dries at maturity
(DEHISCENT)

1. FOLLICLE - one carpel; pod-like fruit

splits along single suture (seam)
Dry Fruits - Dehiscent (cont.)

2. LEGUME - one carpel;

splitting along two sutures

- A legume (such as a bean pod) is

composed of a folded carpel.
- It splits lengthwise along two seams
into two sections, each of which
represents half of a carpel.
- Some legume pods, such as carob and
mesquite, are indehiscent and do not
split open.
Dry Fruits - Dehiscent (cont.)

3. SILIQUE – 2 carpels
separated by a
seed-bearing
septum
Dry Fruits -
Dehiscent (cont.)
4. CAPSULE – composed of
several fused carpels;
can split along various
sutures

The separate carpels of a true capsule are originally

fused together to form the pistil or gynoecium.
They separate along the septa or along the locules
between septa.
https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/termfr1.htm
Dry Fruits - do not split
at maturity Striped fruits
for food

INDEHISCENT
1. ACHENE - one-seeded fruit; Black fruits
seed attached to pericarp at for oil
one point only (i.e two layers
of seed coat and pericarp are
not fused and can be easily
separated)
Ex: sunflower fruit

https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/termfr2.htm
Dry Fruits -
INDEHISCENT (cont.)

2. SAMARA - one- or two-

seeded fruit; pericarp bearing a
wing like outgrowth (modified
achene: winged pericarp)
Dry Fruits - do not split
at maturity

INDEHISCENT (Cont.)
Rice (Oryza sativa).
A. Grain-bearing spikelet showing a pair of slender
3. CARYOPSIS (grain): one-
basal bracts (glumes) and the stalk (pedicel). The seeded fruit; attached to
inflorescence is composed of numerous spikelets, pericarp at all possible points
each bearing a rice grain.
B. An empty spikelet with the lemma and palea (i.e. pericarp and seed coat
slightly separated from each other. These two are fused)
leathery bracts enclosed the grain or caryopsis.
C. A grain (caryopsis) removed from spikelet. The Ex: rice, wheat, maize
embryo or germ is at upper end. Beneath the
brownish outer pericarp and seed coat layers
(called the bran) is the endosperm tissue. Most of
the vitamin B1 is found in the germ and bran portions,
which are milled off in polished white rice. https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/termfr2.htm
Dry Fruits -
INDEHISCENT (cont.)

4. NUT - one-seeded fruit;

generally from compound
ovary; with the hard pericarp

Ex: cashew nut

 Aggregate Fruits
1. A fruit derived from a single flower with
many pistils resulting in many matured
ovaries
2. Each "Fruitlet" is the product of one carpel.
3. Individual ovaries called fruitlets.
4. Hard to distinguish between multiple and
aggregate fruit without knowledge of the
flower.
 Multiple Fruits
1. Fruit derived from
several or multiple
flowers clustered along
a common axis.
2. Typically are accessory
fruits
Accessory Fruits

1. Develop from tissues

surrounding the ovary
2. Generally develop from
flowers that have inferior
ovaries
3. Receptacle or
hypanthium becomes a
part of the fruit
4. Accessory fruits can be
simple, aggregate or
multiple
Seedless fruits

doi: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01997
FLOWERING
• The flowers of a given plant species typically appear
suddenly and simultaneously at a specific time of year.

• Such synchrony promotes outbreeding, the main

advantage of sexual reproduction.

• The switch of shoot vegetative meristem into a floral

meristem is triggered by a combination of environmental
cues (e.g. day length) and internal signals (e.g.
hormone) (review Plant Response lecture).
 Genetic Control of Flowering

• Is associated with the switching on of floral

meristem identity genes (belong to MADS-box
family).

• The protein products of these genes are

transcription factors that regulate the genes required
for the conversion of the indeterminate vegetative
meristems to determinate floral meristems
 Once the transition to flowering has begun, the order of each organ’s
emergence from the floral meristem determines whether it will develop
into a sepal, petal, stamen, or carpel.

Classical ABC model

 Revised ABC model

The quartet model,

with an expanded E
function (SEP genes)

AP: APETALA
PI: PISTILLATA
AG: AGAMOUS
SEP: SEPALLATA (AG-LIKE)

Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 2005. 56:393–434

Flowering plants reproduce sexually,
asexually, or both
Classification
• Angiosperms (angio
= covered, sperm =
seed) have sizes
ranging from 1-mm
(duckweed - Wolffia)
to 100-m tall
(Australian gum tree -
Eucalpytus).
Two classes (Cronquist’s System-1981):
• Magnoliopsida (dicots: embryos with 2
seed leaves)
• Liliopsida (monocot: embryos with 1 seed
leaf)
Recent DNA studies indicate that the species traditionally called dicots are paraphyletic.

The vast majority of species once categorized as dicots form a large clade, now known as
eudicots (“true” dicots).

The rest of the former dicots are now grouped into four small lineages:
* Three of these are informally called basal angiosperms because they appear to
include the flowering plants belonging to the oldest lineages.
* A fourth lineage, the magnoliids, evolved later.

Paraphyletic group: consists of ancestral

species and some of its descendants
 Angiosperm phylogeny
Molecular and morphological
evidence suggests that
Amborella trichopoda and water
lilies are living representatives
for the most ancient lineages of
extant angiosperms.

Overall, based on the features

of ancestral species and basal
angiosperms, it is hypothesized
that early angiosperms were
shrubs that had small
flowers and relatively simple
water-conducting cells.

Amborella is woody (shrub).

Like the Bennettitales, Amborella and other basal angiosperms lacked

vessel elements.
 Dicot subclasses

doi.org/10.1007/0-387-28875-9_75
Monocot subclasses

Keep update with the classification

doi.org/10.1007/0-387-28875-9_75
Human benefits from seed plants
• Can you list the benefits and give example
for the plant species?
Simplified Overview of Angiosperm Life Cycle
Detailed summary of angiosperm life cycle
-END-