Module 1 – Disasters, Disaster Risk, and Resilience

Introduction

The Philippines, a nation rich in culture and biodiversity, has faced the enduring
challenge of coping with disasters throughout its history. These catastrophic events,
often synonymous with destruction, loss of life, and devastation, have left an indelible
mark on the nation. Despite the prevalent awareness through experience of these
disasters, there exists a significant gap in understanding their intricate components
and drivers that would enable us to reduce disaster risk more effectively.

This module aims to delve into the multifaceted realm of disasters in the
Philippines, transcending the common narrative of destruction to unravel the
complexities that underlie these events. From ancient times to the present day, the
country has grappled with natural calamities and anthropogenic factors, shaping the
dynamics of disasters in unique ways.

Our exploration begins by dissecting the very nature of disasters, breaking down
their defining characteristics and examining the underlying drivers that enable the
occurrence of disasters. While the term 'disaster' is often associated with grim
aftermath, this module seeks to shift the focus toward proactive understanding,
empowering individuals to comprehend why these events occur.

The course will shed light on the intrinsic connection between disasters and the
broader context of natural and anthropogenic hazards, accentuating the interplay
between environmental factors and human activities. Moreover, as climate change
increasingly amplifies the frequency and intensity of disasters worldwide, grasping the
nexus between climate dynamics and disaster vulnerability becomes paramount.

Students enrolling in this course will embark on a comprehensive journey,

gaining insights into the root causes, characteristics, and components of disasters in
the Philippines. By fostering a nuanced understanding of the relationship between
disasters and their contextual hazards, participants will be equipped with the
knowledge necessary to contribute to disaster resilience efforts.
Module Learning Outcomes/ Objectives

After working on this module, you should be able to:

1. Familiarize with the different terminologies associated with disaster risk
2. Identify and differentiate the various components and drivers of disaster risk
3. Discuss ways for building resilience and reducing disaster risk.

1. Components and drivers of disaster risk

1.1. Different Factors and Drivers of Disaster Risk

"The calamities of tragedy do not simply happen, nor are they sent; they
proceed mainly from actions, and those the actions of men" (Bradley, A. C.
Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth.
2nd ed. London: Macmillan, 1905).

Risk is commonly understood as a factor associated with danger that may lead
to accidents or adverse events. This aligns with the concept of disaster risk in the field
of disaster management. Both terms involve assessing the likelihood of an event
occurring and its potential negative consequences, as outlined in Republic Act No.
10121 (2009).

According to this legislation, disaster risk is technically defined as the possible

loss of life, injury, or damage to assets within a system, society, or community during
a specific timeframe. This definition is determined probabilistically, taking into account
hazard, exposure, vulnerability, and capacity. The law goes on to define a disaster as
a significant disruption to the functioning of a community or society, resulting in
widespread human, material, economic, or environmental losses and impacts. A key
aspect is that such a situation surpasses the affected community or society's ability to
cope using its own resources. Disasters are often attributed to the combination of
exposure to a hazard, existing conditions of vulnerability, and insufficient capacity or
measures to mitigate or manage the potential negative consequences.

Given this definition, we can at least have a grasp that disaster happens when
the risk from the interaction of hazards, exposure, vulnerability, and capacity affects
the human system negatively. Thus, the formula:

Disaster (risk) = Hazards + Exposure + Vulnerability

Capacity

To fully understand why and how disaster happens, we need to define its
different elements such as hazard, exposure, vulnerability and capacity as defined in
RA 10121:

● Hazard - a process, phenomenon or human activity that may cause loss of life,
injury or other health impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption

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 or environmental degradation. Examples are floods, volcanic eruption and
earthquake

● Exposure – the degree to which the elements at risk are likely to experience
hazard events of different magnitudes. E.g., people, buildings, hospitals,
farms, etc.in the path of hazard processes and impacts.

● Vulnerability – the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system,

or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard. This
susceptibility can stem from a range of factors, including physical, social,
economic, and environmental elements. Examples of contributing factors
include poorly designed and constructed buildings, insufficient protection of
assets, limited public information and awareness, official underestimation of
risks and preparedness measures, and a lack of consideration for responsible
environmental management. For instance, a dwelling constructed with
lightweight materials may be more prone to severe wind damage from tropical
storms and more likely to collapse compared to a structure made of concrete.
Similarly, an elderly individual with mobility issues may face greater challenges
in evacuating during an emergency than the general population.

● Capacity – the combination of all strengths and resources present within a

community, society, or organization, with the aim of diminishing the level of risk
or mitigating the impact of a disaster. This encompasses infrastructure, physical
assets, institutional frameworks, societal coping mechanisms, and human
attributes such as knowledge, skills, and collective qualities like social
relationships, leadership, and management capabilities. Capacity can also be
synonymous with capability. For instance, examples of capacity might involve
secure land and house ownership, reliable sources of income, social capital
derived from family and community support during crises, local knowledge, and
effective leadership.

Listen to Dr. Likha Minimo's discussion of hazard, exposure and vulnerability: ( please
add doc likha’s video) https://youtu.be/RWOTGX9DjZs

These risk components have underlying drivers. UNDRR in its Global

Assessment Report in 2019 highlighted that increasing poverty, environmental
degradation, poorly managed urban development and interconnected financial
systems in our societies fuel the increase of exposure and vulnerability of our
population to various hazards. This further leads us to the realization of risks (i.e.,
disasters) often in the form of failing infrastructures, food insecurity, extinction of
species, and financial crises. Depending on regional and local contexts, risk can be
compounded by factors like demographic change, complexity of supply chains, and
limited availability of technology. At the international level, we have disaster and
climate change-related treaties, agreements, and frameworks. Although many
countries have legislated these in their territories, poor implementation and regulation
at local levels are very evident. We often see policies that are not disaster and climate-
risk-informed. Unsustainable practices in our use of natural resources and production
of goods and services are still prevalent.

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Other concepts related to risks:

Perceived Risk: People respond differently to danger signals. When faced with
dreadful risks (i.e., events that are difficult to control, with known high catastrophic
potential or fatal consequences), people tend to act. However, when the risks are
unknown (i.e., delayed or unobservable effects, or when events are new or not yet
fully understood even by experts), people may neglect or not consider them. For
example, people who have seen the effects of previous super typhoons in their own
families may dread the impacts of storm surges, landslides, or flash floods more than
those who have never experienced one before. Some communities may not be
alarmed by climate change because they think its effects will remain unknown until
they experience the crisis firsthand.

Acceptable Risk or Tolerable risk is the extent to which a disaster risk is deemed
acceptable or tolerable depending on existing social, economic, political, cultural,
technical, and environmental conditions. Individuals and people groups may have
varied levels or thresholds for risks we are willing to take, balancing it with the benefits
of other factors. For example, oftentimes, local officials face difficulty in encouraging
people to evacuate because some residents are more scared to lose their belongings
or sources of livelihood to looters than being stuck in their homes during flood events.
Some individuals would only evacuate if a person whose judgment they trust (i.e., an
experienced community leader) initiates.

Systemic Risks are those that are emergent, and not necessarily obvious until the
disaster occurs. For example, because we have interconnected systems of policies
and financing, with each level and subunit having its vulnerabilities, when a hazard
event occurs, an effect in one part may lead to the system collapsing, affecting more
people and infrastructures.

Residual Risk is the disaster risk that remains even when effective disaster risk
reduction measures are in place. This is why emergency response and recovery
capacities must be maintained.

Assessing the levels of these risks in our communities is very important in setting up
warning systems and advocating proactive measures of risk reduction.

Fon the different disaster risk-related terms used in Philippine legislation, you
can read: Republic Act No. 10121 at
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2010/05/27/republic-act-no-10121/

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Activity Assessment No. 1

Please watch the video titled “2022 Natural Disasters: A Look Back” by
Inquirer.net which can be found at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j7_oqTdHGbk.
After watching the video, please choose one (1) disaster that resonates with you the
most. Thereafter, identify the main and associated or secondary hazards related to
the disaster and list why the people or area have been affected or based on its
exposure, vulnerability, and insufficient capacity. You may use the table below as a
guide:

DISASTER:
Main and exposure vulnerability insufficient
associated capacity
hazards

1.2. Climate

Climate, as a general term, refers to the long-term pattern of weather conditions

in a particular area. In contrast, weather is short-term, accounting for hour-to-hour,
day-to-day, month-to-month, or even year-to-year conditions. A region's weather
patterns, typically tracked for at least 30 years, are considered its climate (National
Geographic Education website). However, in recent years, changes in climate have
been observed. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated in
their Assessment Report (2001) that the global average surface temperature (the
average of near-surface air temperature over land and sea surface temperature) has
increased since 1861. They further reported that over the 20th century, the increase
has been 0.6 ± 0.2°C. Additionally, since the late 1950s, the overall global temperature
increases in the lowest 8 kilometers of the atmosphere and in surface temperature
have been similar at 0.1°C per decade. Snow cover and ice extent have decreased to
about 10% based on satellite data, and ground-based observations show that there is
very likely to have been a reduction of about two weeks in the annual duration of lake
and river ice cover in the mid- and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere over the
20th century. It was reported that the global average sea level rose between 0.1 and
0.2 meters during the 20th century, and ocean heat content has increased since the
late 1950s.

These changes in the global climate have been referred to as climate change,
scientifically defined by the IPCC (2007) as "a change in the state of the climate that
can be identified (e.g., using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the
variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades
or longer. It refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability
or as a result of human activity." However, the UNFCCC defines it as "a change of

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climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the
composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate
variability observed over comparable time periods." In the Philippines, it was defined
by RA 9729 as a change in climate that can be identified by changes in the mean
and/or variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically
decades or longer, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity.

Climate change increases and magnifies the risk of disasters because it can
both raise the danger and decrease the resilience of homes and communities. It also
increases the amount of money lost to natural disasters, including more damage to
physical assets and interruptions to commercial activities. Increasing global surface
temperatures increase the possibility of more droughts, and increased intensity of
storms will likely occur. As more water vapor is evaporated into the atmosphere, it
becomes fuel for more powerful storms to develop. More heat in the atmosphere and
warmer ocean surface temperatures can lead to increased wind speeds in tropical
storms. Rising sea levels expose higher locations not usually subjected to the power
of the sea and to the erosive forces of waves and currents (USGS website). Moreover,
an increase in temperature that leads to a hotter climate also creates conditions that
fuel more vicious wildfire seasons—with fires that spread faster and burn longer—
putting millions of additional lives and homes at risk. Scientists also predict that melting
sea ice and glaciers, as well as the fact that warmer water expands in volume, could
cause sea levels to rise as much as 3.61 feet (IPCC, 2019).

For Additional Resources on Climate Change please watch and read the following:

What is climate change?

Cause and effect of climate change, National Geographic video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G4H1N_yXBiA
Climate Change and Global Warming: Explained in Simple Words for Beginners
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G9t__9Tmwv4

Climate change and occurrence of disasters

Natural disasters becoming more dangerous due to climate crisis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LSsJpSCtfSs

Mag kwento ng klima part 1 ABS-CBN News

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wi_AWtNYo2s
Mga kwento mg Klima part 2 ABS-CBN News
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1fPByMtXE9g

What is Climate Change? Explore the Causes of Climate Change

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EuwMB1Dal-4

● Climate change fact sheets across the Globe (IPCC): Fact Sheets | Climate
Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (ipcc.ch)
● Climate change trends and scenarios for the Philippines (PAGASA 2018):
https://www.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/climate/climate-change/dynamic-downscaling

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Occurrence and interaction of natural and anthropogenic hazards

In this section, the student will learn about the different types of hazards, their
processes, and characteristics that can lead to a disaster.

2.1. Types of Hazards according to UNDRR

As defined in the last section, a hazard is a process, phenomenon or human

activity that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage,
social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. With this definition, we
can say that a hazard can be natural or environmental, anthropogenic or a combination
of both, which we refer to as socionatural hazard. Let us define each type:

a. Natural hazards are predominantly associated with natural processes and

phenomena. Examples are earthquakes, typhoons, volcanic eruptions and
coastal flooding.

b. Environmental hazards may refer to biological, chemical, and natural

hazards. They can be brought about by physical or chemical pollution of the air,
water, or soil, or by environmental degradation. But rather than being hazards
in and of themselves, many of the processes and phenomena that fall into this
category—such as soil degradation, deforestation, biodiversity loss,
salinization, and sea level rise—may be better described as drivers of risk and
hazard.

c. Anthropogenic hazards, or human-induced hazards, are induced entirely or

predominantly by human activities and choices. Terrorist attacks and other
forms of armed conflict (e.g. wars) can be classified under this type.
Technological hazards also fall in this category which originates from
technological or industrial conditions, dangerous procedures, infrastructure
failures or specific human activities. Examples include industrial pollution,
nuclear radiation, toxic wastes, dam failures, transport accidents, factory
explosions, fires and chemical spills. It may also arise directly as a result of the
impacts of a natural hazard event such as dam failures due to excessive water
brought about by rains and due to its poor and aging structures.

Natural hazards can be further classified into:

● Hydrometeorological hazards are of atmospheric, hydrological or

oceanographic origin. Examples are tropical cyclones (also known as typhoons
and hurricanes); floods, including flash floods; drought; heatwaves and cold
spells; and coastal storm surges. Hydrometeorological conditions may also be
a factor in other hazards such as landslides, wildland fires, locust plagues,
epidemics and in the transport and dispersal of toxic substances and volcanic
eruption material.

● Geological or geophysical hazards originate from internal earth processes.

Examples are earthquakes, volcanic activity and emissions, and related
geophysical processes such as mass movements, landslides, rockslides,

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 surface collapses and debris or mud flows. Hydrometeorological factors are
important contributors to some of these processes. Tsunamis, on the other
hand, are more difficult to categorize: although they are triggered by undersea
earthquakes and other geological events, they essentially become an oceanic
process manifested as a coastal water-related hazard.

● Biological hazards are of organic origin or conveyed by biological vectors,

including pathogenic microorganisms, toxins and bioactive substances.
Examples are bacteria, viruses or parasites, venomous wildlife and insects,
poisonous plants and mosquitoes carrying disease-causing agents.

In today’s world, the terms "technological" and "anthropogenic" are often used
interchangeably. However, the former is defined as hazards originating from
technological or industrial conditions, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures, or
specific human activities. Prime examples include industrial pollution, nuclear
radiation, toxic wastes, dam failures, transport accidents, factory explosions, fires, and
chemical spills. It is important to note that technological hazards may also arise directly
as a result of the impacts of a natural hazard event. However, anthropogenic hazards
must be understood in a much broader context, as they encompass a whole range of
human decisions, not only technological ones.

Additionally, it is crucial to note that each type of hazard can occur

independently or interact and combine with other hazards simultaneously in the same
time and area, which is referred to as a multi-hazard event. Watch the video of Dr.
Likha Minimo explaining examples of these modes and mechanisms of hazard
interactions in the Philippine context. https://youtu.be/UGAUkvuX_OE

For further reading, please refer to the following:

● UNDRR’s ‘hazard’ terminology (Sendai Framework Terminology on DRR)

https://www.undrr.org/terminology/hazard
● Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030
https://www.undrr.org/publication/sendai-framework-disaster-risk-reduction-
2015-2030

Activity Assessment No. 2

Observe your surroundings. What are some of the hazards that have occurred
in your community? What were the negative impacts, if any, on your community?

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2.2. Processes and characteristics of hazards

Hazards have different processes and characteristics that can be used for
their analysis and assessment of their potential impact on the human system.

Some of these are the following:

● Magnitude and intensity: Magnitude refers to the size of the hazard event,
or the energy released, while intensity refers to the damage and impacts of
the hazard. For example, the magnitude of an earthquake refers to the energy
released at the epicenter while for floods it is the volume and speed of
floodwaters. Intensity, on the other hand, refers to the number and extent of
damaged or impacted structures for both hazards.

● Frequency or probability of occurrence refers to how often the hazard

occurs. Hazards of certain sizes may occur with certain frequencies, as small
events may occur often and large events seldom. A number of examples
include the approximately 9 tropical storms that make landfall in the
Philippines every year and the moderate to devastating flooding these can
bring every few years, or Metro Manila’s anticipated “Big One’: a large
earthquake that has not happened in the last 450 years but is now expected
to happen any time

● Duration answers the question of how long the hazard event lasts or occurs.
An earthquake’s ground shaking lasts only from few seconds to minutes
minutes but an area may be inundated by floods for several hours up to
several days.

● Geographical (spatial) scales or areal extent: Areas affected by hazards

can differ in size: landslides can cover small areas of a few hundred square
meters while ground shaking from earthquakes can affect several hundred
kilometers impacting multiple provinces..

● Speed of Onset refers to how quickly the peak of the hazard event occurs,
with the starting time at the first point of the process towards it becoming a
hazard. An earthquake may occur suddenly while drought may take months to
take full effect.

● Temporal spacing can also refer to the recurrence intervals or probabilities

of return of the hazard.

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Activity Assessment No. 3

Try to recall your community’s hazard/s experience. For this exercise, you
may reflect on the following guide questions:

● Which hazard does your community experience most frequently?

● How about the hazard that you experience very rarely?
● Which hazard event do you think has the widest reach in the country?
● In contrast, what is the most localized hazard?

2.3. Interaction of Natural and anthropogenic hazards

Given the above examples and discussion, it can be said that both natural and
anthropogenic hazards can interact and combine simultaneously (i.e., socionatural
hazards) and can cause negative impacts on the human system. For example,
landslides—or, in a more scientific term, mass wasting—can be natural, as sediments
and rocks tend to move or fall downward due to gravity. However, they can also be
anthropogenic, as farming or construction activities can cause such. On the other
hand, flooding can also be natural, as rainwater tends to increase the water level in
the river and onto the riverbanks. This then affects settlements if we do not plan well
and continue to build on floodplains.

For further information, please refer to the following websites:

● UNDRR Prevention web. https://www.preventionweb.net/understanding-disaster-

risk/component-
risk/hazard#:~:text=Characteristics%20of%20hazards,sometimes%20known%20
as%20temporal%20scales
● Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA)
https://www.cdema.org/virtuallibrary/index.php/charim-hbook/methodology/2-
analysing-hazards/2-1-introduction-to-hazards

2. Exposure and Vulnerability and Increasing Capacity against

Hazards

Exposure, vulnerability, and insufficient capacity all play an essential role in

assessing and determining the potential impacts of a certain hazard on the human
system in a particular area.

Let's go back to Activity Number 1.

Disaster main and exposure vulnerability insufficient

s associated capacity
hazards

Karding typhoon ● typhoon path ● makeshift ● early

strong winds ● Riverbed houses warning

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 and flooding occupation/habitat ● lack of system
ion tenure ● single floor
● Coastal habitation ● lack of houses
● agricultural lands sufficient ● food supply
● electrical wires income/inco
me stability

Typhoons pose significant threats to communities due to their powerful winds

and heavy rainfall, possibly leading to widespread flooding and the destruction of
homes. These adverse effects are particularly pronounced in floodplain areas, such
as riverbeds and coastal regions, where communities are directly in the typhoon's path
(referred to as exposed communities).

The vulnerability of these communities is exacerbated by socioeconomic

factors, especially the lack of a stable income. Many families in these areas,
characterized by poverty, construct homes from scrap materials, making them
susceptible to destruction by the typhoon's forceful winds. The choice of locations,
often hazardous or exposed areas like riverbeds, is driven by their affordability and
the potential for income generation.

Furthermore, the lack of awareness and knowledge about early warning

systems compounds their vulnerability. Without adequate information on impending
floods, these communities are ill-prepared to evacuate or take protective measures.
Additionally, the absence of second floors or stilt houses, or sturdy structures leaves
them exposed to the dual threats of strong winds and floods.

The hand-to-mouth existence of these vulnerable communities further

exacerbates the impact of disasters. In times of crisis, the lack of sufficient food supply
contributes to their plight, making it even more challenging to endure the aftermath of
a typhoon.

Conversely, communities with sufficient resources and capacity to cope with

floods demonstrate a greater resilience to such disasters. Houses built on stilts and
elevated structures, coupled with access to early warning systems and stable
incomes, enable them to withstand the adverse effects of flooding more effectively. In
this scenario, the impacts of the disaster are minimized, and the community can more
easily recover.

In connection with this, it becomes imperative to reduce the exposure and

vulnerability of communities to natural hazards while enhancing their capacity to cope
at the same time.

For further information, please refer to the following websites:

Natural hazards and climate change are not drivers of disasters
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-05100-1

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Act of Nature or Act of Man? Tracking the Root Causes of Increasing Disasters in the
Philippines
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280953782_Act_of_Nature_or_Act_of_Man
_Tracking_the_Root_Causes_of_Increasing_Disasters_in_the_Philippines

Climate Disasters in the Philippines

https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/climate-disasters-philippines

Watch the lecture below from UP Resilience Institute Executive Director Mahar
Lagmay talking about experiences on hazards, exposure, vulnerability, and disasters.

https://youtu.be/5whVbZq7Des

Learning Activity
Reflection: What are some of the ways that your local community,
constituents, or colleagues have successfully implemented that reduced
exposure and vulnerability?

What are some of the ways that you have increased your capacity?

3. Building Resilience

4.1. What is Resilience

Over the years, several definitions of resilience in relation to disaster risk have
been developed by many organization and institutions and accepted by many here
are the following examples:

UNISDR (2005)- ‘the capacity of a system, community or society potentially exposed

to hazards to adapt, by resisting or changing in order to reach and maintain an
acceptable level of functioning and structure’.

DFID (2011)- ‘the ability of countries, communities and households to manage

change, by maintaining or transforming living standards in the face of shocks or
stresses – such as earthquakes, drought or violent conflict – without compromising
their long-term prospects’.

RA 10121 (2010) - the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards

to resist, absorb, accommodate and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely
and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its
essential basic structures and functions

UNDRR (2017) - the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to

resist, absorb, accommodate, adapt to, transform and recover from the effects of a
hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including the preservation and restoration of
its essential basic structures and functions through risk management.

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 Learning Activity
Watch the following video on “What is Resilience?”:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oB-mDiuUOZs&t

Reflection: What is your own local community’s story of resilience? What can you
share about your own experiences here that other communities can learn from?

4.2. Aspects of Resilience

There are many facets of human systems where we need to build resilience:

● Physical - whether structures can withstand hazards or be rebuilt with little to

no additional cost.
● Social - the ability of individuals, people groups, or entities to tolerate, absorb,
cope with, and adjust to environmental and social threats of various kinds.

> Cultural - refers to how communities prepare, act, and respond to

disasters reduce their exposure, and implement the necessary changes to
adapt to risks, including the impacts of climate change.

● Economic - whether a government, business, or community can absorb

financial losses due to disaster.
● Institutional - the capability of government units, agencies and organizations
to continue to function or to return immediately to their normal processes and
activities after hazard events interrupt them.

> Health - the ability of a health system to mitigate, adapt to, and recover from
shocks and stresses.

● Ecological - the capacity of an ecosystem to absorb shocks and disturbances

while retaining its structure, function, and adaptability. It encompasses
nature's ability to recover from disruptions, resist degradation, and adapt to
changing conditions.

It is important to note that building resilience requires implementing strategies that

account for all types of resilience so as not to enhance one component at the
expense of another (UNDRR).

4.3. Other terms related to resilience.

● Capacity: strengths and resources available to anticipate, cope with, resist

and recover from disasters
● Coping capacity: the ability to face and manage disasters.
● Capacity to respond: The ability of a system or process to deal with a shock
or stress depends on exposure (the magnitude of the shock or stress),
sensitivity (the degree to which a system will be affected by, or will respond to,
a given shock or stress), and adaptive capacity (how well it can adjust to a

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 disturbance or moderate damage, take advantage of opportunities and cope
with the consequences of a transformation).
● Reaction: A range of responses are possible, including bounce back better,
where capacities are enhanced, exposures are reduced, and the system is
more able to deal with future shocks and stresses; bounce back, where pre-
existing conditions prevail; or recover, but worse than before, meaning
capacities are reduced. In the worst-case scenario, the system collapses,
leading to a catastrophic reduction in capacity to cope with the future.
● Adaptation: process or action that changes a living thing so that it is better
able to survive in a new environment,
● Transformation: if the coping strategies is not adequate to deal with disaster
risk, there is a need to transform or shifting pathways or having the capacity to
shift into new pathways and cross thresholds

It is important to note that building resilience requires implementing strategies

that account for all the types of resilience so as not to enhance one component at
the expense of another (UNDRR)

4.4. Ways to Build Resilience

One of the ways to build resilience is to reduce the disaster risk faced by
communities through systematic efforts to analyze and manage the causal factors of
disasters, including through reduced exposures to hazards, lessened vulnerability of
people and property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved
preparedness for adverse events (RA 11021).

This can be done by employing different risk reduction and management

strategies such as the following:

a) Risk characterization (studying what hazard and types of hazards are

affecting the community, and its characteristics and processes)
b) Scope potential impacts of risks to human system (assessing exposure,
vulnerability, and capacity)
c) Determination and identification of intervention to manage disaster risk with
focus on the following four pillars of DRRM:

● Disaster Prevention and Mitigation- Avoid hazards and mitigate

their potential impacts by reducing vulnerabilities and exposure and
enhancing capacities of communities. Examples are land use planning
to prevent habitation in hazardous areas, provision of economic
activities to reduce vulnerabilities and increase capacities, safe designs
for community facilities

● Disaster Preparedness- Establish and strengthen capacities of

communities to anticipate, cope and recover from the negative impacts
of emergency occurrences and disasters. Such as training and
awareness building, establishing an EWS, mobilizing resources and
storing food and supplies that can be used when disaster strikes.

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 ● Disaster Response- Provide life preservation and meet the basic
subsistence needs of affected populations based on acceptable
standards during or immediately after a disaster. Examples: search
and rescue, evacuation, provision of relief goods, medical services and
psychosocial intervention and the management of the dead and
missing members of the community.

● Rehabilitation and Recovery- Restore and improve facilities and

living conditions and capacities of affected communities and reduce
risks in accordance with the “building back better” principle. Such as
reestablishing the people’s livelihood, relocation and resettlement,
continuing health and psychosocial intervention, reconstructing roads
and other infrastructures, and strengthening community governance.

4.5. Climate change adaptation and mitigation

Adaptation and mitigation are the two strategies for addressing climate change.
Republic Act No. 9729 or the Climate change Act of 2009 defines adaptation as the
adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic
stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.
Mitigation on the hand refers to human intervention to address anthropogenic
emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all GHG, including ozone-depleting
substances and their substitutes.

According to the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)

(https://www2.cifor.org/cobam/background/adaptation-and-mitigation/) there are
some significant distinctions between adaptation and mitigation, especially with regard
to their goals. While adaptation focuses on the effects of climate change, mitigation
tackles its causes, which are the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Both
strategies are required. On the one hand, adaptation to climate change is required
because the climate will continue to change over the coming decades despite strong
mitigation efforts. However, mitigation is essential to limiting changes in the climate
system because adaptation alone will not be sufficient to completely mitigate all
adverse effects.

4.5.1. Ecosystems Approach

An ecosystem-based approach (also known as an ecosystem approach) is
“the integrated management of land, water, and living resources that promotes
conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way.’ (Convention on Biodiversity).
Simply put, it is the use of ecosystem services for DRRM and CCAM. Asian
Development Bank (2015) differentiated Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) from
Ecosystem-based mitigation. EbA involves people using biodiversity and ecosystem
services to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change and promote sustainable
development. An example of intervention is the protection of coastal ecosystems
such as mangroves, salt marshes, and barrier beaches to provide natural protection
from storms and flooding due to sea level rise. Such ecosystem-based interventions
complement and can enhance the effectiveness of infrastructure such as seawalls

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and dikes. Improving the management of forests and wetlands for better
groundwater storage and food security is another example.

On the other hand, Ecosystem-based mitigation makes use of ecosystems

and biodiversity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Natural systems such as
forests, mangroves, peats, and wetlands act as “carbon sinks” and reduced
emissions can be achieved through interventions that maintain or enhance these
ecosystems.

4.5.2. Systems Approach

This method examines the effects of climate change and emphasizes

developing resilience to it by using the framework of system thinking, which focuses
on the interactions between the various components of the system under study.
Through inputs, throughputs, and outputs, open systems communicate with their
surroundings (UNFCC, 2015). It also acknowledged the significance of understanding
complexity and reaching consensus in multi-actor decision environments, as well as
the interdependencies and connections between various systems. Humans, natural
ecosystems, food (farming and cropping systems), energy, water, legal and political
systems are a few examples of such systems.

Learning Activity
Identify in the following scenarios which are Ecosystem-based Adaptation
(EbA) vs Mitigation (EbM):

1) Protection of coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, salt marshes, and barrier

beaches to provide natural protection from storms and flooding due to sea level rise.

2) Planting of trees and conservation of forest and other vegetation for reducing
reduce greenhouse gas emissions

Give examples of EbA and ecosystem based mitigation strategies

4.6. Risk-informed development for resilience building

Planning is the quintessential tool for building resilience. By its nature, the planning
system is about making decisions that balance and tradeoff the various elements
related to the people, the culture, the economy, and the natural and built
environment (New South Wales Department of Planning, Industry and Environment,
2021). According to Dr. Lagmay (2017) disasters are manifestations of unresolved
problems of development, and if development plans are not adequately formulated,
the impacts of natural and man-made hazards have the potential to hinder the
progress of the nation. Salient points from the UP RI and NOAH Center to address
disaster risks are discussed in the following video:

Lagmay, Alfredo Mahar Francisco. (2017, June 20). University of the

Philippines Resilience Institute and Nationwide Operational Assessment of
Hazards Center Launch [Video file]. Grabbed from Youtube courtesy of

Course code: Basics of Resilience Page | 16

 TVUP. https://youtu.be/HWLM_EtKD1w

Interventions for managing disaster risk rely on a sound knowledge of the risks
present in a given area (UNDRR, 2017a). Planning for resilience identifies potential
threats and establishes action plans to reduce the likely impacts of hazards and
ensure the continuous provision of services (Sacramento State Office of Water
Programs and Environmental Finance Center, 2020). This process allows for making
informed decisions to address risks through resource allocations and policy
development. Furthermore, understanding the potential threats is critical when
formulating interventions to avoid creating new risks and maladaptation (Department
of Human Settlements and Urban Development–Climate Change Commission–
United Nations Development Programme–Australian Government, 2015). Watch Dr.
Lagmay in the following video as he talks about the critical value of open data, for
disaster mitigation in the time of climate change.

Probabilistic models have become a staple tool for facilitating better risk
management in (re)insurance and are increasingly forming the basis for
comprehensive risk-management strategies in civil society, government and the
private sector – ultimately enabling risk reduction, risk adaptation and risk transfer
mechanisms to be assessed individually and together as part of a holistic.
Probabilistic risk modelling enables a wide range of evidence based decision-
making, allowing the decision maker to evaluate risks in both the short and the long
term, including uncertainty. It also enables the estimation of the likelihood of extreme
events that have not happened in recent history, or that are becoming more likely
because of climate change (UNDRR, 1997a; CCC, 2019). Dr. Lagmay highlights the
use of probabilistic risk assessment in local plans and how planning cuts across
sectors. Watch the full video to know more about the above mentioned discussion.

Lagmay, Alfredo Mahar Francisco. (2023). Understanding the Need for

Science-based CDRA for LUDIP Preparation Lecture [Video file]. Professional
Development Towards Post-Graduate Studies for SUCs: Training on the
Preparation of the Land Use Development and Infrastructure Plan (LUDIP)
Project. https://youtu.be/1R9gUPzvAJc

According to the Global Network of Civil Society Organisations for Disaster

Reduction (GNDR) (2022), development choices may either create opportunities or
risks. Rapid urbanization often leads to human settlements in hazard-prone areas
like coastal lowlands, in floodplains or on unstable and steep slopes, if not met with
sustainable planning and land-use decisions (UNDRR, 2017b). Planning at the city
and municipal level can build resilience with thorough attention to the location, type,
density and timing of land use plans through regulations, public infrastructure
investments, market incentives, and conservation of natural resources (100 Resilient
Cities, 2019). Planning through risk informed development must also be localised,
community-led, participatory, inclusive, gender transformative, empowering (GNDR,
2022). GNDR also introduced nine key stages towards risk informed development in
this video:

GNDR. (2022, May 12). Risk-Informed Development Guide [Video file].

YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eWkk22IFlfs

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Planning for resilience requires integrated action at multiple levels of government,
collaboration across sectors, and participation of various stakeholders. A plan that
prioritizes resilience building is data-driven and considers both historical and future
scenarios. It embraces uncertainties and proactively plans for multiple shocks and
stressors, including the impacts of climate change. While it is not possible to know all
uncertainties, it is important to maintain continuous communication and negotiation
across sectors so no facet of society is overlooked (Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 2021). To learn more about risk-informed
development, you may refer to a video prepared by GIZ:

GIZ. (2021, November 15). Risk-informed development: Anticipating the

unpredictable [Video file]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9G9Q5YLqgKU

READ:
● 100 Resilient Cities. (2019). Resilient Cities, Resilient Lives: Learning from the
100RC Network.
https://resilientcitiesnetwork.org/downloadable_resources/UR/Resilient-Cities-
Resilient-Lives-Learning-from-the-100RC-Network.pdf
● Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit. (2021, November
15). Risk-informed development: Anticipating the unpredictable [Video file].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9G9Q5YLqgKU
● Global Network of Civil Society Organisations for Disaster Reduction. (2022,
May 12). Risk-Informed Development Guide [Video file]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eWkk22IFlfs
● New South Wales Department of Planning, Industry and Environment. (2021).
Resilience outcomes for the planning system.
https://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-03/resilience-
outcomes-for-the-planning-system.pdf
● United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. (2017a). Why Invest in
Probabilistic Risk Assessment?.
https://www.preventionweb.net/files/52828_bwhyinvest[1].pdf
● United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. (2017b). How To Make
Cities More Resilient: A Handbook For Local Government Leaders.
https://www.unisdr.org/campaign/resilientcities/assets/toolkit/Handbook%20for
%20local%20government%20leaders%20%5B2017%20Edition%5D_English_
ed.pdf
● Sacramento State Office of Water Programs and Environmental Finance
Center. (2020). Resilience Planning: Tools and Resources for Communities.
https://www.efc.csus.edu/reports/resilience-planning-tools-and-resources-for-
communities.pdf
● Department of Human Settlements and Urban Development–Climate Change
Commission–United Nations Development Programme–Australian
Government. (2015). Supplemental Guidelines on Mainstreaming Climate
Change and Disaster Risks in the Comprehensive Land Use Plan.

Summary or Conclusion or key takeaway

From the preceding modules, it becomes evident that disaster and climate risk, along
with resilience, encompass various dimensions. We exist in a natural environment

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that is inherently complex – with different systems and processes dynamically
interacting. Simultaneously, our human systems are growing increasingly complex,
shaped by globalization and technological advancements that enhance connectivity
across the globe. As we navigate the challenges of the 21st century, marked by
numerous uncertainties, there is a pressing need to broaden our perspective on
resilience.

Significant strides have been made through the implementation of projects and
programs dedicated to enhancing hazard maps and improving risk communication.
We have expanded our range of tools and protocols for emergency response. Many
of these tools are even accessible to us right at our fingertips, on the web, on our
mobile phones. However, a crucial imperative is to synergize these efforts, ensuring
that the information and technologies reach the ones who need it the most, the most
vulnerable. We need to acknowledge that lapses in our development planning and
resource management have cost us lives and years of progress. The preservation of
biodiversity and culture remains a formidable challenge in the face of disaster and
climate risks. We out to put into action our commitments as nations and as global
citizens. Despite varying needs, priorities, and capacities, a unified resolve shall
emerge among us: meaninglessly losing lives and livelihoods to disasters is no
longer a risk we are willing to accept. We shall demand foresight and accountability
from our leaders and systems because inequality does not belong in our sustainable
and resilient future.

We hope to see you again in our next courses. We will be delving into policies,
actions and practical skills development. Let us learn together and continue building
resilience for our nation, and the next generations!

References

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content/uploads/2018/11/Social-Resilience-Guide-SMALL-Spreads-1.pdf last
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United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Promoting Resilience.

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available at
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last accessed 22 November 2023

United States Geological Survey (USGS). How can climate change affect natural
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