International Journal of Thermal Sciences 170 (2021) 107143

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International Journal of Thermal Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijts

Local heat transfer characteristics of synthetic air jet impinging on a smooth

convex surface
R.J. Talapati *, V.V. Katti, N.S. Hiremath
KLS Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal, 581329, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The local heat transfer characteristic of synthetic air jet impinging on convex surface is studied experimentally.
Local heat transfer characteristics The heat flux on the convex surface is maintained constant. The experiment is carried out for different actuator
Convex surface frequency (f = 100 Hz–300 Hz), jet to plate distance (z/d = 1 to 8) keeping the orifice diameter constant. The
IR thermal Imager
local heat transfer characteristic of synthetic air jet on the convex surface is obtained by IR thermal imager using
thin foil technique. Local heat transfer characteristics is studied in terms of local Nusselt number along the axial
(x/d at r = 0) and radial direction (r/d at x = 0) of convex surface. The obtained result shows that the local heat
transfer is strongly influenced by actuator frequency and jet to plate distance. The actuator frequency (f = 200
Hz) and lower jet to plate distance (z/d = 2) is observed effective at all jet to plate distance and actuator fre­
quency. The correlation of maximum local Nusselt number in terms of Reynolds number is obtained with the
maximum deviation of 18%. The maximum uncertainty in measurement of average Nusselt number is observed
less than ±6%.

heat transfer of slot jet impingement along concave, convex

1. Introduction
Nowadays, density of electronic devices is increasing due to increase
in technology and is compact in size which occupies less space. Thermal
stress is the parameter which reduces the efficiency, life of the electronic
devices and it will be challenging for cooling of an electronic devices.
Over the past few years, different geometrical shapes of fins, number of
fans which are arranged in rows properly and conventional heat sinks
have been using to remove the heat from an electronic system. Hence,
we need to find an alternate method of cooling an electronics device.
However, conventional cooling device have certain drawbacks and are
difficult challenges for proper cooling of future electronic devices gov­
erning to the space consideration and still expects larger cooling re­
quirements. The synthetic jet is newly method which can be used for
efficient cooling of electronic device due to high turbulence intensity or
vortices before impinging on target surface.
Some research study has been done on synthetic jet impingement in
order to remove the heat from the hotspots of solid surfaces. Synthetic
jet is produced, when air is sucked in and expelled through an orifice by
the movement of diaphragm. The synthetic jet can be generated by using
piezoelectric actuator, piston cylinder mechanism and electromagnetic
actuator. Gau and Chung [1] studied the effect of surface curvature on
semi-cylindrical surfaces. Cornaro et al. [2] studied influence of L/d of
air jet on convex surface using flow visualization technique. Whitaker
et al. [3] investigated the heat transfer characteristics of circular air jet
on a cylinder. Tawfek [4] investigated heat transfer distribution on a
cylinder. Cornaro et al. [5] and Singh et al. [6] studied heat transfer on
convex surface and the Nusselt number was increased to around 30% at
the stagnation point. Mahalingam [7] investigated the thermal charac­
teristics of heat sink and synthetic jet heat sink. Pavlova and Amitay [8]
studied the effect of z/d distance, jet formation frequency. For a small
value of z/d, the higher frequency is more effective than the lower fre­
quency, while the lower frequency is more effective than the higher
frequency at a greater z/d value. Chaudhari et al. [9–12] studied the
influence of orifice shape on average heat transfer characteristics.
Square shape orifice is found to be effective compared to other orifice
shape at z/d > 5. The satellite orifice with center orifice has maximum
heat transfer at lower z/d in the multiple orifices. Liu et al. [13] inves­
tigated influence of diffusion shaped orifice. Diffusion shaped orifice
was effective than round orifice at small z/d. Ziade et al. [14] studied
experimentally and numerically the influence of cavity shape. Cavity
with sharpest nozzle to cavity has higher momentum than all other
cavity shapes. Manju [15] studied the influence of cavity shape, orifice
shape on heat transfer numerically.

* Corresponding author. Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal, 581329, Karnataka State, India.
E-mail addresses: rtalapati@gmail.com, rtalapati@klsvdit.edu.in (R.J. Talapati).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2021.107143
Received 6 April 2021; Received in revised form 21 May 2021; Accepted 18 June 2021
Available online 1 July 2021
1290-0729/© 2021 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
R.J. Talapati et al.
Nomenclature
A surface area of convex plate (mm2)
Ao orifice cross-sectional area (mm2)
d orifice diameter (mm)
D diameter of convex surface (mm)
Da diameter of actuator (mm)
Dc cavity diameter (mm)
f excitation frequency of the actuator (Hz)
fh helmholtz resonance frequency of cavity actuator (Hz)
h local heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
H cavity depth (mm)
I current (A)
k thermal conductivity of air (W/mK)
Ka effective stiffness of air in cavity (Nm)
a speed of sound (m/s)
L stroke length (mm)
Lc length of convex surface (mm)
Ma effective mass of air at orifice (Kg)
Nu local Nusselt number (hd/k) (− )
Nuo stagnation local Nusselt number (− )
Q displacement of volume of air (mm3)
Qloss total heat loss (W)
qs heat flux (VI/A) (W/m2)
qconv net convective heat flux to jet impingement (W/m2)
Most of the research studies are done on continuous air jet of circular
or slot shape impinging on the convex surface. But it is observed that, no
studies have been made on local heat transfer characteristics of synthetic
jet impinging on convex surface. From the literature [9], it was found
that the piezoelectric actuator requires high voltage and operates at
discrete input frequency as compared to electromagnetic actuator.
Hence, the electromagnetic actuator is used as oscillating diagram in the
present study.
In the present experiment, the local heat transfer characteristics of
synthetic air jet impinging on convex surface is studied experimentally
by using IR thermal imaging method. The experiments were investigated
to understand the influence of actuator frequency (f = 100 Hz–300 Hz)
and jet to plate distance (z/d = 1 to 8) on local heat transfer charac­
teristics. The local heat transfer characteristics of synthetic air jet is
studied in terms of local Nusselt number along the axial (x/d at r = 0)
and radial direction (r/d at x = 0) of convex surface keeping all other
parameter constant. To obtain the correlation of local Nusselt number as
a function of Reynolds number, jet to plate distance at a maximum heat
transfer point.
2. Experimental setup and measurement methodology
The schematic diagram and photographic view of experimental setup
of synthetic air jet impinging on convex surface is shown in Fig. 1. The
synthetic jet is generated by electromagnetic actuator (acoustic speaker)
of diameter (50 mm) with power capacity (5 W, 4Ω). The experiments
are studied for different actuator frequencies and jet to plate distance
(see Table 1). The speaker input voltage (Vrms) of 5 V is kept constant
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International Journal of Thermal Sciences 170 (2021) 107143
qloss total heat flux loss from convex surface (W/m2)
qrad(f) radiation heat loss from the front face of convex surface
(W/m2)
qrad(b) radiation heat loss from the back face of convex surface
(W/m2)
qnat(b) heat loss by free convection from back face of convex
surface (W/m2)
r radial distance from the stagnation point on convex surface
(mm)
Re Reynolds number (− )
T time period (s)
t thickness of orifice plate (mm)
Tj air jet temperature (0C)
Ts temperature of convex surface at given location (0C)
Tr ambient temperature (0C)
U average velocity of jet (m/s)
V voltage (V)
X diametric direction of actuator diaphragm (mm)
x axial distance from the stagnation point on convex surface
(mm)
z jet to plate distance (mm)
Greek symbols
Δ deflection of the actuator diaphragm (μm)
υ kinematic viscosity of air (m2/s)
and signal generator regulates the actuator frequency and waveform.
The convex surface is made of 0.03 mm thick stainless-steel foil of
dimension (D = 50 mm and Lc = 180 mm) is fixed between two C-
shaped copper bus bars rigidly by tightening the screw and copper bus
bar is indirectly connected to the regulated DC power supply through
welding cable. Due to thinness of the convex surface, the temperature of
back and front face of convex surface (target plate) is considered to be
same as stated by Lytle and Webb [16]. The back face of the convex
surface is painted black with Asian paint of matte finish. The emissivity
of back face of a convex surface is obtained using the method as reported
by Katti and Prabhu [17] and is 0.98 in the present work. The IR thermal
camera of model ‘Fluke’ Ti 200 is used to obtain the local temperature
distribution on the convex surface with an accuracy of ±0.2 ◦ C. The
convex surface is maintained at constant heat flux by regulated DC
power supply. The voltage drop is measured using voltmeter by
providing the voltage taps on the convex surface at a suitable distance.
Current to the target plate is noted from the regulated DC power supply
panel. A calibrated K-type thermocouple (Chromel-Alumel) is placed
inside and outside the synthetic cavity to measure the jet and ambient
temperature. The output of calibrated K-type thermocouple is connected
to DC millivoltmeter. The whole assembly of convex surface is placed on
2-D traversing table. The jet to plate distance is varied by using 2-D
traversing table which has least count of 0.05 mm. The heat loss
which includes natural convection at the back surface, radiation heat
loss at both front, back surface is estimated experimentally and it is
discussed in the data reduction section as shown in Fig. 2. The orifice
plate and coordinate system of convex surface along the axial (x) and
radial (r) direction is shown in Fig. 3.
R.J. Talapati et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 170 (2021) 107143

Fig. 1. Experimental set up of synthetic jet.

increment of 2 mm by operated the wheel of 2D traversing table. The

Table 1 deflection and profile measurement of acoustic diaphragm along the
Parameters chosen in the present work. diametric direction is obtained by laser displacement sensor as shown in
Parameter Value Dimension Fig. 5. According to Chiatto et al. [18] and Tang et al. [25], the Helm­
d 10 mm holtz resonance frequency of synthetic jet cavity is given by
D 50 mm √̅̅̅̅̅̅
f 100,150,200,250,300 Hz Ka a d
fh = = √̅̅̅̅̅ (1)
H 50 mm Ma 2π Dc Ht
t 3 mm
z/d 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 – Based on Eq. (1), the calculated value of Helmholtz resonance fre­
quency of a synthetic jet cavity is 722 Hz. The actuator excitation fre­
quency (f) taken for present study was far away with calculated
2.1. Measurement of synthetic jet velocity Helmholtz resonance frequency (fh). Hence, it was not in over damped
condition for jet formation and jet flow will be incompressible nature in
To determine the Reynolds number of synthetic jet, a laser the present study. Thus applying mass conservation principle, the vol­
displacement sensor (Make: Panasonic, Model: HL-G-105-A-C5) is used ume of air displacement by actuator diaphragm will be equal to volume
which is shown in Fig. 4. The laser sensor is mounted on the 2-D of air ejected from orifice exit. The displacement of volume of air can be
traversing table and has a resolution of 1.5 μm. The laser sensor is obtained by integrating Δ(X) w.r.t diametric direction of actuator
moved along the diametric direction of the actuator diaphragm with diaphragm.

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The slug model given by Smith and Glezer [19], the synthetic jet is
the mean blowing velocity over the entire period which is given as

U = L/T = L f (4)

The Reynolds number of the jet flow is given as

Re = Ud/ν (5)

The detail of average deflection measurement of actuator diaphragm

for different frequencies is given in Table .2. It is observed that, the
actuator frequency (f = 200 Hz) has maximum deflection as compared to
other actuator frequencies. At resonance frequency, the amplitude of
deflection will be high and it is 200 Hz actuator frequency in the present
study.

Fig. 2. Heat loss linear fit curve.

Fig. 5. Profile of deflection measurement along the diameter direction

of diaphragm.
Fig. 3. Coordinate axis system of convex surface.

D∫a /2
Table 2
Measurement of actuator deflection.
Q = 2π Δ(X).X dX (2)
Excitation frequency f (Hz) Deflection Δ (mm) Reynolds Number, Re
0
100 0.04493 64
The length of volume of fluid ejected from orifice exit i.e. stroke
150 0.07731 149
length (L) is given by 200 0.13914 352
250 0.03307 129
Q
L= / (3) 300 0.01468 94
πd2 4

Fig. 4. Photographic view of measurement of deflection of actuator diaphragm.

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Table 3 convex surface are obtained by IR thermal imager using thin foil tech­
Uncertainty of parameters. nique. The local heat transfer characteristics are presented in terms of
Parameter Uncertainty (%) local Nusselt number along the axial (x/d at r = 0) and radial (r/d at x =
0) direction of a convex surface.
d 0.10
D 0.02
f 0.1
H 0.02 3.1. Influence of actuator frequency
t 0.33
z 0.1
Figs. 6 and 7 shows local Nusselt number distribution in the radial (r/
ΔT 1.6
V 0.12 d) and axial (x/d) direction of a convex surface for different actuator
I 0.4 frequencies (f = 100 Hz–300 Hz) and jet to plate distance (z/d = 1 to 8).
Nuavg 5.24 The Nu is higher at stagnation point due to high potential at the
centerline of synthetic jet and decreases away from it. Figs. 8–12 shows
Nu contours for different actuator frequencies (f = 100 Hz–300 Hz) and
2.2. Data reduction
jet to plate distance (z/d = 1 to 5). The Nu increases with increase in
actuator frequency, reaches the maximum value at 200 Hz actuator
The temperature distribution on the convex surface is obtained by
frequency and then tends to decrease beyond it which can be clearly
images captured by IR thermal camera for each configuration.
observed in Figs. 6 and 7. It is clearly observed that, lower frequency (f
The Nusselt number for a convex surface is determined as follows:
= 100 Hz) results in maximum heat transfer at higher z/d distance due to
hd large scale of vortex structure in the flow field and higher frequency (f =
Nu = (6)
k 250 Hz) actuator provides maximum heat transfer at lower z/d distance
due to formation of high potential vortex rings which in turn breaks into
qconv
h=( ) (7) smaller vortex structure before impinging on target plate. The similar
Ts − Tj
behaviour was reported by Pavlova [8]. The stagnation Nu is high for the
The rate of heat transfer between impinging jet and the convex actuator frequency (f = 200 Hz) due to high momentum of the synthetic
surface (qconv ) is calculated by making the energy balance jet flow. The local Nusselt number of actuator frequency (f = 200 Hz)
was found to be effective at all jet to plate distance because the synthetic
qconv = qs − qloss (8)
air jet will have high potential when the actuator is driven at its reso­
VI nance frequency [18] which is 200 Hz in the present study. The actuator
qs = (9) frequency (f = 300 Hz) was found to be least effective at all z/d distance
A
as clearly observed in local Nusselt number contour (Figs. 8–12). It is
qloss = qrad(f ) + qrad(b) + qnat(b) (10) due to low momentum of jet flow. Fig. 6 shows Nu distribution along the
radial direction (r/d) for different actuator frequencies and z/d. The Nu
The heat loss from the target plate depends on surface and ambient is maximum at the stagnation point and decreases along the radial di­
temperature, hence the relation is obtained between heat loss and rection (r/d) up to r/d < 3 from the stagnation point. Beyond the radial
temperature difference (Ts - Tr) by heating the target plate at an interval direction (r/d > 3), the area of heat transfer is negligible. Fig. 7 shows
of every 10 ◦ C and at a same time, surface and ambient temperature the Nu characteristics along the axial direction (x/d) of a convex surface
were recorded. The heat loss relation linear fit curve is shown in Fig. 2 for different actuator frequencies and z/d. The effective region of cool­
and the losses are incorporated in calculation to determine the local heat ing (higher Nu) is seen at the stagnation point and decreases along the
transfer coefficient. axial direction up to x/d < 6 from the stagnation point. Beyond x/d > 6,
the heat transfer is negligible. In order to know the local Nusselt number
2.3. Measurement of uncertainties behaviour along the radial (r/d) and axial (x/d) direction of convex
surface for the same actuator frequency and z/d, a comparison was made
In present study, the temperature difference between the convex which is shown in Fig. 13. The local heat transfer characteristics along
surface and jet was kept above 40 ◦ C that estimates a maximum un­ the radial direction (r/d) and axial direction (x/d) coincides at stagna­
certainty of not more than 2%. The heat flux uncertainty of convex tion point for all Re and z/d. It is attributed to dominance of jet flow i. e
surface is considered to be same as that of uncertainty of the power axisymmetric jet. But at the wall jet region, the local heat transfer
supplied. The uncertainties in the measurement of parameters by Moffat characteristics along the radial direction (r/d) and axial direction (x/d)
method [20] are mentioned in Table .3. are different. At wall jet region, the heat transfer characteristics along
the axial direction (x/d) are high compared to radial direction (r/d) of
3. Results and discussion the convex surface. This may be attributed due to increase in turbulence
intensity along the axial direction (x/d) by the entrainment of sur­
The local heat characteristics of synthetic air jet impinging on the rounding air into main jet flow. The effective region of cooling is
convex surface are studied experimentally. The experiments were car­ observed up to x/d < 6 along axial direction and r/d < 3 along radial
ried out for different actuator frequency (f = 100 Hz–300 Hz) and jet to direction of convex surface from the stagnation point. Hence for the
plate distance (z/d = 1 to 8) with following configuration mentioned in optimum condition, the actuator frequency (f = 200 Hz) is maximum for
Table .1. The local heat transfer characteristics of synthetic air jet on all z/d at and away from the stagnation point.

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Fig. 6. Nu distribution at different frequencies and z/d distance along radial direction (r/d).

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Fig. 7. Nu distribution at different frequencies and z/d distance along axial direction (x/d).

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R.J. Talapati et al.
Fig. 8. Contours of Nu distribution on target plate for different actuator frequencies at z/d = 1.
3.2. Influence of jet to plate distance
Figs. 14 and 15 shows the local Nusselt number distribution along
the radial (r/d) and axial (x/d) direction of convex surface for different
jet to plate distance (z/d = 1 to 8) and actuator frequencies (f = 100
Hz–300 Hz). With increase in z/d, the heat transfer increases up to z/d =
2 and then tends to decrease beyond it for all the actuator frequencies. At
z/d = 1, the area of heat transfer is minimum for all the actuator fre­
quencies which can be clearly observed in Figs. 14 and 15. When the
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International Journal of Thermal Sciences 170 (2021) 107143
target surface is very close to orifice plate, the flow confinement in­
creases which reduces the amount of air during suction and ejection
process of actuator diaphragm. Hence the area of heat transfer is mini­
mum at z/d = 1. At higher jet to plate distance (z/d = 8), the area of heat
transfer is minimum at all actuator frequencies and z/d due to decrease
in potential core length or momentum of synthetic air jet. Fig. 14 shows
Nu distribution along the radial (r/d) of convex surface for different z/d.
At all z/d and actuator frequencies, the heat transfer are effective up to
r/d < 3 in radial direction region. The actuator frequencies (f = 150 Hz,
R.J. Talapati et al.
Fig. 9. Contours of Nu distribution on target plate for different actuator frequencies at z/d = 2.
200 Hz) has strong influence at all z/d compared to other actuator fre­
quencies as clearly seen in Fig. 14 due to high momentum of synthetic
air jet. Fig. 15 shows Nu distribution along the axial (x/d) of convex
surface for different z/d. At all z/d and actuator frequencies, the area of
heat transfer are maximum at stagnation point and effective up to x/d <
6 in axial direction from the stagnation point. Hence when the actuator
is excited at 200 Hz, the optimum z/d distance for effective heat transfer
at and away from the stagnation point is z/d = 2 for the 10 mm orifice
diameter.
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International Journal of Thermal Sciences 170 (2021) 107143
4. Correlation for maximum point local nusselt number
In the present work, the local Nusselt number correlation is proposed
in terms of Reynolds number (Re), jet to plate distance (z/d). The region
of heat transfer characteristics is different at wall jet and stagnation
point. The local Nusselt number is high at stagnation point and is area of
interest for effective cooling by synthetic air jet. Hence correlations are
developed only at maximum point heat transfer (stagnation point). The
maximum point of heat transfer was determined using experimental
R.J. Talapati et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 170 (2021) 107143

Fig. 10. Contours of Nu distribution on target plate for different actuator frequencies at z/d = 3.

data with least squares fit method for two different jet to plate distance The correlations (11) and (12) show a maximum deviation of 13%
region and the following relation was established which is given as and 18% with the experimental data which is shown in Fig. 16. The
( z )− above correlations are valid for Reynolds number (64 < Re < 129). At
/ 0.24
For 2 < z d < 4, Nuo = 9.2 (Re)0.4 , (11) lower jet to plate distance (2 < z/d < 4), the Nuo varies with the relation
(Nuo α Re0.4) which agrees with the results of Re0.5 laminar boundary
d
layer. At higher jet to plate distance (4 < z/d < 7), the Nuo varies with
and
the relation (Nuo α Re0.44). This shows that, higher jet to plate distance
/ ( z )− 0.41 has strongly dependence. It is due to increase in turbulence of jet as a
For 4 < z d < 7, Nuo = 6.8 (Re)0.48 . (12)
d result of entrainment of ambient air into the main jet flow before

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R.J. Talapati et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 170 (2021) 107143

Fig. 11. Contours of Nu distribution on target plate for different actuator frequencies at z/d = 4.

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Fig. 12. Contours of Nu distribution on target plate for different actuator frequencies at z/d = 5.

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Fig. 13. Comparison of Nu distribution along axial (x/d) and radial direction (r/d) for different frequencies cases for z/d = 2, 4.

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Fig. 14. Nu distribution at different z/d distance and frequencies along radial direction (r/d).

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Fig. 15. Nu distribution at different z/d distance and frequencies along axial direction (x/d).

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R.J. Talapati et al.
Fig. 16. Comparison of NuExp versus NuPred for the present study.
impinging on the convex surface.
5. Conclusion
The local heat characteristics of synthetic air jet impinging on a
smooth convex surface is studied experimentally by using thin foil
technique. The experiment were carried out for different actuator fre­
quency (f = 100 Hz–300 Hz), jet to plate distance (z/d = 1 to 8) with
orifice diameter (d = 10 mm). The following results obtained from the
present study are mentioned below.
1. With increase in actuator frequency, the local Nusselt number in­
creases up to 200 Hz actuator frequency and beyond it decreases. The
actuator frequency (f = 200 Hz) has maximum heat transfer rate at
and away from the stagnation point due to high potential or mo­
mentum of synthetic air jet.
2. The local Nusselt number increases with increase in jet to plate dis­
tance, reaches maximum value at z/d = 2 and beyond it decreases for
all actuator frequencies considered. The jet to plate distance (z/d =
2) is effective at all actuator frequencies.
3. For the actuator frequency, the local heat transfer is maximum at
stagnation point. The region of local heat transfer rate is effective up
to x/d < 6 in axial direction, r/d < 3 in radial direction on convex
surface from the stagnation point.
4. The behaviour of local heat transfer characteristics along radial (r/d)
and axial (x/d) direction are identical at stagnation point at all
actuator frequency and jet to plate distance.
5. At wall jet region, the local heat transfer characteristics along the
radial direction (r/d) and axial direction (x/d) are different. The heat
transfer characteristics along the axial direction (x/d) are high
compared to radial direction (r/d) of convex surface. This may be
attributed due to increase in turbulence intensity along the axial
direction (x/d) by the entrainment of surrounding air into main jet
flow.
6. Correlations are obtained for the maximum point local Nusselt
number as a function of Reynolds number and jet to plate distance.
Proposed correlation can be used for the optimum condition of
synthetic air jet impinging on convex surface for effective cooling.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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International Journal of Thermal Sciences 170 (2021) 107143
Acknowledgements
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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Further reading
[21] J. Garg, M. Arik, S. Weaver, T. Wetzel, S. Saddoughi, Meso scale pulsating jets for
electronics cooling, J Electron Packag 127 (2005) 503–511, https://doi.org/
10.1115/1.2241889.
[22] M.B. Gillespie, W. Black, C. Rinehart, A. Glezer, Local convective heat transfer from
a constant heat flux flat plate cooled by synthetic air jets, ASME J Heat Trans 128
(2006) 990–1000, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2345423.
R.J. Talapati et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 170 (2021) 107143

[23] Y. Utturkar, R. Holman, R. Mittal, B. Carroll, M. Sheplak, L. Cattafesta, A Jet [26] C.Y.Y. Lee, M.L. Woyciekoski, J.B. Copetti, Experimental study of synthetic jets
Formation Criteria for Synthetic Jet Actuators, 2003, https://doi.org/10.2514/ with rectangular orifice for electronic cooling, Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 78 (2016)
6.2003-636. AIAA Paper 2003-0636. 242–248, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2016.06.007.
[24] C. Lee, G. Hong, Q.P. Ha, A piezoelectrically actuated micro synthetic jet for active
flow control, Sensor Actuator Phys. 108 (2003) 168–174, https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0924-4247(03)00267-X.

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