Ontological Beliefs in Buddhism

Dinesh Panthee

Abstract
Buddhist philosophy is concerned with an analysis of the fundamental nature of reality. For
attaining liberation, one must come to know this nature, in a direct and immediate way, and
cease to be deceived by merely apparent reality. Buddhism never admitted the existence of a
creator, existence of a supernatural power, existence of an immortal soul. It aware people about
the sorrows of mankind and sought to learn the meaning of their lives and how they might find
salvation from the recurring cycles of reincarnation. Buddhist ontological belief is a question of
being, asking a morally the meaning of what it is be. The main propose of this paper is to show
the major beliefs in the Buddhism. It tries to illustrate the ontological status of the Buddhism
which states that being is composed of five groups of elements: matter, feeling, perception,
mental states, and consciousness. This paper is review of relevant literature of eastern philosophy
and Buddhist philosophy which is mainly concerned with the teachings of Buddha.

Key words: Eastern Philosophy, Buddhism, Ontology, Noble path, Eightfold path

Background
Philosophy is the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence,
especially when considered as an academic discipline. It is universally defined as the study of the
wisdom or knowledge about the general problems, facts, and situations connected with human
existence, values, reasons, and general reality. It seeks reasons, answers, and general
explanations to life and its factors. It is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as
those connected with reality, existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The
word "philosophy" comes from the Ancient Greek philosophia, which is the combination of two
words philos that means "love" and sophiya that means "wisdom" so philosophy literally means
"love of wisdom". It is the systematic and critical study of fundamental questions that arise both
in everyday life and through the practice of other disciplines. Philosophy is a way of thinking
about the world, the universe, and society. It works by asking very basic questions about the
nature of human thought, the nature of the universe, and the connections between them.
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Eastern philosophy
Eastern philosophy refers to the various philosophies that originated in East and South
Asia including Chinese philosophy, Japanese philosophy, and Korean philosophy which are
dominant in East Asia and Vietnam, and Nepali and Indian philosophy (including Buddhist
philosophy) which are dominant in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Tibet and Mongolia. This
philosophy is the most ancient form of thought known to human kind Fieser (2017) argues that
eastern philosophies were intimately tied to their local religious traditions of Hinduism,
Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism. Distinguishing Eastern philosophy from religion is an
issue of emphasis: its philosophy deals less with worship rituals and depictions of the gods, and
more with larger questions of our relation to the cosmos. According to Billington (1997) eastern
philosophy is a diverse body of approaches to life and philosophizing, particularly centered on
understanding the process of the universe and the endless "becoming". The most important
characteristic of the eastern philosophy is one could almost say the essence of it which is the
awareness of the unity and mutual interrelation of all things and events, the experience of all
phenomena in the world as manifestations of a basic oneness. All things are seen as
interdependent and inseparable parts of this cosmic whole; as different manifestations of the
same ultimate reality (Fritjof Capra,The Tao of Physics as cited in Fieser 2017).

Buddhist philosophy
Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha. It
began around 2,500 years ago in Indian subcontinent when Siddhartha Gautama discovered how
to bring happiness into the world. He was born in 563 BC at Lumbini (in Rupandehi, Nepal) as a
son of Suddhodana, the Shakya King of Kapilvastu, and his wife Maha Maya Devi (Ambedkar,
1975).He grew up in princely luxury, isolated from the outside world, entertained by dancing
girls, instructed by brahmins, and trained in archery, swordsmanship, wrestling, swimming, and
running (Ambedkar, 1975). Mahathera (1998) interprets that one day when he was travelling in
the streets of Kapilavastu, Siddhartha encountered three simple things: a sick man, an old man,
and a dead body being carried to the burning grounds. Nothing in his life of ease had prepared
him for this experience. When his charioteer told him that all beings are subject to sickness, old
age, and death, he could not rest. He then resolved to leave the palace in search of the answer to
the problem of suffering and set off alone into the forest. Over the next six years, he met many
talented meditation teachers and mastered their techniques. Always he found that they showed
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him mind’s potential but not mind itself. Finally, at a place called Bodhgaya, the future Buddha
decided to remain in meditation until he knew mind’s true nature and could benefit all beings.
After spending six days and nights cutting through mind’s most subtle obstacles, he reached
enlightenment on the full moon morning of May, a week before he turned thirty-five. After his
enlightenment, Buddha traveled on foot throughout northern India and Nepal. He taught
constantly for forty-five years. People of all castes and professions, from kings to courtesans,
were drawn to him. He answered their questions, always pointing towards that which is
ultimately real. Throughout his life, Buddha encouraged his students to question his teachings
and confirm them through their own experience. This non-dogmatic attitude still characterizes
Buddhism today. He became one of the most important Asian thinkers and spiritual masters of
all time, and he contributed too many areas of philosophy, including epistemology, metaphysics
and ethics. The Buddha’s teaching formed the foundation for Buddhist philosophy, initially
developed in South Asia, then later in the rest of Asia. Buddhism and Buddhist philosophy now
have a global following. Mahāthera (1998) claims that the Buddha was the first most active
missionary in the world. He wandered from place to place for forty-five years preaching his
doctrine to the masses and the intelligentsia. Till his last moment, he served humanity both by
example and by precept. His distinguished disciples followed suit, penniless, they even travelled
to distant lands to propagate the Dhamma, expecting nothing in return. The Buddhists beliefs that
the death is the cessation of the psycho-physical life of any one individual existence (Mahathera,
1998, p. 352).The goal of Buddhism is a state of lasting unconditional happiness known as
enlightenment. Hanh (1999) argues that Buddhism is not a collection of views. It is a practice to
help us eliminate wrong views. The quality of our views can always be improved. From the
viewpoint of ultimate reality, Right View is the absence of all views.

Methodology
While preparing this paper I reviewed relevant literature of eastern philosophy and Buddhist
philosophy. I collected different books, searched materials on internet and red them by making
notes for necessary information. I developed my understanding on the topic and created meaning
on the topic which were in the form of data. After themetizing my understanding according to
the purpose of this paper, I interpreted my understanding in the form of an academic writing.
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Major beliefs in the Buddhism

"The original Pāli term for Buddhism is Dhamma, which, literally, means that which
upholds or sustains" (Mahāthera,1998, p.221). Ambedkar, (1957) believes that Dhamma is the
doctrine of reality and a means of deliverance from suffering and deliverance itself. "The
Buddhism is a moral and philosophical system which expounds a unique path of Enlightenment,
and is not a subject to be studied from a mere academic standpoint" (Mahāthera 1998, p.6). It is a
moral and philosophical system which expounds a unique path of Enlightenment. It is concerned
with an analysis of the fundamental nature of reality. Edelglass and Garfield (2009) claim that
Buddhism consisted of Buddha’s attainment of profound insight into the nature of reality, which
in turn enabled the solution of the central problem toward which Buddhism is oriented the
universality and pervasiveness of suffering. Edelglass and Garfield (2009) mention that the
Buddha argued that this suffering is caused most immediately by attraction and aversion, and
that the root cause of attraction and aversion is confusion regarding the fundamental nature of
reality. Buddhist philosophy as a whole is aimed at soteriological concerns, involving the goal of
attaining release from suffering, or the insight into the nature of reality that enables it, Buddhist
philosophical concerns are principally ontological or metaphysical, epistemological, ethical, and
hermeneutical. Ontology is foundational simply because the root of samsara-of the world of
suffering-is confusion regarding the nature of reality, and liberation from suffering requires
insight into that nature. Buddhist philosophy is concerned with an analysis of the fundamental
nature of reality. For attaining liberation, one must come to know this nature, in a direct and
immediate way, and cease to be deceived by merely apparent reality. Epistemologically, the path
to liberation sketched by the Buddha is a path of ethical perfection as well, as he held that
morality is central to developing a real appreciation of the nature of reality and that a great deal
of the suffering we encounter is caused by immorality. Edelglass and Garfield,(2009) argue that
central to any Buddhist view of reality is the insight that all phenomena are impermanent,
without essence (or selfless), and interdependent.

Buddhism never admitted the existence of a creator, existence of a supernatural power,

existence of an immortal soul. A Buddhist text (Visuddhi-Magga, p. xix) says: No god, no
Brahma can be called the maker of this wheel of life: Empty phenomena roll on. It dependent on
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conditions of all. Buddhism believes that thought is a source of living and the realities that really
exist in nature and natural truths that govern natural processes (Mahathera,1998). It is by living
in accordance with this law that true Wisdom and Compassion and hence freedom from suffering
may be achieved. Suffering may only be overcome, however, by being confronted and lived
through. In the Buddha's words: 'Suffering I teach and the way out of suffering' Mahāthera
(1998).The two main goals of Buddhism are getting to know ourselves and learning the Buddha's
teachings. To know who we are, we need to understand that we have two natures. One is called
our ordinary nature, which is made up of unpleasant feelings such as fear, anger, and jealousy.
The other is our true nature, the part of us that is pure, wise, and perfect. In Buddhism, it is called
the Buddha nature. The only difference between us and the Buddha is that we have not awakened
to our true nature. Mahāthera (1998) believes that human is not meant for Buddhism, but
Buddhism is meant for human. In the same way, Buddhism is neither a metaphysical path nor a
ritualistic path. It is neither skeptical nor dogmatic. Edelglass, and Garfield,(2009) conclude that
Buddhism is neither externalism nor pessimism. It is neither self-mortification nor self-
indulgence. It is neither pessimism nor optimism but realism. It is neither absolutely this-worldly
nor other worldly. It is not extravert but introvert. It is not Theo-centric but homo-centric. It is a
unique Path of Enlightenment.

Trilakshan or Three Characteristics of Existence

According to Buddhism there are Trilakshan or three characteristics that are common
across everything in life. These are known as the Three Marks of Existence. The Three Marks of
Existence are important as they can help Buddhists to achieve nibbana and end suffering. They
are called dukkha, anatta and anicca.
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Table 1Three characteristics of existence

Mark of Existence Meaning Explanation

Dukkha / Suffering Frustration or Life does not necessarily provide people with what they want
dissatisfaction (often and things are always changing. Therefore, people usually do
understood as suffering) not achieve complete satisfaction as everything has
limitations, which causes them to be dissatisfied.
Anatta / Anatma No soul There is no fixed sense of self because everything is
constantly changing. Another way of expressing this is the
idea that people have no soul.
Aniccha / Anitya Impermanence Things in life are always changing. Nothing stays the same
as everything is subject to change.
Three Marks of Existence (2020)

Four Nobel truth as the foundations of Buddhism

Mahāthera (1998) believes that the four Noble Truths, which the Buddha himself discovered
and revealed to the world, are the chief characteristics and the unshakable foundations of
Buddhism. They are

 The Noble Truth of Suffering

 The Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering
 The Noble Truth of Cessation of Suffering
 The Noble Truth of the Way leading to the Cessation of Suffering

The first three represent the philosophy of Buddhism, while the fourth represents the ethics
of Buddhism, in accordance with that philosophy. All these four Truths which comprise the
Dhamma of the Buddha are dependent on this body itself. They are incontrovertible facts wholly
associated with man and other beings.

The Noble Truth of suffering

As meson in Mahāthera (1998) the first Truth deals with dukkha, which for need of a
better English equivalent, is rendered by suffering or sorrow. As a feeling dukkha means that
which is difficult to be endured (du – difficult, kha – to endure). As an abstract truth dukkha is
used in the sense of “contemptible” (du) and “emptiness” (kha). The world rests on suffering
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hence it is contemptible. The world is devoid of any reality – hence it is empty or void. Dukkha,
therefore, means contemptible void According to Mahāthera (1998 p 242) ". All are subject to
birth (jāti), and consequently to decay (jarā), disease (vyādhi), and finally to death (marana)
".This means everyone suffers from Birth- when we are born, we cry, Sickness- when we are
sick, we are miserable, Old age- when old, we will have ache and pains and find it hard to get
around and death- none of us wants to die. We feel deep sorrow when someone dies. Other
things we suffer from are: Being with those we dislike, being apart from those we love, not
getting what we want, all kinds of problems and disappointments that are unavoidable. This First
Truth of suffering which depends on this so called being and various aspects of life, is to be
carefully analyzed and examined. This examination leads to a proper understanding of oneself as
one really is.

The Noble truth of the origin of suffering

Mahāthera (1998) states that the cause of this suffering is craving or attachment (tanhā)
which is the Second Noble Truth. This craving is a powerful mental force latent in all, and is the
chief cause of most of the ills of life. It is this craving, gross or subtle, that leads to repeated
births in Samsāra and makes one cling to all forms of life. This craving is a powerful mental
force latent in all, and is the chief cause of most of the ills of life. It is this craving, gross or
subtle, that leads to repeated births in Samsāra and makes one cling to all forms of life. Simply
the Buddha explained that people live in a sea of suffering because of ignorance and greed. They
are ignorant of the law of karma and are greedy for the wrong kind of pleasures. They do things
that are harmful to their bodies and peace of mind, so they cannot be satisfied or enjoy life.

The Noble truth of cessation of suffering

The Third Noble Truth is the complete cessation of suffering or end the suffering, which
requires oneto cut off greed and ignorance. This means changing one's views and living in a
more natural and peaceful way which is Nibbāna, the ultimate Goal of Buddhists. Nirvana is an
everlasting state of great joy and peace. The Buddha said, "The extinction of desire is Nirvana."
Everyone can realize it with the help of the Buddha's teachings. It can be experienced in this very
life. It is achieved by the total eradication of all forms of craving.
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The Noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering

The fourth Noble Truth is the Buddha's prescription for the end of suffering. This is a set
of principles called the Eightfold Path. The eightfold Path is also called the Middle Way: it
avoids both indulgence and severe asceticism, neither of which the Buddha had found helpful in
his search for enlightenment. Ambedkar (1957) agrees that this unique path is the only straight
route that leads to Nibbāna. It avoids the extreme of self-mortification that weakens one’s
intellect and the extreme of self-indulgence that retards one’s moral progress. Nirvana is a
release from the cycle of reincarnation and the end of individual existence. It is also the blissful
state in which all suffering ceases.

Table: 2.The four noble truths and the twelve turnings of the wheel

Four Noble Truths Twelve Turnings

Suffering
Arising of suffering
Cessation of Suffering (well-
being)
How well-being arises
(Hanh, 1999, pp. 29-47)
Recognition: This is suffering.
Encouragement: Suffering should be understood.
Realization: Suffering is understood.
Recognition: There is an ignoble way that has led to suffering.
Encouragement: That ignoble way should be understood.
Realization: That ignoble way is understood.
Recognition: Well-being is possible.
Encouragement: Well-being should be obtained.
Realization: Well-being is obtained
Recognition: There is a noble path that leads to well-being.
Encouragement: This noble path as to be lived.
Realization: This noble path is being lived.

The noble eightfold path

The eightfold path, although referred to as steps on a path, is not meant as a sequential
learning process, but as eight aspects of life, all of which are to be integrated in everyday life.
Thus the environment is created to move closer to the Buddhist path. It avoids the extreme of
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self-mortification that weakens one’s intellect and the extreme of self-indulgence that retards
one’s moral progress.

 Right Understanding (Sammā Ditthi): the right way to think about life is to see the world
through the eyes of the Buddha--with wisdom and compassion.
 Right Thoughts (Sammā Samkappa): we are what we think. Clear and kind thoughts build
good, strong characters.
 Right Speech (Sammā Vācā): by speaking kind and helpful words, we are respected and
trusted by everyone.
 Right Action (Sammā Kammanta): no matter what we say, others know us from the way
we behave. Before we criticize others, we should first see what we do ourselves.
 Right Livelihood (Sammā Ājīva): this means choosing a job that does not hurt others. The
Buddha said, "Do not earn your living by harming others. Do not seek happiness by
making others unhappy."
 Right Effort (Sammā Vāyāma): a worthwhile life means doing our best at all times and
having good will toward others. This also means not wasting effort on things that harm
ourselves and others
 Right Mindfulness (Sammā Sati): this means being aware of our thoughts, words, and
deeds.
 Right Concentration (Sammā Samādhi): Focus on one thought or object at a time. By
doing this, we can be quiet and attain true peace of mind.

Of these eight factors of the Noble Eightfold Path the first two are grouped in wisdom (paññā),
the second three in morality (sīla) and the last three in concentration (samādhi). Following the
Noble Eightfold Path can be compared to cultivating a garden, but in Buddhism one cultivates
one's wisdom. The mind is the ground and thoughts are seeds. Deeds are ways one cares for the
garden. Our faults are weeds. Pulling them out is like weeding a garden. The harvest is real and
lasting happiness.
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The five moral precepts

The five moral precepts are the five principles that Buddhists follow in order to live
ethically and morally good lives. These are the Buddhist version of a code of conduct or rules to
help people behave in a moral and ethical way. Buddhists should follow the Five Precepts to
ensure they are living a morally good life. This helps them to get rid of suffering and achieve
enlightenment.

Table 3. The five moral precepts and moral of Buddhism

S.N. Precepts
1 Refrain from taking life
2 Refrain from taking what is not given
3 Refrain from the misuse of the senses
4 Refrain from wrong speech
5 Refrain from intoxicants that cloud the
mind
The Five Precepts (2020)
Moral
Not killing any living being. For Buddhists, this includes
animals, so many Buddhists choose to be vegetarian.
Not stealing from anyone.
Not having too much sensual pleasure. For example, not
looking at people in a lustful way or committing adultery.
Not lying or gossiping about other people.
Not drinking alcohol or taking drugs, as these do not help
you to think clearly.

Dhamma in Buddhism
Dhamma means 'to uphold', and therefore it is central to Buddhist belief as it 'holds up'
the religion and Buddhists may also believe that it upholds the natural order of the universe.
Dhamma is based upon the actions and teachings of the Buddha, which Buddhists are
encouraged to follow. Ambedkar, (1957) presents following statements about Dhamma.
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Table 2. The Dhamma in Buddhism

What is Dhamma in Buddhism? What is not Dhamma?

To Maintain Purity of life is dhamma.
To Reach Perfection in life is dhamma.
To Live in nibbana is dhamma.
To Give up Craving is dhamma.
To believe that all compound things are
impermanent is dhamma.
To believe that Karma is the instrument of
Moral Order is dhamma.
Ambedkar, (1957).
Belief in the Supernatural is not dhamma
Belief in Ishwara (God) is Not Essentially
Part of dhamma
Dhamma Based on Union with Brahma is a
false dhamma
Belief in Soul is not dhamma
Belief in Sacrifices is not dhamma
Belief Based on Speculation is not dhamma
and Reading Books of dhamma is not
dhamma

Conclusion
Buddhism is a moral and philosophical system which expounds a unique path of
Enlightenment. Edelglass, and Garfield (2009) interpret ontology of Buddhism is foundational
because the root of samsara of the world of suffering is confusion regarding the nature of reality,
and liberation from suffering requires insight into that nature. Thus, it is not surprising that much
Buddhist philosophy is concerned with an analysis of the fundamental nature of reality, but in
order to attain liberation, one must come to know this nature, in a direct and immediate way, and
cease to be deceived by merely apparent reality. Hanh, (1999) mentions that the ontological
beliefs of Buddhism is “of a kind of groundless ground of being”. “The essence of Buddhism is
discovered in its non-metaphysical and precisely ontological investigation of the being of
entities” (Asakura, 2011, p. 672). Buddhist beliefs "attempts to comprehend and affirm the whole
reality, including its most. So Buddhist ontology can be described as a groundless ground of
being. (Hanh, 1999) concludes that the Buddhist perspective is onto-epistemological, the self is
ever-changing and knowledge connotes a permanence; therefore, for the learner, the nature of
being and the nature of knowledge what is known, and/or what can be known is also ever
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changing. In this view, truth, then, is not universal but situational, positional, and subjective.
Buddhism provides an epistemology and methodology (pedagogy) to transform our collective
ontology in fact, they inter-are. And believing the being as the composed form of five groups of
elements: matter, feeling, perception, mental states, and consciousness Buddhist ontological
belief is a question of being, asking a morally the meaning of what it is be.

References
Ambedkar, B.R., (1957). The Buddha and his Dhamma Bombay: Siddharth Press.

Asakura, T. (2011). On Buddhistic ontology: A comparative study of Mou Zongsan and Kyoto
school of philosophy. Philosophy of east and west, 61(4), 647-678.

Chopra,R.(2005). Academic dictionary of philosophy. Delhi: Isha Books.

Edelglass,W & Garfield,J. L,(2009). Buddhist philosophy: Essential readings. New York,
Oxford University Press, Inc.

Hahn, T. (1999). The heart of the Buddha’s teaching: Transforming suffering into peace, joy,
and liberation. New York: Broadway Books.

Himi, B. (2010). The Path of Purification: Visuddhimaga. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.

Mahāthera V.N (1998) The Buddha and his teachings, Taipai, Buddha Educational Foundation.

The Five Precepts (2020).https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zd8bcj6/revision/4

Three Marks of Existence (2020). https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zf8g4qt/revision/9