Nuclear & Particle Physics

Lectures by : Sanjay Kumar Chamoli

Day : Thursday, Friday, 1:30 -2:30 p.m

Room : DSK Lecture Hall, Department of Physics & Astrophysics

Contact : skchamoli@physics.du.ac.in, cylab123@gmail.com

 Fermi Gas Model
The Fermi-gas model is one of the earliest attempts to suggest the distribution of
protons and neutrons within the nuclear volume.
This model tries to infuse the quantum mechanical effects into the kinetic theory
of gases to explain the observed bulk properties in nuclei
This model assumes that a nucleus consists of a gas of free protons and neutrons
confined to a very small region of space, namely to the nuclear volume and nucleons
are expected to populate discrete (quantized) energy levels within the nucleus.
This can be analogues to the situation as if the protons and neutrons as moving
inside a spherically symmetric well, whose range is given by the radius of the
nucleus, and whose depth can be adjusted to obtain the correct binding energy.
Because protons carry electric charge, they feel different potential than neutrons.
The energy levels for neutrons and protons will therefore differ by an amount
depending on the specific range and depth of the individual potentials seen by them.
 Fermi Gas Model
Since the neutrons and protons are spin ½ (Fermi) particles, so obey Fermi-
Dirac statistics and therefore can fill any energy level by at most two "identical"
nucleons (i.e., in the sense of same energy and charge) of opposite spin projection.

The energy of the highest level filled by the nucleons (protons or neutrons)
defines the Fermi level, of energy Ep. If there is no fermion beyond the Fermi level,
the binding energy of the last nucleon is given simply by Ep. Otherwise, the energy
of the fermion in the next level reflects the binding energy of the last nucleon.
 Fermi Gas Model
The number of quantum states (n) corresponding to momenta smaller than a given value p
equals the available phase space divided by h3

The factor 2 is due to the spin 1/2, called the multiplicity of states in a nucleus containing Z
protons and A-Z neutrons. The maximum Fermi momenta of protons and neutrons is given
by

(for proton)

(for neutrons)

The corresponding kinetic energy will be

The nuclei which contain equal numbers of protons and neutrons, have equal values of
and . Using numerical values of = 1.2 fm, nucleon mass = 940 MeV/ , we calculate
the value of and to be 216 MeV/ and 25 MeV.
 Fermi Gas Model
This suggests that in lighter nuclei (A = 2Z), the potential for neutrons 33 MeV
as their average binding energy 8 MeV.
The depth of the potential and the Fermi energy are to a good extent independent of
the mass number A:

The difference B between the top of the well and the Fermi level is constant for most
nuclei and is just the average binding energy per nucleon B/A = 7 8 MeV. As seen for
free electron gas in metals, the kinetic energy of the nucleon gas in nuclear matter is
comparable to the depth of the potential. This is further evidence that nuclei are rather
weakly bound systems.
If the depths of the wells for neutrons and protons were the same, then, in heavier
nuclei (neutrons more than protons), the F.L. for neutrons would lie higher than for
protons. If this were the case, then the binding energy of the last nucleon would be
charge dependent, namely different for protons and neutrons ...NOT POSSIBLE !!
 Fermi Gas Model
As the depth of the potential experienced by the neutron gas is greater than of the
proton gas, protons are less strongly bound in nuclei than are neutrons. This is a
consequence of the Coulombic repulsion of the charged protons and leads to an extra
term in the potential

Dependence of B.E. on Neutron excess:

The average kinetic energy per nucleon -

Hence the total kinetic energy of the nucleus is -

As V = 4/3 R3 = 4/3 R03A, so

 Fermi Gas Model

or

This average kinetic energy has for fixed mass number A but different N or,
equivalent, Z a minimum at N = Z. Hence the binding energy shrinks for N Z.

The first term contributes to the volume term in the mass formula while the second
describes the correction which results from having N Z. This asymmetry energy
term grows as the square of the neutron surplus and the binding energy shrinks
accordingly.
 Nuclear Shell Model
Questions raised after Liquid Drop model :
Do nucleons exist in well ordered quantum controlled nuclear states ?
Is there any evidence for the grouping of nucleons into shells ?
Can quantum numbers similar to n, l, s, j be applied to the nucleus ?
Why the nuclei with some special number of neutrons and protons
(2,8,20,28,50,82,126), called magic numbers show extra stability
reminiscent to the properties shown by the noble gases among the
atoms ?

* The model suggested, independently by M. Mayer and J.H.D. Jensen in

1949, called Nuclear shell model is capable of answering most of these
questions, by considering the distribution of protons and neutron in nuclei in
well defined shells

M Tech (NST 602) : Introduction to Nuclear Physics

 Nuclear Shell Model
Why does the shell model works in Hydrogen atom ?
 Nuclear Shell Model
Why the same can not be done in nuclei ?
 Nuclear Shell Model
Then why and how the shell model work for nuclei ?

M Tech (NST 602) : Introduction to Nuclear Physics

 Nuclear Shell Model
Experimental evidence of closed nuclear shells (Magic numbers) :
The binding energy of magic numbered nuclei is much larger than the
neighboring nuclei. Thus larger energy is required to separate a single
nucleon from such nuclei.

M Tech (NST 602) : Introduction to Nuclear Physics

 Nuclear Shell Model
Number of stable nuclei with a given
value of Z and N corresponding to the magic
number are much larger than the number of
stable nuclei with neighboring values of Z &
N. Ex.: Sn, Z=50 has 10 stable isotopes, Ca
with Z=20 has six stable isotopes.

Naturally occurring isotopes whose nuclei

contain magic numbered Z or N have
greater relative abundances. For example,
Sr-88 with N=50, Ba-138 with N=82 and Ce-
140 with N=82 have relative abundances of
82.56%, 71.66% and 88.48% respectively.
M Tech (NST 602) : Introduction to Nuclear Physics
 Nuclear Shell Model
Neutron absorbing cross section is very low for the nuclei having magic
numbered neutron number.

M Tech (NST 602) : Introduction to Nuclear Physics

 Nuclear Shell Model
The neutron and proton separation energies in nuclei having Z or N as
magic numbers show a sharp increase compared to their neighbors.

M Tech (NST 602) : Introduction to Nuclear Physics

 Nuclear Shell Model
Nuclei with N just one more than the magic number spontaneously emit a
neutron (when excited by preceding beta-decay) E.g., O-17, K-87 & Xe-137.
Energy of the first excited state for nuclei with proton or neutron number
equal to the magic number are significantly higher than for other nuclei.
Excitation probabilities of the first excited state are low for nuclei with the
proton or neutron number equal to the magic number.
Quadrupole moments vanish for nuclei with proton or neutron number
equal to the magic number.

Three naturally occurring radioactive series decay to the stable end

product Pb with Z=82 in three isotopic forms having N=126 for one of them.

Energy of alpha or beta particles emitted by magic numbered radioactive

nuclei is larger than that from other nuclei
M Tech (NST 602) : Introduction to Nuclear Physics
 Nuclear Shell Model
Doubly Magic nuclei :

M Tech (NST 602) : Introduction to Nuclear Physics

 Nuclear Shell Model
Assume that the nucleons move (independently) in a potential, V, created
by the other nucleons in the nucleus.

Assume that the problem can be addressed by the non-relativistic

Schrodinger quantum mechanics.

Assume that the potential, V, is spherically symmetric and therefore only a

function of r, V(r)

Square well Harmonic oscillator

Wood-Saxon Potential

M Tech (NST 602) : Introduction to Nuclear Physics

Nuclear Shell Model
 Nuclear Shell Model
With Infinite Square Well potential -

Where,

The Schrodinger's equation is , k2

M = 2m/ 2
(r) (r)=

The solution to the equation is, (r)

Where, the radial part of the equation is

The solution to the radial part are the spherical Bessel functions :
Nuclear Shell Model

l
sin ( kr)
0
kr
sin( kr) - (kr)cos(kr)
1
(kr) 2
3 sin( kr) 3(kr) cos(kr) (kr) 2 sin( kr)
2
(kr) 3

Zero crossings of the

Bessel Functions
 Nuclear Shell Model
xnl
The wave-number k is - k nl R xnl k nl
R
2 2
( c ) 2 xnl xnl
the energy of states as - Enl 2
. 2 E0 2
2mc R
So, the sequence of solution is -
Nuclear Shell Model

Magic
numbers
 Nuclear Shell Model
With Harmonic Oscillator potential -

Schroedinger
Equation

Energy eigen
values
Nuclear Shell Model
 Nuclear Shell Model
On working with polar coordinate system :
 Nuclear Shell Model

Harmonic oscillator
 Nuclear Shell Model
With Wood Saxon potential -
 Nuclear Shell Model
Harmonic oscillator Wood-Saxon Potential Square well
 Nuclear Shell Model
Situation as seen
Spin-Orbit interaction (in Atoms) - from the electron

Situation as seen L
from the proton
B
s
Ze

e-
High energy
configuration
Magnetic Interaction energy shown

Magnetic field B = I/2r & L = Orbital A.M. = m.v.r

Where, I =current=Z.e /T, with T= period of the orbit.
As, B and L are pointing to the same direction. So we have-
B =Z.e.L /(m.c2.r3), in CGS units, or B = (L/ m.e.r.c2) .dVc/dr, with
where, Vc = Coulomb potential = - Z e2 /r

Magnetic moment = Bohr magnetron

 Nuclear Shell Model
Spin-Orbit interaction (in Atoms) -

Where l and s are

dimensionless A.M
 Nuclear Shell Model
( c ) 2 1 dVC
ESO 2 2
. l.s Watom ( r )l.s
( mc ) r dr
Although derived for Atomic Physics, this equation is in fact quite GENERAL.
It applies to the SPIN-ORBIT energy for any centralized potential VC.

To find the energy of the atom, the average over the atom should be taken:
E SO Rnl (r )Watom ( r )l.sRnl (r ) d 3 r nl l.s
Total splitting = 1
2 nl (2l 1)
Highest In case of
l s energy state l+½
nl atom the
splitting is
l s Lowest ~ 10-4 eV
energy state l ½

* The placement of (l + s) and (l - s) states is opposite in nucleus than in atom

due to different polarity of charge of electron and proton.
 Nuclear Shell Model
S-O int. (in Nuclei) - LOW ENERGY HIGH ENERGY
STATE STATE
The spin orbit
energy of the
nucleus is of
opposite sign to
the atomic case

STRETCH JACKNIF
E

LS
 Nuclear Shell Model
Spin-Orbit interaction (in Nuclei) -
* In nuclei the spin-orbit effect comes from the nuclear surface not the bulk as
for the nucleons other than on the surface, the strong spin direction forces are
balanced due to same environment around them
Nuclear Shell Model
 Nuclear Shell Model

* Thus the spin-orbit interaction term removes the degeneracy of energy level
w.r.t. spin and the spacing between the two degenerate levels (i.e. l + ½ and
l ½ ) is proportional to (2l + 1) ESO .

* Without the spin-orbit interaction term, the energy of state does not depend
on the total angular momentum j , however with the inclusion of the spin-orbit
interaction term, it does depend on j.
Nuclear Shell Model
Shell Model Applications; ground state spin, parity
Shell Model can be used to predict:
the ground state spin (I) and parity of the nuclei ( )
* For odd-A nuclei : A.M. is determined by the angular momentum of
the last nucleon in the species (proton or neutron) that is odd.

* In Even- A nuclei : For even-even nuclei (Z-even and N-even; A-

even), the ground state is always have spin 0 (net angular momentum
associated with even N & even Z is zero) and parity is positive, i.e. 0+.

* In Even- A nuclei : For odd-odd nuclei (Z-odd and N-odd; A-even),

the last neutron couples to the last proton with their intrinsic spins in
parallel orientation.