GROUP 4
style, culture or even ideas from another
ETHICS AND CULTURE
Cultural relativism and Moral Relativism
✓ Cultural relativism often leads to or
implies moral relativism.
✓ Moral relativism asserts that different
societies and historical periods have
distinct moral systems with no objective
criteria for judgment.
✓ Cultural relativism encourages
understanding people based on their
cherished cultural traditions.
✓ No one has the right to intrude on a
society with deeply ingrained cultural
values.
✓ It's considered inappropriate for
outsiders to impose their beliefs on
another culture.
Cultural Relativism, Ethnocentrism, and
Xenocentrism
Cultural Relativism vis-a-vis Ethnocentrism\
Cultural relativism rejects ethnocentrism, which
is the practice of viewing one's own culture as
the standard by which all others are judged.
Ethnocentrism can lead to the misjudgment of
other cultures and people, often considering
them odd or wrong.
Cultural Relativism as an Antidote
-Cultural relativism is presented as the antidote
to ethnocentrism, promoting understanding and
tolerance of diverse cultural behaviors and
norms Kellenberger (2001)
-It encourages people to suspend judgment and
appreciate the cultural context of others.
Xenocentrism is the belief that one's own
culture is inferior to other cultures.
Xenoxentric individuals value commodities,
country or culture other than their own (Bell,
2017).
Xenocentrism in the Philippines
-The historical influence of slavery and
colonization of the Philippines can lead to the
case of xenocentrism.
-Colonized societies may adopt the norms and
values of their colonizers, even when they don't
align with their own culture.
-The Philippines' historical ties to first-world
countries have contributed to a mindset of
valuing foreign commodities and norms over
their own.
Cultural Relativism: Its Strength and
Weaknesses
STRENGHTS
1. What is considered morally right and wrong
should be judged based on cultural contexts. The
culture of people becomes the final arbiter of the
morality of an individual act. The idea of "to each his
own" exemplifies this concept.
2. Cultural relativism is an answer to cultural
annihilation. If one culture is to be the final basis of
morality, then it would stimulate if not encourage
the annihilation of all other cultures which are
considered inferior to it.
3. Cultural relativism promotes multi- culturalism. It
fosters diversity of cultures and keeps individuals
from being ethnocentric. The distinctiveness of
culture is supposed to be celebrated and not looked
down by people. Thus, cultural relativism dismisses
discrimination and finds everyone in the world as our
co- equals.
WEAKNESSES
1. Cultural relativism might fall prey into. the idea
that universal standards do not exist. There are
certain universal oughts that cannot be culturally
compromised. Human rights precede societal
practices. particularly those that impede our growth
as individuals, and as human beings as a whole.
Cultural relativism is not tenable in ethics since
ethical values invoke universal absolutes which it
categorically dismisses.
2. If universal standards do not exist, so thus
morality. The concept of what is morally right and
wrong fades into the background of cultural
relativism. As such, people who invoke cultural
relativism are free to do whatever they want.
3. Cultural relativism gives birth to ethical relativism,
which veers away from the idea that there are
objective moral standards. With this, people who are
ethically wrong by all standards except by their
culture, can invoke cultural relativism to justify their
act.If we invoke cultural relativism, then we refrain
ourselves from criticizing other cultures, no matter
how evil some of their practices might be, the same
way that we overlook our own cultural flaws
(Rachels, 2003).
Cultural Tolerance and Cultural Relativism
-Cultural relativism should lead to cultural
tolerance, where people respect and appreciate
the diverse ways in which societies uphold their
moral values within their specific contexts.
-Celebrating distinctiveness and diversity is
crucial because people are inherently different
in many aspects.
-Tolerance is essential for preserving and
perpetuating cultural traditions because it
allows individuals to value and uphold their
cultural practices.
-How people hold certain traditions dear is an
integral part of their identity.
Limitations of Cultural Tolerance
-While cultural tolerance is encouraged, it
should not be used as an excuse to perpetuate
practices that violate human rights or endanger
human life.
-Multiculturalism should only tolerate practices
that are ethically and morally acceptable]
GROUP 5.
How is moral character developed?
FAMILY
• Plays a crucial role.
• Has an immense impact.
• The adults who are deemed to be
parents are accountable for the moral
development of their child or children.
• There are several factors affecting the
values a parent could teach a child.
These factors are: socioeconomic status,
culture, age, gender, religion, and
education. (Zigler and Finn-Stevenson,
1987)
BIOLOGICAL CONSTITUTION
• The biological factors such as age, sex,
and gender, may also have an impact on
the value formation.
• It is supposed that as one grows older,
the moral character one has should also
grow and improve. However, this is not
always the case.
• One’s sex or gender would have more
impact once it combines with the other
factors that could shape one’s moral
character.
PEERS
• As we become exposed to more
people, we are pressured in trying
to belong or be accepted.
• The time spent with peers will
expose them to other perspectives
and practices.
SCHOOL
• Most of a person’s life before adulthood
is commonly spent in school.
• In this span of time, the exposure of the
students come from the school,
 teachers, classmates, lessons in class, Stage 4 - Law and order orientation
and their peers.
—Social rules and laws determine behavior,
COMMUNITY
Level 3: Post-conventional or Principled Level
• Could pertain to a “locality,
-At the postconventional level, the individual
neighborhood, town, city, or even a
moves beyond the perspective of his or her own
nation.” (Panopio, 1983)
society.
• To be part of a community means to
also share their beliefs and/or practice Stage 5 - Social contract orientation
their traditions or culture.
—Individual rights determine behavior.
Stages Of Moral Development
Stage 6 - Universal ethical principle orientation
-A major task beginning in childhood and
—According to Kohlberg, this is the highest
continuing into adolescence is discerning right
stage of functioning.
from wrong. Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg
(1927-1987) extended upon the foundation that Kohlberg identified three levels of moral
Piaget built regarding cognitive development. reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and
post-conventional: Each level is associated with
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
increasingly complex stages of moral
-Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development.
development, a comprehensive stage theory of
moral development based on Jean Piaget's
theory of moral judgment for children (1932) In a globalized world, commitment in morality
and developed by Kohlberg in 1958. would be more challenging“WHAT IS MORALLY
ACCEPTED?” POUSHTER (2004
Level 1: Pre-conventional Level
-A 2014 survey conducted by pew, it was
-At the pre-conventional level, morality is
found out that there are still a lot of people who
externally controlled.
stated that belief in God is essential to me a
Stage 1 - Punishment/Obedience Orientation moral person.

—Behavior is determined by -In the Philippines, 93% believe that belief in

consequences. God is necessary to have mortality.

Stage 2 - Instrumental purpose orientation -Morality is influenced by culture, religion, and

education.
—Behavior is determined again by
consequences.

Level 2: Conventional Level

-Al the conventional level conformity to social

rules remains important to the individual.

Stage 3 - Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation

—Behavior is determined by social approval.

GROUP 6.
THE ETHICS OF SENTIMENT, REASON AND
COURAGE
"Morality is not the doctrine of how we may
make ourselves happy, but of how we may make
ourselves worthy of happiness."
- Immanuel Kant
Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1776)
“Morality is not based on reason but on
emotions”
-Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will,
but rather is the “slave of the passions”.
-Moral distinctions are not derived from reason;
-Moral distinctions are derived from moral
sentiments; that is, the feeling of approval
(esteem, praise) and disapproval (blame) felt by
spectators who contemplate a character trait or
actions;
-While some virtues and vices are natural,
others, including justice, are artificial
Hume’s Law
Moral imperative or an “ought”, cannot proceed
from an “is” or a mere factual observation.
German Philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724 –
1804)
Man as a moral agent can only attain virtue if
feelings play no significant role in making
decisions.
Canadian Philosopher Ronald de Sousa
Feelings and reasons compliment each other,
not antagonize. Emotions can be considered
rational, for there is a logical need in man to
communicate emotional expressions.
-Without feelings, man essentially becomes
“Kantian monster” in which animated only by an
unwavering, one-sided devotion to reason
alone.
-A "Kantian monster" typically refers to a
scenario or concept that seems to defy or
undermine Kant's moral framework.
-“Heart-over-head” can do more harm than
good because planning based only on emotions
often supersede rational thoughts.
FEELING
-The perception of events within a body, closely
related to emotion. The term “feeling” is a
verbal noun denoting the action of the verb to
“feel”, which derives etymologically from the
middle English verb “felen”, “to perceive by
touch, by palpitation”.
-Physical sensation not connected with sight,
hearing, taste, or smell.
-The general state of consciousness considered
independently of particular sensations,
thoughts, etc.
EMOTION
-Emotions and intuitions are significant factors
in people's ethical decisions, often guiding them
without their awareness. Experts believe that
emotions are essential for making meaningful
moral judgments.
-Emotions, although often overlooked, are a
crucial element in the ethical decision-making
process, and experts argue that they are
indispensable for making significant moral
judgments.
-Emotions like sympathy and empathy, triggered
by suffering, frequently prompt individuals to
engage in ethical behavior. Among these
emotions, empathy stands out as the primary
moral emotion driving actions such as altruism,
cooperation, and generosity.
CHARACTERISTIC OF EMOTION:
• The core of an emotion is feeling
• Emotional experiences are associated
with some instincts or biological drives.
• Emotions are the products of
perception.
• Every emotional experience involves
several physical and physiological
changes in organism.
• The basic ways of expressing emotions
are inborn and it develops through
maturation.
• Emotions rise abruptly and die slowly.
• Same emotion can be aroused by
several different stimuli.
• Emotions have the quality of
displacement
FEELING
✓ are mental associations and reactions to
emotion
✓ caused by emotions
✓ mental association and reactions
✓ can be hidden
EMOTION
✓ are physical states that arise as a
response to external stimuli
✓ aroused before feelings
✓ physical states
✓ can be observed through physical
reaction
REASONS
-Motivation for an action, decision, or
conviction is rooted in reason. As a quality,
reason involves the ability to engage in logical,
rational, and analytical thinking, consciously
understand and validate information, employ
common sense and logic, and provide
justification or adaptation of practices,
institutions, and beliefs based on available
information.
-It also spells the difference of moral judgement
from mere expressions of personal preference.
In the case of moral judgments, they require
backing by reasons. Thus a reason commends
what it commends, regardless of our feelings,
attitude, opinions and desire.
REASONS& IMPARTIALITY
“Impartiality is not neutrality. It is partiality for
justice” - Stanislaw Jerzy Lec
Social Philosopher Frantz Fanon(1925– 1961)
IN DECIDING ON IMPORTANT MATTERS, NO
APPROACH IS MORE APPROPRIATE THAN A
MORAL ONE
reason and impartiality as guided by sound
judgment, can be reliable tools in bypassing the
subjectivity of feelings (which sometimes
distract from making the right decisions)
GROUP 7
The Moral Impetus of Impartiality
-Impartiality simply states that no one is above
or beneath any standard when making moral
valuations
-Favoring one person to over another person is
never been justifiable.
-People should not be treated differently if
there are no truly good justification to do so
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY IN THE FIRST
AMENDMENT DEFENSE ACT
-The First Amendment Defense Act (FADA) is a
piece of proposed legislation in the United
States that has been introduced in various forms
in Congress. It aims to safeguard the religious
freedom and freedom of speech rights of those
who hold these beliefs.
1. Religious Freedom Protection
2. Freedom of speech
3. Preventing Government Overreach to unethical behavior that harms others or
violates moral principles.
4. Legal Protection
Physical and moral courage -Is the enactment
5. Balancing Interests
of virtue through actual activity.
The seven Guide Step to Moral Reasoning
Bystander effect- This is a social psychological
1. STATE THE PROBLEM phenomenon. It shows that individuals tends to
2. CHECK THE FACTS inhibit from helping others if there are people
3. IDENTIFY RELEVANT FACTORS present.
4. TEST THE OPTION
Mood- It plays an important role on whether a
• HARD TEST
person chooses a helping behavior.
• PUBLICITY TEST
• DEFENSIBILITY TEST Will- It is the fortitude it takes for one to act or
• REVERSIBILITY TEST decide according to a personal set of principles.
• COLLEAGUE TEST GROUP 8
• ORGANIZATION TEST
• VIRTUE TEST COURAGE
5. COME UP WITH A CHOICE OR DECISION
BASED ON THE PREVIOUS STEPS
6. REVIEW STEPS 1-6 Courage Defined- never be afraid what is right –
martin luther king jr.
Moral Courage
Miriam webster- strength
-It is the willingness and determination to stand
up for what is right, just, and ethical, even when Aristotle- Courage is a virtue
it is difficult, unpopular, or personally
-Courage is what sits between cowardice and
challenging. It involves taking a principled
recklessness.
stance in the face of adversity, criticism, or
potential harm to oneself -Courage is the MARKER of moral excellence.

COURAGE (COURAGE, COWARDICE, RECKLESSNESS)

-Is one of the many virtues intrinsic to man Courage is military aspects

-Is that which sits between the extremes of -Conventional wisdom implies that courage is
cowardice and recklessness, the same way the deeply-held military virtue, also called
virtue does between excess and deficiency. belligerence.
What separate vice from virtue? -It is a powerful virtue to combat.

-Virtue is associated with positive moral -it is necessary in war.

character traits, while vice is linked to negative
Physical Courageous
or harmful character traits.
-the ability to face physical danger
-Virtuous individuals tend to engage in ethical
behavior and actions that promote the well- -bravery in the face of physical pain, hardship,
being and happiness of others. Vices often lead even death, or threat of death