Rt oak [Applied Offshore Structural Engineering _ Teng H. Hsu BITS'T UIERARY LENELAG GiVISION 1 ~1 APR 1985 = J & L_fefa2ueAPPLIED OFFSHORE STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING Copyright © 1984 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, + Texas. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This book, or parts thereof, may not be repro- duced in any form without permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Hsu, Teng H. Applied Oftshore Structural Engineering Includes index 1. Offshore structures, 1. Title. TC1665.H79 1984 627.9 84-628 ISBN 0-87201-750-8 CONTENTS settee eee eee ee IX seve 1, Conversion of Units ............. ‘The International System of Units. References. 2. Wind Forces .... cette eeececeeeeene eZ API Wind Force Formula, ABS Wind Force Formula. DNV Wind Force Formula, Unsteady Wind Forces, References. 3. Wave Forces oo... 6. eee cece cece cence nsec IT ‘Small Amplitude Waves. Stokes’ Second and Thicd-Order ‘Waves. Stokes’ Fifth-Order Waves. Wave Forces by Mori- son’s Equation. Stream Function Wave Theory. Wave ming. Vortex Shedding Due 10 Waves, References. 4. Energy Spectrum of the Sea .............4.4.37 Energy of the Sea, Wave Histogram. Wave Spectra, Refer~ ences 5. Fundamental Naval Architecture .............46 Definition of Terms. Transverse Stability. Stability Under Wind Forces. Longitudinal Stability. Rolling in Calm Wa- ter. Free Undamped Heaving Motion. References. 6. Offshore Platform Topside Structures .........55 Plate Design. Shear Lag and Bifective Width Concept. Buckling of Plates. Girders with Transverse Stiffeners, Web ling. Lifting Padeye Design. References.7. Offshore Platform Jacket Structures ..........74 Layouts and Preliminary Sizing. Tubular Members, Tubu- Jar Joints. Hydrostatic Pressure. Conical Transition Be- tween Tubular Sections. Corrosion Protection of Jacket Structures. Boat Landings and Barge Bumpers. Refer ences 8. Offshore Platform Pile Foundation ...........95 Pile Capacity for Axial Loads. Soil—Pile Interaction, Pile Design. Pile Make-Up. Pile Drivability Analysis. Refer- ences, 9. Offshore Platform Marine Operations ........ 127 Loadout and Seafastening. ‘Transportation, References. 10. Fabrication and Installation of Offshore Platforms... 60.00. eee e eee ea cere eeee ee WT Structural Steel. Welding. Fabrication. Launching and Floating, Flooding and Upending, Lifting. References. 11. Seismic Analysis of Offshore Platforms ....... 140 Step-by-Step Analysis Method, Mode Superposition Method. Response Spectrum Method. References 12. Dynamic Analysis of Offshore Platforms ...... 152 Natural Frequency of a Structural System. Dynamic Re- sponse of Offshore Platforms. Dynamic Response by the Time Domain Approach. Dynamic Response by the Fre- quency Domain Approach. References 13. Fatigue Analysis of Offshore Platforms ....... 167 Fatigue Analysis and Hotspot Stress. Fatigue Analysis by the Discrete Spectrum Approach. Fatigue Analysis by the Power Spectral Approach, References 14. Mooring Design .........00.e ce cee eee ees 196 Mooring Buoys. Mooring Line with Hydrodynamic Resis- tance. References MNdex oe eee cece eee e eee ee ee ee nee 203 PREFACE ‘The book is designed to bridge the gap between theories and practical applications in offshore structural engineering. It provides both theoreti- cal background and practical design data in the areas of design loads and forces, engineering procedures, codes of practice, and platform fabrica- tion and installation, It also includes hundreds of charts, curves, and equations that can be directly applied to practical design. Examples showing how to use the design data are provided. In order (o familiarize engineers with metric units, the book starts with basic unit conversions. This is then followed by a review of fundamental ‘wind and wave forces and the sea spectrum concept. Next, the practical design of offshore structures is presented in three consecutive sections, covering superstructures, jackets, and pile foundations, all with codes of practice. Following these practical design aspects, the fundamentals of Platform fabrication, loadout and seafastening, sea transportation, and ‘offshore installation are examined. Finally, the concluding chapters de- scribe the advanced techniques of dynamic, seismic, and fatigue analyses for offshore structures. ‘The book contains a number of references to codes and specifications of API, AISC, ABS, and DNV. The discussions of these provisions are ‘ot intended to be interpretations of those specifications. Engineers are obliged to make direct reference to the latest editions and/or revisions of {te particular specification or code that is applicable to the structure. While the book emphasizes practical application, it provides theoreti- cal information to support the design philosophy, and, therefore, should help fil the gap between theory and practical design in offshore struc- tural engineering,| wish to acknowledge the contribution of Dr. E. Verner, Dr. K Pujoubi, and Mr. H. Edward who reviewed the manuscript and offered ‘any valuable suggestions. Particular acknowledgment is duc to API, AISC, and DNV, for permitting the use of formulas and data from thei publications. ‘Although every care has been taken to avoid errors, itis possible some could escape. I will be grateful for any suggestions tl ‘make concerning needed corrections. Teng H, Hsu NOTATION surface area of structure and pile shear strength of undisturbed clay soil wave velocity damping matrix block coefficient drag cocliiciemt, lift coett prismatic coefficient shape coéfficient, height coefficient waterplane coetficie consumption rate of anode diameter of tubulars barge displacement pile diameter and drilled diameter pin diameter modulus of elasticity of steel (29,000 ksi) total energy per square foot of seaway secant modulus of soil reaction force matrix axial compressive stress permitted in a prismatic member Euler stress for a prismatic member divided by safety factor critical hoop buckling stress elastic hoop buckling stress allowable beating stress allowable welding stress + mass coefficientNy N Now (a) Po. Ps Pos Gs do tw Qe, QQ RRR RRS critical elastic local buckling stress allowable shear stress yield stress of steel cyclic frequency axial, bending, shear stress hhoopstress average shear stress separation between branches wave height significant wave height current output ‘moment of inertia effective length factor for a prismatic member elevation of mean wave height above mean water level stiffness matrix dai coefficient of la chord length span length wave tength barge watertine length moment mass bearing factor number of eycles per sea state per year total number of stress cycles ina year total number of stress ranges in a year total number of wave cycles per year number of cycles 10 failure at stress level o, number of loading cycles at stress level a; sling toad static pressure effective overburden pressure ultimate capacity, skin friction, and end bearing of pile, respectively uniform load anode to electrolyte resistance radius of main plate curve chord and brace radius, respectively barge resistance Reynolds number governing radins of pyration ral pressure Ta) Megscer eae er ¥xxebr Greek letters radius of cheek plate and pin hole, respectively stress and maximum stress. average stress range stress concentration factor SCF of brace member SCF of chord member SCF of vertical member safety factor for axial tension and hoop compression Strouhal number spectral acceleration spectral displacement spectral velocity input specteum spectrum main plate thickness wave period tension in the mooring tine sea state dominated period fundamental natural period of the structure response amplitude operator cheek plate thickness thickness of tubulars chord and brace wall thickness, respectively time velocity components in rectangular coordinates amplitude of vibratory motion punching shear stress Tift weight ‘unit submerged weight of a mooring line rectangular coordinates displacement, velocity, and acceleration effective acceleration acceleration relative to the base bbase acceleration amplitude of the n® mode life of anode in years deflection fyR, ratio of brace radius to chord radius Rit, ratio of chord radius to thickness soil effective unit weightVar Voor ew Yan displaced volume angle of fricti wave surface profile angle between the brace and chord Poisson's ratio . damping ratio mass density resistivity of the electrolyte ratio of brace wall thickness to the chord wall thickness mode shape vector of n® mode ‘response spectrum velocity potential ratio of punching shear to the punching shear stress for axial, in-plane bending, and out-plane bending, respectively stream function circular frequency volume rT ‘ te. Le - : 1 CONVERSION OF UNITS ‘The International System of Units (S1) The international system of units is a new language of measurements. twas developed by the General Conference on Weights and Measures. ‘The system was derived from the earlier decimal meiric system. It con- siats of seven base units which form the basic core of dimensionally inde- pendent units from which other measurements are derived. The follow- ing base units and derived units are often used in structural engineering Length: meter (m) Im 100 centimeters (cm) Vem = 10 millimeters (mm) Mass: kilogram (kg) 1 kg = 1,000 grams (g) 1 metric ton () = 1,000 kg Force: newton (N) UN = Lkg-mist 1 kilogeaim force (kg!) = 9-81N Vmetcic ton () = 1,000 kilograms force = 1 tonne Ftonne () = 9,810 N Moment: newton-meter (N-M) Energy (Work): joule Q) 1J-= 1 newton-meter2 Applied Olshore Structural Englnescing Pressure: Pascal (Pa) 1 Pa = IN/m? 1 kPa = 1,000 Nim? 1 MPa = 1,000,000 Nim? I MPa = 1,090'kPa Velocity (Speed): meter per second (m/s) Dynamic Viscosity: Pascal second (Pa-s) Némm? Kinematic Viscosity: square meter per second (m*/s) Mass Density: kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m?) ‘ors of conversions of length, force, moment, and stress are gener- ated and shown in Table 1-1. Table 1-2'shows the yield and allowable stress of selected structural steels in both ksi and MPa. Table 1-3 shows the allowable compressive stresses in MPa for A 36 steel up to Ki/t = 120. Table 1-4 shows Ff values in MPa up to Ki/t = 200. Example 1-1 A 10-meter tension member has a cross-sectional area of 100 cm? ‘What is the elongation when the axial load is 100 tonnes? PLI(AE) 100 tonnes = 980,700 N 10 m = 10,000 min 100 cm? = '10,000 inm? 30 x 10° psi = 30 x 10) ksi = 207,000 N/mm? (MPa) ‘980,700 > 10,0001(10,000 x 207,000) = 4.74 mm Example 1-2 The shear module, G, is related to Poisson's ratio » and the module of elasticity E by the equation G = EIQ +») Calculate G in MPa: E = 30x 10° ksi = 207,000 MPa »=03 G = 207,000/2(1 + 0.3)) = 79,615 MPa 3 Inches 10 = 0 om > oat 39370 = ou 10» 0001 1000.0 = 1.0 b5336 2000.0 = 20 Oooo one = 000022 Som Ooo ro ton im te 356 0000 = 356.11 aa ‘or __ ony ° pal Wr! we 0.0098 : 6.4905 tone Son 0.1451 : 9.001 Ms.as = 1000.0 i Example 1-3 A simply supported beam (IPE 300) with an unsupported length of 20 fis loaded with 4 tons axial and 20 ton-ft bending loading. Calculate the ‘maximum stress and stress A = 53.2em? S = 557 em?4. Applied Otteneca Structural Engineering Table 1-2 for Compression Members of A%6 St Conversion of Unite Table 1-3 Allowable Stress ose, rage ire) ASTM A6 216 149 ASTM AM 252.30 4-207 + 2 [ASTM AST2 Grade 42 252174 3 ASTM AS72 Gre * 30 207 “4 ASTM ASIB wo 07 “6 ‘APL Spec 2H 25? 1 4 a “ “ ose, ” ___ Grade ea) (Pa) xs)_(ea) 30 API SE Grade 8 3540 21 iat 31 ‘ASTM AS3 Gude B 38 0 21 144 x ASTM A135 Grade B 35 240 21 ise 3 ASTM A139 Grade B 35 240 21 144 “ ‘ASTM A301 36 250 216 18 38 APL SLX Grade X42 2 wo 352114 36 AAPLSLX Grade X82 3230 312 216 0 a9 37 —aeeeW 8 1278 5 9 1237 9 20 14195 @ 21 Mist 1 2 BL e - 2 40.63 8 5 42.5 em es) 14023 a P = 4 tons = 35.58 kN 3 iss 3 M = 20 ton-ft = 54,244.4 N-m % 19.4 ra f= PYA = 35.58/53.2 = 6.69 MPa 2 138.65 o fy = MIS = 54,244.4 x 100/557 = 97.39 MPa Fa a7 ss Kile = 609.76112.5 = 48.87 % 0 F, = 127.10 MPa (from Table 1-3) iM n SJE, = 6.69/127.1 = 0.0526 2 2 (JF, = 97.397149 = 0.65 33 B Stress ratio = 0.0526 + 0.65 = 0.7026 x i 36 6 u n 108.12 7 Be xs 8 10736 his ne » % 106.00 19 19 0 » 105.85 10 70.842126.15 1786.56 a 1322.22 a np sa “ 149.35, % 1004.94 2 190.18 * 793.58 96 712.67 98 oa 400 583.32 02 3150 08 486.30 106 46.61 108 ano Ho 34059 m2 352.49 14 228 15, 6 305.49) ha 2aS.84 n0 dor 1 251.8 14 236.22 126 22251 128 210.04 0 198,53 na iar 92 oy 013 16 169.11 bs 10.77 40 References |, ANSVASTM B621-78, Standard Practice for the Use of Metric (SI) Unis in Building Design and Construction, March 1978. 2. ASTM, Standard for Metric Practice, F380, 1976. 2 WIND FORCES The motion of air is defined as wind. Air motion may be caused by Bravity, deflective forces from the earth’s rotation, or centrifugal forces due to the curvature of the wind path. Wind possesses kinetic energy ‘When a structure is placed in the path of the moving air so that wind is stopped or is deflected from its path, then all or part ofthe kinetic energy is transformed into the potential energy of pressure. Wind forces on any structure therefore result from the differential pressure caused by the ob- struction to the free flow of the wind. These forces are functions of the wind velocity, orientation, area, and shape of the structural elements. Wind forces on a structure are a dynamic problem, but for design pur- ‘poses, itis sufficient to consider these forces as an equivalent static pres- sure, For an ideal fluid by Bernoulli's theorem, pYol2 + py = pV22 +p +p =atp where: p= Mass density of the air P = Static pressure Vo = Velocity of the approaching free flow P.V = Static pressure and velocity at a point on the object ‘The term pV1/2 designated by q is the dynamic pressure, Thus, the sum nf the dynamic and static pressure ie a constant at all points. Usuallyit is convenient to resolve the wind force into horizontal and vertical components and use dimensionless coefficients to define the magnitude of the forces: . CoaA Cuqa Where: Fp, FL = drag and lift force, respectively Co = Drag coefficient . CL = Lift coefficient A = Exposed area The magnitude of Cp and C, depends on the shape of the object and its ‘orientation in the wind stream, API Wind Force Formula American Petroleum Institute recommends the following formula to calculate wind force on offshore structures (Reference 2): F 0.00256 VC,A (English units) 1) 0.0473 VC,A (metric units) > F = Wind force, Ib or N V = Sustained wind velocity ‘mph or kan/h, C, = Shape coefficient A = Projected area of object, fi? or m? where: 10 meters above water surface, API also recommends the following shape coefficients: Beams 1s Sides of building 1s Cylindrical section 05 Overall platform projected area 1.0 ‘The height factor is considered in API formula by V = Violy/i0)* where: Vio = wind velocity at 10 m above water surface Y= height above water surface in metcis X = exponent, usually assumed to be between one-thirteenth ‘and one-seventh depending upon sea state, relative di bes Ee eC p ine ood dy oft = *rsign’ * tvel_ 20 | - Lo | bi 35° 404580 35 €0 ig (1 i mars) Figure 2-1, API height factor. API recommends that ia for gusts Ya for sustained wind ‘The height factor (y/10)* is plotted in Figure 2-1 ABS Wind Force Formula ‘American Bureau of Shipping specifies the following formula to calcu- late the wind force (Reference 3) F = 0.0623 VIC\CA (metric units) 2 F = 0,00338 ViC\C,A (English units) where: F = Wind force, ky or Ib Wit! _locit, sor10 Applied Orthore Siuctural Engineering ' Wind Forces 11 Cy = Height coefficient where: a’ = Gust factor , = Shape coefficient B = Exponent of height factor ‘A = Projected area, m? or {¢ y = Height in meters above mean water level Vio = Average wind speed over one-hour interval at a height 10 The following height coefficients are specified by ABS. The height is meters above the mean water level the distance above the water surface: DNV recommends the following values: 50 Tete 100 f tio 50 for I-hour interval 100 fi to 150% 120 ).113 for I-minute interval 150 ft t0 200 ft 130 100 for 3-second gust 200 ft 10 250 ft 137 250 f1 to 300 ft 143 Figure 2-2 is a plot of height factor versus height rat ABS recommends the following shape coefficients: Cylindrical shapes 0. 130 Hull (surface type) 10 Deck house 10 Isolated structural shapes 1.5 Under-deck areas Lo. 140 Rig derrick (each face) 1.25 ONV Wind Force Formula a Det Norske Veritas (DNV) recommends the following formula to cal- culate wind force on structural members (Reference 4). % F=2V.CAsina (23) 120 z om where Mass density of air (1.225 kg/m" for dry air) Wind velocity averaged over a time interval (at a height hy Y meters above the mean water level we C = Shape coefficient ‘A = Projected area of the member normal to the wind @ = Angle between the wind direction and the axis of the member 100 In the DNV formula, V, is a function of time, height, and gust factor, Tt may be expressed as 4 6 Vy = a Vuly/toyt Figure 2-2. ONV height tector12 Appled Otahove Biuetual Engineering ‘The shape coefficient for structural members of finite length is defined as c = Kc where: k = Reduction factor CC’ = Shape coefficient for members of infinite length Values of k and C’ are provided in Appendix B of Reference 4. One must refer to Appendix B to determine a proper shape coefficient C. Solidification effect of a plane truss or a series of columns is taken into account by using solidity ratio @ and effective shape coefficient C., The wind force may be calculated as F, = 0.5pV3C,AS sin a C, and @ are also provided in Appendix B of DNV rules. Shield effect for members located behind each other is taken into ac- count by multiplying a shielding factor 9 to the wind force Equation 2-3 Shielding factors for various spacing ratios are provided in Appendix B of DNV rules. unst dy Wind Fores Slender or relatively flexible offshore structures such as derricks or flare booms may be subject to wind-induced oscillation of large ampli- tude and severe stress when damping is small. This is especially true ‘when the structure or structural component is free to oscillate in a bend- ing and torsional mode simultaneously. This type of motion may become ‘quite yiolent and reach a catastrophic amplitude in a few cycles of oscil- lation. When cylindrical objects are loaded with high wind speed associ- ated with a high Reynolds number, vortex formation may cause periodic alternating forces perpendicular to the wind direction, resulting in vibra- tion of the structure. The frequency of vortex shedding f is given by the felationship Wind speed Diameter ‘Strouhal number ‘The average value of Sq for circular members is 0.2 when Keynolds number R, <6 X 10°. If Ry > 6 X 10°, the average value of Sy is about be bk. be le Le Wing Forces 13 0.4. For a circular member, the vortex shedding is strongly dependent on the Reynolds number of the flow. In general, when Ry <6 X 10°, the shedding is random. A reduced velocity factor is defined as r= rm where: f° = Fundamental frequency of the member vibrating in-line with the flow DNV recommends that the following regions for resonant vortex shed ding should be considered: 1. When 1.7 < Fy < 3.2, in-line exitation may occur. 2, When 4.7 < Fy < 8.0, cross-flow vibration may occur. Figure 2-3 is a plot of vortex shedding frequency for various pipe sizes. I is noted that f is double when the Reynolds number R, = 6 X 10° Forces induced by vortex shedding can be calculated by F = 0.5pC,AV? where: p Cc; v Mass density of air Fluctuating force coefficient Flow velocity normal to the member Values of C; are provided in Reference 4 by DNV. ‘When Ry 2 3 x 108, use C; = 0.2. A dynamic load factor of 0.5/¢ is, recommended by DNV when resonant vortex shedding is likely to occur. ‘A damping ratio, &, of 0.005 is recommended Example 2-1 ‘A 36-in.-diameter flare pipe extends 40 ft above an offshore platform deck which is 30 ft above the water surface. Ifthe maximum wind speed is 150 mph, calculate the wind force. By API formula y = 30 + 40/2 = 50 ft above water surface yO = 15.24/10 = 1.52 From Figure 2-1, height factor = 1.0614 Applied Ottshorw Stecturt Engineoring 150 x 1.06 = 159 mph = 256 km/h 0.00256 x 159? x 0.5 x 3 x 40 = 3,883 Ibs = 3.88 kips = 0.0473 x 256? x 0.5 x 0.915 x 12.2'= 17,300N 17.3 kN n< F By ABS formula 130 mph = 241.4 km/h = 67.06 m/s 0.0623 x 67.06" x 1.1 x 0.5 x 0.915 x 12.2 = 1721 kgf = 16.9 kN 0.00338 x 130.35? x 1.1 x 0.5 x 3.x 40 = 3,790 Ibs 3.79 kips By DNV formula F = O.5pVRCA sina Vy = 1.28 X67 = 85.85 mis C= KC! = 0.7 x 0.62 = 0.43 (Reference 4) F = 0.5 x 1.225 x 85,85" x 0.43 X ILS = 21.65 kN Example 2-2 Ifthe flare pipe in Example 2-1 has an 0.50-in, wall thickness, what is the critical wind speed? ‘The natural frequency of the flare pipe is calculated by ©, get uUVw 0.56 for fundan 386 in. /sec? 30. 108 Ibs/in.? 8,786 in.* 189.57 Ibs/ft, 15.79 Ibs! 480 in ect _ ,/86 x 30 x 1 w 15.79 ntal mode 4 ream a 0 vu 8786 = 2,538.39 x 10° 28 a: Kor 80 © © z « ~ wimpnd Figure 2-3. Vorlex shedding frequency. 0.56 X 2538.39 x 10. 6 17 pg 480 x 480. From Figure 2-3, where the wind speed is about 60 mph, the frequency of vortex shedding f = 6 and F,> 4.7. When the wind speed is 102 mph, f = 1Oand F; = 8. Iti this speed range that can give rise to large-16 Applied Otlenore Suuctural Engineering nee 1. American Societ: of Civil Engineers, “Wind Forces on Structures,” ASCE transaction paper No. 3269. . 2. American Petroleum Institute, API RP 2A, Planning, Designing, and Constructing Fixed Offshore Plasforms, Yanuary 1982 pp. 13-14, 3. American Bureau of Shipping, Rules for Building and Classing Off- shore Mobile Drilling Units, 1980, Section 3. 4. Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspec- Hom of Fixed Offshore Structures, Appendix A and Appendix B, May bas ES bs i... ~ —~ 3 WAVE FORCES In addition to wind forces, water forces are a basic environmental load- ing problem that must be considered when designing an offshore struc- ture. Water forces can be classified as forces due to waves and forces due {o currents. Wind blowing over the ocean's surface drags water along with it, thus forming a current and generating waves. ‘There are three basic forms of waves: (1) sinusoidal waves, (2)cnoidal waves, and (3) solitary waves. Each wave form can be examined with low- and high-order wave theory. To calculate wave forces, one must first select a proper wave theory lo compute the water particle velocities and acceleration, Generally, the sinusoidal wave theory is suitable for deep-water waves, and the cnoidal wave theory is applied to shallow wa- ter, For extremely shallow water, solitary wave theory is recommended In computing wave forces a high-order theory should be considered when dag forces are the primary concern; if inertia forces predominate, a low- order theory is sufficient The most fundamental description of simple sinusoidal oscillatory wave consists of its length L, height H, and period T. Small amplitude wave theory and some finite amplitude wave theories can be developed by introduction of a velocity potential $(x,2,t). Horizontal and vertical water-particle velocities are defined as u = aelax w = ag/oz‘Applied Olishore Sirucural Engineering ‘The velocity potential, Laplace's equation, and Bernoulli's dynamic equation—together with the appropriate boundary conditions —provide the necessary information needed in deriving the small-amplitude wave formulas ‘Small-Amplitude Waves In an incompressible irrotational fluid, wave motion is governed by the following equations: . 8, - wet gato GB) 4 tfae? , fag) Page = . a ill +f) eee ° (G2) Equation 3-1 is Laplace's equation of continuity, and Equation 3-2 is the Bernoulli equation. The coordinate system is illustrated in Figure 3 There are three boundary conditions to be satisfied |. At the sea floor, vertical particle velocity should be zero: =~ #9 a w (when 2 = —d) 2. At the water surface, pressure should be zero: 9 , Hlfae? (09) 9 when 2 = ov 20 + {fe} « (a}] © (when 2 = 9) 3. The same surface of particles should continue to be the free surface throughout the motion: ap 4, 26 ap , ad ap _ when p = at” ax ax * de de ~ 9 (hen p = OF The boundary 2 = » appears as an unknown. The general solution is extremely complex, and usually it is assumed that the solution is in the form of a series consisting of selected parameters (H, L, ) which will exist and satisfy the wave equations. For small-amplitude waves, the fol- lowing potential function is satisfied =H g cosh kd + 2 sinh (kil) oe in 0 Wave Forces Figure 3-1. Wave coordinate systemWave Foces 21 ‘The wave length and speed eonpted for this condition are denoted Ly And Co, respectively. Tables provided by Wiegel (Reference 2) ae very helpful for hand calculation The following approximation between d/L and d/L (Reference 3) is very helpful: The surface profile n (x, st) is given by dl - 1 = 05H cos@ Lo o ‘The wave length and speed are elated tothe period and the water depth 4 005, @ = 043 m= 05 ty é a = 043 m= nm b= BE tanh kd 3) 0.04 < ft < 0.15, « = 0.56 m = 0.58 = at d c oe tanh kd (3-4) 0.15 < © < 0.39, « = 0.83 m = 0,808 bo ‘The particle velocities u and w in x and z directions are given by 0.39 < fa = 1.00 m = 1.00 = FH cosh Kid + 2 7 OE sinh ka 68 os) w Kd + 2), - Example 3-1 T sinhka "8 8 Water depth d = 130 fe The corresponding accelerations are given by | Rive hele it = 20 0 Wave period T = 15 sec du _ 22H cosh k(d +2) | aT sinh ke Si? 67) Determine the wave length L Om, <2n7H sinh k(d + 2) . = et, 22 x19 4,153 ft a sinh ka 8 on ers Oe 1 is noted that when d > L/2, the hyperbolic functions in Equations $10 yyy 3-3 through 3-8 are considerably simplified, ie” iis sosh kid + 2) sind +2) Loy By Wiegel’s table, sinh kd * inka va = 0.1522 tanh kd 2 1 L = 130/0.1522 = 854 422 Applied Ottahore Suvetural Enginoarng By using a= 054 0.58 0.54(0.1127)9 = 0.1524 130/0.1524 = 853 ft ‘The wave solution given in this section is valid only fot small wave motion. When it is applied in cases for large wave motions, the answers obtained will only be approximate. The degree of approximation be- comes more inexact as the wave height increases. Stokes’ Second- and Third-Order Waves ‘The solution is given by a series for # in ascending power of Hk/2, Let Sadtz and ge 5 jHk\" cosh nk sin Ea) sana on where: a, = polynomials in cosh kd and sinh kd For Stokes’ second-order waves, the surface profile, particle veloci- ties, and accelerations are given by = Hoos a SHY co HC + cosh 2) ap 6.10) a = FCO IS cos 9 4 STU COBH IRS oy 9 GD = ESS sin + SEE Si PAS sin 20 12): BU. APH COMB AS iy g 4 VAMP C00 IRS iy ay on a” sinh ka PL sink ke dw. <2aH sinh ks a TF ‘The Stokes' third-order wave approximations are given as follows: y= acoso + «(9 cos 20 + re (6) cos 38 G1) where f(4/L) and f,(4/L) are given by efé) = @ + cosh 2kd) cosh kd AW 2 sinh? kd of¢) = Z 3 1+ 8 cosh’ ka Sink kd ‘The wave length is given by L= x tanh kd [i + bs} Mt +A cot 2 6-16) ‘The particle velocities and accelerations are given by u = C(F, cosh kS cos @ + F; cosh 2kS cos 28 + F; cosh 3kS cos 36) @-17) Ww = C(F; sinh kS sin @ + F; sinh 2kS sin 20 + F, sinh 3kS sin 36) 3-18) y/At_ = 2xC/T (F; cosh KS sin 6 + F; cosh 2kS sin 26 + Fy cosh 3kS sin 30) B-19) aw/at = -2xC/T (F; sinh KS cos 6 + F, sinh 2kS cos 20 + Fy sinh 3kS cos 36) -G-20) where: a (yqyt cosh! kdCL + 5 cosh kd) sinh kd 8 sinh? kd 4 = Sup 4 (tay sinh’ ke24 Applied Ottanar Structural Enginearing ge, = 3 (gy? LL 2 cosh 2kd Be Ge ad ‘Stokes’ Fifth-Order Wa ‘The Stokes’ wave has been extended to a fifth-order approximation by Lars Skjelbreia and James Hendrickson (Reference 4). Let § = d+ 2, and the particle velocities are writen as (21a) 3-218) ‘The surface boundary conditions are p = 0 and dn/ax = —wi(C-u). This is written as yw +w) + gK+S-a + 6-22) w= (c-u) ) 6-23) where: C = Wave velocity K = Elevation of mean wave height above mean water level. It is noted that "Equation 3-22 can be written as (0 ~ CP- CF wt BK +2) = 0 G24) ‘The boundary condition atthe seabed! is written by * - ous =0 (3-25) as ee a Wave Forces 25 To solve the problem, une has W find 4 solution for V4 = O and sate isfy Equations 3-23, 3-24, and 3-25. ‘The (ollowing series of solutions are assumed for the filth-order approximation: KOIC = OAn + MAny + XA, cost KS sin + An + MA) cosh 2kS sin 20 + OVAs, + YA)s) cosh 3kS sin 39 + MAu cosh 4kS sin 40 + MAss cosh SKS sin 50 ky = d cos 6 + (By + MBya) cos 20 + Q8By + MBs) cos 30 + By cos 48 + NBs cos 56 G27) KK = NC + 6:28) KC? = g tanh kal + NC) + Cy 829) To determine the coefficients Ay, By, and C, in the above equations, fone can evaluate 4%/3x and 44/88 from Equation 3-26 and dy/dx from Equation 3-27, then substitute into Equation 3-22. Two sides of Equation 3-22 will contain terms in \* multiplied by terms such as sin 8, sin 28, sin 39, etc. Similar terms of equal value on either side will yield a series of linear equations in A,, By, etc. The coefficients given by Skjebreia and Hendrickson are shown as follows: Lets sinh kd © = cosh kid Ch = g tanh kd then, Au i + 2.641e4 + ac)26 Applied Ottanore Structural Enginaering An = An Ay ac ac S12c + 4,224¢"” ac ~ 6,800ct — 12,808 + 16,704ct 154? + 107 4,0965!"(6c? = 1) BOct - 816ct + 1,338c! — 197 n 163,470? ~ 16,245 be + 54,000ct ~ 21,816 + 6,264ct — 54 ° 12,2888"(6c? — 1) 88, 128c"* — 208,224c!? + 70,848c! c(T6He" ~ 4484 ~ 48ct 4 48et + 106c? ~ 21) — 3845" 6c — 1) Wave Forces 27 beS = 192,000" — 262,720" + 83,680e"* + 20,160" Bay = BeS = 7,280ct + 7.16004 ~ 1,800e! — 1,050? + 225 * 12,288s"%(6c? — 1)(Be* = 1c? + 3) Bet — Bch + 9 ost cc = 3,840c!? ~ 4,096¢!9 Gy = 4 2592c¢ 1,008c* + 5,944c* — 1,830c? + 147 ‘S286? = Ty ase Cy = leet + 3c — 162e4 + Idle? ~ 27 * 192cs Tables of Aj, By, and C, values are provided in Reference 4, To deter- ‘mine k and }, relate the wave height H and wave Profile 9 by the relation He yom ee Using Equation 3-27 and rearranging Equation 3-29, it is shown that the following simultaneous equations yield d/L and ) to be solved: IN + PBs + M%(Bys + Bys)} (3-30) ad ly L tanh fxd)a + NC, + MCD) 30 where Lo = gTV(2x) For a given wave, substituting the values of H, d, and T into Equations 3-30 and 3-31, the simultaneous equations yield the correct values of W/L. and 3, feFy = Mu + Ay + Ais = An + Man MAN + MAS Using Equation 3-26, particle velocities are derived from = CY oF, cos nd cosh aks. (3-32) w = CD ak, sin nd sinh wks 33) Differentiation of Equations 3-32 and 3-33 with respect to time yields the local water-particle accelerations 90 ke! YD ny sin nf cosh nkS G34) OM = bet Sa, c0s nf sin okS 6-35) The absolute horizontal particle acceleration is given by du 2 OU 4 gM 4 yd 6-36) at” “ax 7 as ‘The second and third terms in Equation 3-36 are called convective ac- celeration terms, and they are neglected in the linear wave theory. From Equation 3-32, we get 99 = KC mF, sin nd cosh akS Wave Fovces 28 The absolute vertical particle acceleration is given by iw _ aw 4 dw 4 yw Tn get RE On Differentiation of Equation 3-33 with respect to § and x yields ow as = -kCY) WF, sin nd cosh aks ',€08 nd sinh nkS Wave Forces by Morison's Equation ‘There are two major wave-indueed forces exerted on structures. The drag force Fy is due to frictional and form drag. The magnitude of Fy depends on shape, roughness of the object, Reynolds avenber, and int sity of turbulence in the flow. ‘The inertia force F is due 10 water-particle Acceleration. It is assumed in practical application that the total forces acting on a structure can he obtained by linearly superimposing the drag and inertia forces. This is the basis of the Morison equation, which gives the total force as P= Poth ‘The equation for drag force is given as Fy = 0.5CppAlulul where: Cp = Drag coefficient cle velocity Projected area of the object perpendicular to water-parti-30 Applied Ottshore Structural Enginoring Drag coefficient is a function of Reynolds number Ry. For a flow which has a velocity u past a cylinder of diameter D, Ry is given as R, = Div where y = Kinematic viscosity of the flow For design purposes, an assumption of Cp = 0.65 for turbulars is rea- sonable. The determination of Cy for the ease of unsteady flow is ex ttemely difficult, In practicle design, itis common to use the steady flow values of Cp in calculations involving unsteady flow, ‘The inertia force exerted on a fixed body in frictionless incompressible ‘uid can be expressed by au du Fre M+ MOST = (1 + Coa 637) Cp (3-38) = Coefficient of virtual mass C, = So-called “added” mass coefficient = Mass of displaced fluid = Added mass which depends on the body shape and the flow around it Te has been found that, theoretically, Cx is equal to 2.0 for cylinders when their diameters are small compared with the wave length. From Equation 3-37, it is noted thatthe total inertia force can be considered in two parts: M,(@u/d1) and Mu/d1). The term M,(Bu/at) is the force caused by the hydrodynamic pressure within the fluid in the absence of the body. This force * known as the Froude-Krylov force. The term 'M,(Gu/d1) is the force due to the disturbance in the fluid caused by the presence ofthe body. The total hydrodynamic force on the body is given by Il au 500 ' pa 5 F = jCopA lulu lt + Cypact G39) ‘Thus, for a cylinder of diameter D normal to the direction of wave Propagation, the total force per unit length is expressed by au 0 nh (3-40) F = lCupP tutus 4 CannD* Wave Forces 31 Morison’s equation is valid only when the diameter of the structural member is small compared with the wave length. It is assumed that the structure does not influence the pattern of the wave propagation. When the structural member is large in diameter compared with the wave length, diffraction of incident waves has fo be taken into account. Nor- ‘mally, Morison’s equation is applicable when wave length is more than five times the diameter or projected dimension of the structural member. Stream Function Wave Theory ‘The stream function theory developed by Dean (Reference 6) is a non- linear wave theory similar to higher order Stokes’ theories. It is con- structed of sums of sine and cosine functions that satisfy the original dif- ferential equation. It determines the coefficient of each higher-order term 30 that a best fit, in the least-squares sense, is obtained. The stream func- tion wave theory represents a better solution to the equations used to ap- proximate the wave phenomena. ‘The differential equation is vy = 0 ‘The boundary conditions are w=Oaz= -d he tenes 1 P+ wy + 2 - 1a = dw-otwy+ = constant at 2 = a(x, 1) at glu oF tw) + BS ‘The stream function solution is expressed as Yee, 2) = Ex + YD x(n) sinh (kad + 2)) cos knx ne - i D x(n) sinh (kn(d + 9)] cos knx c where ok = 2x/L Yq = Constant value of the stream function on the free surface32, Applied Ottsnore Structural Engineering ‘The velocities are defined by =c- 4 u c rs wa oF ox U6, S) =~ J xla)kn cosh knS cos no w(@, S) = — J) x(n)kn sinh knS sin nd slP Dw Di Fo(@, 8) = CapxD? (* Du B= 69) = foe ds Variables are presented in the following dimensionless form: ur(@, s) = 48) HT w'(@, 8) = MOS) WT Dui | 1 Dw DT ~ GT} DT Dw’ . 1. Dw DT ~ (OT) DT Fe 2, CopDUTTG Wave Forces 33 4___g, Cp xDAHIT Reference 6 provides tabulation of dimensionless stream function the- ory variables. Volume 2 presents the dimensionless wave characteristics for the 40 seis of tabulations. Tables D, E, and F describe the variables tabulated and all dimensionalized quantivies Example 3-2 A free-standing caisson 48 inches in diameter is to be installed in 35 ft of water, If the maximum tide plus storm surge is 6 ft, wave height is 31.8 ft, and wave period is 20 seconds, determine the deck elevation and calculate the wave forces and moment acting upon the caisson d= 3+6= 41h Ly = gT/Qx) = 32.2 x 400/2x) = 2050 ily = 41/2050 = 0.02 H/Ly = 31,8/2050 = 0.0155 HIT = 1.59 From Figure 23 of Reference 6, Case 4-D will be used. The maximum, wave displacement occurs at @ = 0 tous! = 0.889 mar = 0.889 X 31.8 28.27 ft Required deck elevation = 41 + 28.27 + 3 = 72.27 ftabove mudline opD ($ Soph few la tas’ Fol8,8) = 2 CoeDIHITYd From Table 5 of Case 4-D, Fi(@,S) = 36.1 at S/H = 0.5 FS) = Fo(@,S) CopDUH TFS _ 1.05 x 1.99 x 4 x 1.59" X41 495 ps 2 2 Fy = 36.1 x 433 = 15,637 Ibs ‘15.64 kips24 Applied Otshore Structural Engineering S'ulul us’ ° M68) = 2 My = 9.314 ” CopD(HIT}e? P 1.05 x 1.00 x 4 x 1.50! x alt 2 = 17,160 f-lbs Mp = 9.314 x 17.76 = 165.42 fi-kips Wave Slamming Members in the splash zone will be subject to wave slamming forces. DNV recommends the following formula to calculate slamming force for horizontal members: Wave slamming force per unit length Slamming coefficient (DNV recommends C, > 3.0 for tubulars) u = Water-particle velocity normal to the surface of the mem- ber D = Diameter Ifthe force due to wave slamming is impulsive, dynamic amplification should be considered. DNV recommends that for a horizontal member, the factors of 1.5 and 2.0 should be used for the end moment and the midspan moment, respectively. Vortex Shedding Due to Waves DNV recommends that when V, 2 1.0 and Ke > 3.0, vortex shed- ding due to waves should be considered. Y, is the reduced velocity Wave Forces 35 as defined in Reference 7, and K, is the Keulegar fined as “arpenter number de- K = \qT/D where: V, = Maximum orbital velocity due to wave motion T = Wave period D = Diameter of member Unit force induced by vortex shedding may be calculated from the fol- lowing formula: "= O.SpCrAut where u = Flow velocity normal to the member p = Mass density of water C; = Fluctuating coefficient Cycoefficients are provided by DNV in Reference 7. Dynamic amplifi- ‘cation shall be considered for resonant vortex shedding. DNV recom- mends the following dynamic load factor: = tq DLF = 3p ~ e™) where: £ = Damping ratio (0.02 for offshore structures) n = Number of load cycles in the time interval of half a wave period, where the wave orbit velocity is within the range that will cause resonant vortex shedding. For steady cur- rent, n should be taken as infinite. References Myers, J. J., et al., Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engincer- ing, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Section 12, 1969. ‘2. Wiegel, R. L., Oceanographical Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc 1964 3, Cross, R. H., Water Waive Teaching Aids, Massachusetts Institute of ‘Technology, 1968,4, Skjelbreia, L. and Hendrickson J., “Fifth Order Gravity Wave The- ory" Proceedings of the 7th conference on Coastal Engineering, 1961 5. Kirk, C. L., Lecture Notes for Dynamic Analysis of Offshore Struc- tures, Cranfield Institute of Technology, 1975 6. Dean, R. G., Evaluation and Development of Water Wave Theories for Engineering Application, Special report No. 1, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1974. 7. DNV Rules for the Design, Consiruction and Inspection of Offshore Structures, Appendix B, May 1978. 4 ENERGY SPECTRUM OF THE SEA Energy of the Ser ‘The sea contains a great number of waves of all different sizes, lengths and directions. The result is an irregular sea that never repeats its pattern from one interval to any other. We cannot characterize or define an irreg- lar sea by its pattern or shape. However, there is one way we can define the'sea in simple terms. Its total energy, must be made up of the sum of the energies of all the waves that make up the sea, (The energy of a simple, sinusoidal wave is pgl/8 for each square foot of water surface, Then the total energy in every square foot of the seaway is = PE ye B= 8 ya OF simply a constant times the sum of the squares of the heights of all waves that exist in the seaway. Thus, the intensity of the sea is character- ized by its total energy. We can show the individual contribution made by ach wave. In other words, with each component wave of different length oF frequency, we can show how the total energy of the sea is distributed according 10 the frequencies of the various wave components. This en: Efey distribution is called the energy spectrum of the sea, or simply the “wave spectrum.” A wave spectruin is expressed as energy-second ver, Sus wave frequency so that the area under the spectrum curve represents38 Appied Otehore Structural Engineering the entire energy of the system. It is noted that energy is proportional to the square of wave height. We may conveniently substitute m?-s or fs for the ordinate and m? or f¢ for the arca as a direct indication of compo- nent wave height variatica Wave Histogram By statistical method, we can predict how often waves of various heights will occur over any given period of time. Heights of all waves in a given record are measured and the percentages of occurence calculated ‘These percentages are then plotted against the wave heights. This curve is called a histogram. Most sea wave histogram records can be expressed as mathematic functions. Two probability distribution functions which are of particular interest in the stucy of random waves are the Rayleigh di tribution and the Gaussian distribution, These functions are commonly employed to describe the probability distributions of wave h water surface elevation 9, respectively. The Rayleigh distribution is given as 2H, P PCH) This is expressed as “the percentage of t will occur in all the waves of that series, square of the wave heights in the record 1 that a wave of height Hj FP is the average of all the welt age w= oyu where nis the total number of waves in the record. It is noted thai the average energy of the sca is given by PB s Thus, once we know the area under the spectrum curve, we can relate it directly to the Rayleigh distribution function and determine all sorts of useful probabilities of occurrence of different wave heights. For exam- ple, the probability that the wave height will be greater than H, is given as dae 4, PH) = 1 \, p(lijdll = © Energy Spectrum of the Sen 39 This means that out of a number of waves n, there will be ne-"#* ‘waves that will be higher than H,. We can determine the average wave height, the average height of the one-third highest waves, or the one- tenth highest waves: Average wave height Hy = 0.89ViT Average height of one-third highest waves: Lai Average height of one-tenth highest waves: Hie = 1.80VFR His The Rayleigh distribution is mathematically indicated to apply accu- rately only to a narrow spectrum. This spectrum is highly peaked in shape, with most of the energy contained in a narrow range of frequency. Example 4-1 ‘A wave record is shown as follows: Wave height (ft) 24 6 810 ‘Wave number 45 35 25 5 2 Calculate Hys, Hino, Hinoo, and the average wave height wave Wave “ vig “os Occurence Hn Hing He : 2 2 ter ota teh 2 45 0 0 re a wo 6 4% 2 150150 5 5 5 40 10 2 20 0 2020 i Too wo 0 1123 = 37, Hy = 230737 = 6.22 V2 = 1, Hing = R4/1L = 7.64 ft 112/100 = 1, Hing = 10/1 = 10.0 ft ‘Average wave height = 440/112 = 3.93 ft40 Appied Ottsnore Suuctutal Eng Example 4-2 ‘The wave record over a period is shown as follows: Heaght (ft) 0-2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 Numbers 4.200. 5,000 3,600 2,000 500 Plot the wave histogram, and compare it with the Rayleigh distribution. Rayon wn m4 1370 1040 & 7 1633 ae BS Nas Tao Br (935 Sta 336s ae “The wave histogram is plotted in Figure 4-1, D B+ 5,000" 3 + 3,600 x 5* We = cetaptt200 x xe $2,000 x 7 + 500 x 9) = 18.15 11 H = 4.26 0 Hy = 0.89 x 4.26 = 3.79 f Hyy = Lal x 4.26 = 601 = 18 x 4.26 = 167 8 2d 1 wD = Tes heel is) > e108 0.2013 0) sear 15 0.1390 m5) ool ‘) EAP i oo ak. Energy pect of ihe Sow 44 h diateiovtion Wove naign (1) Figure 4-1. Wave histogram. 2% 7g, [49 1) = 27 ey - 90) Faas i) = e058 -81) (i) ~ 20 36) _ soap (34) = 2 Of 15,300 waves, there are 2105 waves higher than the significant wave, Wave Spects Some of the better known one-dimensional wave spectra that have been employed to describe ocean waves are listed here. Many of these were developed in terms of a reference wind speed V as a parameter. OF those42 Aopliag Otshore Structural Enginwerng spectra given here, the Bretschneider and Pierson-Moskowitz spectra are perhaps the most commonly used. The JONSWAP spectrum, which is an extension of the Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum to account for a much sharper peak, is more recent and involves additional parameters. The spectra presented here are in terms of cyclic frequency £. (Reference 3) ‘Neumann spectrum 2x 10% (_ 8 a9 = AD oot B 19.748 The peak tequeny f= (8 This spectrum requires only wind speed V and relates to fully devel- ‘oped conditions. Breischneider spectrum This spectrum is given in terms of the significant wave height H, and. peak frequency f, rather than the wind speed. It is designed to ensure that the area under the spectrum curve corresponds to H,/16, as should be the case on the assumption of a Rayleigh distribution of wave heights. nd- ‘The significant wave height and peak frequency are oblained from casting,” (the calculation of wave characteristics from meteorological formation on old weather maps) relation in terms of wind speed V and fetch F and the duration t, fp is empirically related to the significant pe- riod T,. In the case of a fully risen sea, atv? eTYQ2xV) tr. Pep om to Energy Spectrum of he Sen 43 Pierson Moskowitz spectrum 0) si = 2 oo = 074 Bro. ae This depends only on the wind speed V and refers to fully developed conditions. V is taken at a height of 19.5 meters above the sea surface. This spectrum was obtained semiempirically by the analysis of extensive ‘wave data relating to fully developed sea conditions in the North Atlan- tic JONSWAP spectrum si) = 28, vol 1 2h 0 = 007 for ff 0.09 for f > f Feich fee} fo = 2.84(8F ae (er) °? oreo y = 3.3 (the peaked parameter) ‘The spectrum derived from the Joint North Sea Wave Project is a mod- ification to the Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum to account for the effect of feich restrictions and provides for-n much more sharply peaked spec-44 Appia Oltsnove Stuctural Engineering icant differences exist between spectrum formulas. Significant Uillerences also exist in terminology, notation, and parameters used for the ordinates and abscissas of the spectral curves. For the ordinate of the curve, the generally accepted label is “spectral density.” The spectral density can be referred to directly as the square of the height H or ampli- tude a of the waves. Most rescurchers use a/2, but oceanographers pre- {er 2H? for the ordinate of the spectral curve. These may be referred {0 as amplitude half spectrum and height double spectrum, respectively. For the abscissa of the spectral curve, there is a difference between cyclic Irequency 1 and circular frequency «. Spectrum presented as frequency spectrum S{) oF S(w) is related us FSU) = wi2x) Sew) The following spectra are presented on a base of circular frequency w ud 2H for ordinates of spectral density. This means the square root of the area under the curve will give the significant wave height H, with no rvultiplying factor, that is, H, = Varea Newnann spectrum Stu) = 400u°* exp (— 725V-%0"2) V is in knots taken at 64 feet above the seu surface and Ho = 19x 10-tVt Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum Sw) 135u°* exp (- 9.7 x 10°V4a~4) ° y = 35x 10 Bretschneider spectrum Stu) = 4200HIT 40° exp ( — 10SOT 4a For fully developed sea, 0.025¥? (1) O.64V (s) Energy Speci ot he Sea 45 where significant period, the average period of the significant waves References |. Michal, W., “Sea Spectra Simplified,” a presentation at the meeting of the Gulf section of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Ene gineers, 1967, 2 Bhauacharyya, R., Dynamics of Marine Keicles, John Wiley & Sons, 197% 3. Sarpkaya, T. and Isueson, M., Mechanics of Wave Forces on Offshore Structures, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 19815 FUNDAMENTAL NAVAL ARCHITECTURE Definitions and Terms Length (L). The distance in fect or meters on the summer load tine from the foresidle of the stem to the afterside of the stenpost Brewith (B). The greatest molded breadth in meters oF feet Depth (D). The molded depth at side measured at the middle of L from the molded! hase line to the top of the deck beams." Draft (A). The vertical distance between the waterline and the bottom of the vessel Tonnage, A nautical term used to describe the size of a vessel. In the marine community a ton may be a weight measure equal to 2240 pounds fr to 2000 pounds, or it may be a volume measurement based on 100 cubic feet Deadweight. The weight that can be carried by a seagoing vessel. Its, the difference between the weight of the vessel and its displacement when fully loaded. Load Line. The maximum draft to which @ vessel may be safely loaded. Reserve Buoyance. The buoyancy above the waterline that keeps a ves- sel upright when subjected to wind, waves, currents, or accidental flood- ing, Stability. ‘The word used to slesebe the ability of a Moating vessel to remain upright or return 10 an upeight position when subjected to envi- ronmental or aperatinnnl forces Eas 7 Om Fundamental Naval Archiectue 47 Waterplane Coefficient (C.). The ratio between the waterplane area and the area of the circumscribing rectangle expressed as A af where: L B= length of the waterplane breadth of the waterplane Block Coefficient (C,). The ratio between the underwater volume and the volume of the circumscribing block expressed as v. © = rpg where: d= Draft Prismatic Coefficient (C,). The ratio between the displaced volume and the volume obtained from the product of the length between perpen- diculars and the underwater area of the midship section. The coefficient gives an indication of vessel's shape at the ends and is expressed as v Fe A where: Aw L = Underwater area of the midship section, + = Length between perpendiculars of the midship section Displacement. The amount of water displaced by the vessel and ex pressed as a volume-in cubic feet, cubic meters, or as a weight in tons or tonnes. A displacement curve is drawn against a vertical scale of draft and indicates the displacement at any even keel draft Tonnes per Centimeter Immersion (TPC). The additional displaced ton- nage when the mean draft is increased by one centimeter TPC = 1.025A/100 (for seawater) where: A= area of the waterplane, m? Tons per Inch CTPI). The weight in tons changed when the draft is changed one inch TPL «= A/420 (for sewwater) where, A= waterplane area, ft48 Applied Ottshore Suc 3! Enginearing ‘Meuacener. The Intersection point of vertical lines through the centers ‘of buoyancy in the intial and slightly inclined positions. The distance be ‘tween the center of gravity and this point is metacentric height Tum. The difference between the draft at the forward perpendicular and the draft at the aft perpendicular. Change of trim is the difference ‘between the original and the final trims. Center of Flotation (CF), The geometrical center of the waterplane and the point about which the vessel trims. Roll. The angular motion of a floating vessel about the longitudi axis Heave. The up-and-down motion of a ship. Pitch. The angular motion of a floating vessel about the transverse aris Surge. The motion of w floating vessel backward and forward in the direction of vessel travel Sway. The athwartship motion of a floating vessel Heel, The inclination of a floating vessel to one side caused by witid, waves, of weights on board ow: The angular motion of a floating vessel about the vertical axis. Hogging. The distortion of the hull of a vessel when the bow snd stern are lower than the middle due to heavy loads or waves. Sagging. The distortion of the hull of a vessel when the middle is lower than either end due 10 excessive weight Transverse Stability When a vessel floats freely in still water, the weight of the unit acts downward through the center of gravity and the buoyancy acts upward through the center of buoyancy. When the vessel rolls slightly to one side, the center of buoyancy shifts to a new location B’,, as shown in Fig ure 5-1. The intersection of the middle line by the vertical through B’ at smail angles of roll is called transverse metacenter M. GM is the meta centric height. GZ is the righting lever. For angles up to about 15°, GM sin 8 . (5-1) ‘When M is above G, the condition is stable equilibrium and BM = IV (5-2) Moment of inertia of waterplane about the middle tine Volume of displacement u Fundamenual Naval Ariectue 48 Figure $-1. Stability at small heel Figure 5-2. Siabilty at large heel When the heel angle is grcater than 15°, the upright and inclined wa- tetlines do not intersect on the middle line. The metacenter does not re- ‘main fixed. In this case the righting arm is given by Atwoot's formula, - BG sino (53) Voluine of immersed wedge Horizontal distance between the centroid of the wo wedges hh When the vessel heels, there is u transference of buoyancy from one side to another, In Figure 5-2, g and g, are the centers of gravity of theem 50 Applied Ollhore Structural Engineering emersed and immersed volumes or wedges of buoyancy. The volume of cach wedge is v. Static Stability. The ability of a vessel to return to her initial position after being forced to heel Righting Moment (W_x GZ). A measure of the vessel's ability to re. turn to the initial position, Initial Stability. The stability of a vessel in her initial position. It is ex- pressed by the metacentric height GM Dynamical Stability. The work done on a ship when itis heeled to some specified angle by external forces Stable Equilibrium. The stability condition when the forces of gravity ‘and buoyancy are on the same vertical line, and the center of gravity is below the metacenter. Stability Under Wind Forces Because wind accounts for the largest overturning forces, stability re- quirements for ships are based on broadside wind force. Wind force on the side of a vessel creates an overturning moment. American Bureau of Shipping specifies 100-knot wind for stability criteria. This is calculated for several angles of heel. The result is plotted, along with the righting ‘moment, as shown in Figure 5-3. American Bureau of Shipping specifies the area under the righting moment curve to the second intercept or the wo 20 «030 40ST Angle of hee! (degrees) Figure 8-3. Wind hoo! atabilty extria, Fundamental Nevel Achtectue 31 angle of downflooding to be not less than 40% in excess of the area under the wind heeling moment to the same limiting angle. The 40% excess area has been derived from years of experience with ships and from stud- ies of models and analytical investigation. Longitudinal Stability For longitudinal stability, Equation 5-2 is expressed as 1 longitudinal BM, = ke igitudinal BM, ¥v (S4) where: Ie = Moment of inertia of the waterplane about a transverse axis through the center of flotation. Moment to change trim one inch (MTI) is MT = W GMY(12L) eft Approximate MTI = 31 TYB tft (5-5) where: T; = Tons per inch B = Breadth of ship moment changing ti MTI Change of trim (in.) Moment to change trim one centimeter (MCT 1 em) is MCT tem = W GM/(100L) (5-6) Change of trim (em) = ™oment changing trim ee fem) MTI 1 ci Example 5-1 ‘The TPI (W/in.) and MT! (moment to change trim one inch) of a 300-ft Vessel are 57 t and 300 tft respectively. The drafts are 19 ft forward and 21 Teale. The center of flotation is 6 fk abaft midlength. 1f 280 of weight 's loaded 32 ft forward of the midlength, calculate the new drafts Sinkage = 280/57 = 4.91 in52 Applad Ottsnore Suuctural Engmeoring Fe al Naval Arch ‘undamental Naval Architecture 53, Change of trim = 280 x 38/300 = 35.47 in 4 = Initial inetinin 180 x 35.47/360 = 17.76 in. Hrd inclining angle (© = 0) 174 x 35.47/360 = 17.14 in. Forward draft = 19 + (4.91 + 17.74/12 = 20.89 aq = {#2 Alt draft = 21 + (4.91 ~ 17.14/12 = 19.98 ft | “0 Rolling in Caim Water Free Undamped Heaving Motion For ships of ordinary form roll at moderate ange, it is assumed that the axis of roll passes through G, the center of gravity. Under this assump- ‘The equation of motion is given by tion, the ship motion is expressed as. ” M2 +Kz = 0 oo tM =0 on ‘The solution is where: 1 = Mass moment of inertia of the ship about a longitudinal Z = Asin (ut ~ 8) axis through the center of gravity. Inclined angle where: M = Virtual mass (ship mass plus added mass) Righting moment K = Spring constant Phase angle This is a simple harmonic motion; the rolling period is given by @ = Natural circular frequency of the heaving motion qe 2 2 _talo8e oH ote fi earn "ear T Vu (5-10) where: + = Radius of gyration of mass about a longitudinal axis through the center of gravity. ‘The maximum heaving acceleration is 4%- The solution of Eqi n 5-7 is Example 5-2 = S5E sin 2A! + 05 cos 2! | Fy 8p F | _ The length, beam, and draft of a vessel are 400 ft, 50 ft, and 20 ft fespectively. ‘Assume that block coefficient (C,) = waterplane coefti- ‘The initial angular acceleration is cient (C,) and that added mass = 90% of the vessel mass. Calealate the heaving period (neglecting damping). 408, ay = - 4b 6-9) rT 4 M =m 409m, = 19 8 ne = (4 where: om = (3) K = peLuc, c Bo We bw vb . a “ cB tkT= any 198 9 ay foe epg BC, oel.BC, = anf =n 8 20 = 6.83 sec 322 1, Kemp J. F. and Young, P., Ship Stability Notes and Examples, Stan- ford Maritime Lid., 1972 2, Smith, R.M., Notes and Examples in Naval Architecture, Edward “Arnold Lid... 1965. 3. Manning, G. C., Principles of Naval Architectures, The Society of Naval Architectures and Marine Engineers, 1967, Chapter 1 4, Bhattacharyya, R., Dynamics of Marine Vehicles, John Wiley & Sons, 1978. 5. Collip, B. G., Buoyancy, Stability, and Trim: Unit V, Lesson 3, & home study course issued by Petroleum Extension Service, The Uni versity of Texas, 1976. References _ Ooo 6 OFFSHORE PLATFORM TOPSIDE STRUCTURES Plate Design The maximum bending moment and deflection for a long rectangular Plate with uniform load and simply supported ends have been developed by Timoshenko in Reference |: Moa = Hac) 1) = Salt a (6-2) where: g(u) fu) Ee Trt (6-3) 4. = Uniform toad L'= Span56 Appied Ollsnove Siuctual Englooering 1 = Plute thickness » = Poisson's ratio u = A parameter An approximate method 10 calculate parameter u is expressed as fol- lows: (1 + ava = Vi(yny O5tVa where: y 4 is the ratio of the axial force S to the Euler critical load. With q, L, and 1 known, y/t can be calculated and, from Table 6-1 or Figure 6-1, u, (u), and f(u) can be obtained. ‘The direct tensile stress is calculated by S _ 4v’D =Se 6-4 cw o 914, mm . 1128 1st 2393 2204 3.909 2m S682 3a 7.509 3312 9.6% Sas 19 4156 14.362 aa 16.926 ana 19.025 4967 22455 3.210 25.407 saat 2eavo 3.663 31.665 $877 34962 6084 365, 6283 an an Ottenore Piatorm Yopniaa Svuctues $7 5 © s 20 2 Fr 3 Figure 6-1. u, g(u), and #1) functions The maximum bending stress is calculated by 6 re§ 2 ne (6-5) Example 6-1 ‘The Floor plate of a topside structure is 0.5 inch and supported by floor beams spaced at 4 feet, The uniform load is 3000 psf. Calculate the plate ‘maximum stress and deflection, 2 30 x 10) x p=. 0 ; na =A) 1d = 0 343.41 Kein SyL _ 5 x 0.02083 x 48¢ 9 1° jeep ~ “Sah x aaa 7 41998 Appling Oltshore Structural Engineering yh = 4.19305 = 8.386 From Table 6-1, u = 2.633 1 = 0.0523 oe ~t:9 = 0.1428 al) 6387 ae gu) = BT 0.1428 = 0.857 kein, 6 yy = 6X 0.857 fp = SM = O% = 20.57 ks f= Sm se si AUD 4x 3.648 x MIA 15 82 ksi 7 05 x48 = 20.57 + 15.82 = 36.39 ksi sechu = 1 + u¥?2 _ 0.0523 — 1 + 6.636 me es ae - 0.155 5ut7a4 bya = flu) = 4.193 x 0.155 = 0.65 inch ‘The maximum moment and deflection for simply supported and uni- formly loaded rectangular plates are provided in Reference | (Mona = Baga" (6-6) (Mydnae = Brg? (6-7) agat . 8) 6 ‘ (6-8) Numerical factors 8, 8), and «are provided in Table 8 of Reference 1 is noted that when b/a > 3, the plate can be treated as long plate, and the stress can be catculated by cutting unit strips, without substantial er- ror. Plate design for offshore structures should consider not only stresses, but also deflection, Excessive deflection can be prevented by increasing plate thickness or reducing span. Corrosion is another problem to be con: sidered. It is recommended to use at least Sic-in. plate for platform deck Floors. In practical design, Ye-inch plate is the most popular size for deck floors ‘Shear Lag and Effective Width Concept I is assumed in basic bending theory that the cross section of a ‘or beam which was plane before bending remains plane after bending. For a girder with wide flanges, this assumption is not always justifiable. The longitudinal displacements in the parts of the flanges remote from the webs always lag behind those nearer the webs. This is called shear lag. Shear lag results in greater deflection and longitudinal stresses at the \web-flange intersection of a girder than those given by basic bending the- ory. For design purposes, it is more convenient to replace the actual width B of each flange by a certain reduced width B,, such that the application of basic bending theory to the transformed cross section gives the correct value of maximum deflection and longitudinal stress. The reduced width is called effective width, Reference 2 provides effective breadth ratios for five different cases. The effective breadth ratios of girders with single-web symmetrical flanges and free sides are shown in Figures 6-2 and 6-3. B is the flange width, and L is the distance between points of zero bending moment Example 6-2 A plate girder 40 ft long with fixed ends is loaded with 1,000 kips at ‘midspan, Calculate the maximum bending stress. B= 2b = 24 in, 50 in, 1.5 in, 2.0 in